=======================================
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/...
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/...
"Italian Presence in Modern Venezuela: Socioeconomic Dimension and Geo-cultural Changes, 1926-1990"
Pedro Cunill Grau
Universidad Central de Venezuela
Pedro Cunill Grau
Universidad Central de Venezuela
======================================
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/...
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/...
"Italian Immigration in Venezuela: A Story Still Untold"
Susan Berglund
University Central de Venezuela
Susan Berglund
University Central de Venezuela
=============================
https://www.lastampa.it/2018/11/03/econo... Mappa movimentata del PIL Italia e primi dieci paesi nel mondo 1960-2017
=============================
https://www.academia.edu/11146628/D._And... TESTO ORIGINARIO SUL PRINCIPATO DI MARZANO DATO AI D'AMBROSIO
https://www.lastampa.it/2018/11/03/econo... Mappa movimentata del PIL Italia e primi dieci paesi nel mondo 1960-2017
=============================
https://www.academia.edu/11146628/D._And... TESTO ORIGINARIO SUL PRINCIPATO DI MARZANO DATO AI D'AMBROSIO
=============================
http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-melecabz... Saggio sull'unico aereo di linea creato in Italia nel 1946
=============================
http://www.ehrea.org/blocind.php Blocco indipendena - ERITREA
==========================
====================================
ITALIAN NORTH AFRICA
ITALIAN NORTH AFRICA
{{Infobox former country
|native_name = ''Africa Settentrionale Italiana''
|conventional_long_name = Italian North Africa
|continent = Africa
|common_name = Italian North Africa
|region =
|country =
|era =
|status_text =
|status = Colony of Italy
|empire = Italy
|year_start = 1911
|year_end = 1943
|p1 = Ottoman Tripolitania
|flag_p1 = Ottoman Flag.svg
|p2 = Kingdom of Egypt
|flag_p2 = Flag of Egypt 1922.svg
|p3 = French Algeria
|flag_p3 = Flag of France.svg
|p4 = French West Africa
|flag_p4 = Flag of France.svg
|p5 = French Equatorial Africa
|flag_p5 = Flag of France.svg
|p6 = Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
|flag_p6 = Flag of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.svg
|p7 = French protectorate of Tunisia
|flag_p7 = Pre-1999 Flag of Tunisia.svg
|image_flag = Flag of Italy (1861-1946).svg
|flag = Flag of Italy
|image_coat = Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1929-1943).svg
|symbol = Coat of arms of Italy
|s1 = British Military Administration (Libya)
|flag_s1 = Flag of the United Kingdom.svg
|s2 = Kingdom of Egypt
|flag_s2 = Flag of Egypt 1922.svg
|s3 = Fezzan-Ghadames (French Administration)
|flag_s3 = Flag of Fezzan-Ghadames.svg
|s4 = French protectorate of Tunisia
|flag_s4 = Pre-1999 Flag of Tunisia.svg
|image_map = Italian North Africa.JPG
|image_map_caption = Italian North Africa in 1940
|native_name = ''Africa Settentrionale Italiana''
|conventional_long_name = Italian North Africa
|continent = Africa
|common_name = Italian North Africa
|region =
|country =
|era =
|status_text =
|status = Colony of Italy
|empire = Italy
|year_start = 1911
|year_end = 1943
|p1 = Ottoman Tripolitania
|flag_p1 = Ottoman Flag.svg
|p2 = Kingdom of Egypt
|flag_p2 = Flag of Egypt 1922.svg
|p3 = French Algeria
|flag_p3 = Flag of France.svg
|p4 = French West Africa
|flag_p4 = Flag of France.svg
|p5 = French Equatorial Africa
|flag_p5 = Flag of France.svg
|p6 = Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
|flag_p6 = Flag of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.svg
|p7 = French protectorate of Tunisia
|flag_p7 = Pre-1999 Flag of Tunisia.svg
|image_flag = Flag of Italy (1861-1946).svg
|flag = Flag of Italy
|image_coat = Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1929-1943).svg
|symbol = Coat of arms of Italy
|s1 = British Military Administration (Libya)
|flag_s1 = Flag of the United Kingdom.svg
|s2 = Kingdom of Egypt
|flag_s2 = Flag of Egypt 1922.svg
|s3 = Fezzan-Ghadames (French Administration)
|flag_s3 = Flag of Fezzan-Ghadames.svg
|s4 = French protectorate of Tunisia
|flag_s4 = Pre-1999 Flag of Tunisia.svg
|image_map = Italian North Africa.JPG
|image_map_caption = Italian North Africa in 1940
'''Green''': Italian North Africa
'''Dark grey''': Kingdom of Italy
'''Grey''': Other Italian possessions and occupied territories
|capital = [[Tripoli]]
|common_languages = [[Arabic]], [[Italian language|Italian]]
|religion = [[Islam]], [[Roman Catholicism]]
|currency =
|leader1 =
|year_leader1 =
|title_leader =
|footnotes =
}}
[[File:Crescita del territorio della Libia.PNG|thumb|Italian North African territories from 1912 to 1935]]
[[Image:Colonial Africa 1913 map.svg|thumb||Italian North Africa and [[Italian East Africa]] around 1913, shown in light green.]]
'''Italian North Africa''' (''Africa Settentrionale Italiana'', or ASI http://morawino-stamps.com/sklep/en/2521... Stamps related]) was the aggregate of territories and colonies controlled by [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Italy]] in [[North Africa]] from 1911 until the [[World War II|Second World War]]. It was made by [[Italian Libya]] and Italy occupied [[Tunisia]] after November 1942, with the temporary occupation of western [[Egypt]] during some periods of the war. Indeed Tunisia was administratively aggregated to the Italian "[[4th Shore]]" in December 1942. The Italian administration in North Africa ended on May 13, 1943, with the surrender of the Italian-German armed forces in Tunisia. Tunisia remained the last territory de facto administered by the Italians in Africa until the complete occupation by the American and British forces.
'''Dark grey''': Kingdom of Italy
'''Grey''': Other Italian possessions and occupied territories
|capital = [[Tripoli]]
|common_languages = [[Arabic]], [[Italian language|Italian]]
|religion = [[Islam]], [[Roman Catholicism]]
|currency =
|leader1 =
|year_leader1 =
|title_leader =
|footnotes =
}}
[[File:Crescita del territorio della Libia.PNG|thumb|Italian North African territories from 1912 to 1935]]
[[Image:Colonial Africa 1913 map.svg|thumb||Italian North Africa and [[Italian East Africa]] around 1913, shown in light green.]]
'''Italian North Africa''' (''Africa Settentrionale Italiana'', or ASI http://morawino-stamps.com/sklep/en/2521... Stamps related]) was the aggregate of territories and colonies controlled by [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Italy]] in [[North Africa]] from 1911 until the [[World War II|Second World War]]. It was made by [[Italian Libya]] and Italy occupied [[Tunisia]] after November 1942, with the temporary occupation of western [[Egypt]] during some periods of the war. Indeed Tunisia was administratively aggregated to the Italian "[[4th Shore]]" in December 1942. The Italian administration in North Africa ended on May 13, 1943, with the surrender of the Italian-German armed forces in Tunisia. Tunisia remained the last territory de facto administered by the Italians in Africa until the complete occupation by the American and British forces.
==Brief history==
Italian North Africa, unlike Italian East Africa (''Africa Orientale Italiana'', or AOI) existed in two phases: from 1911 to 1934, as [[Tripolitania]] and [[Cyrenaica]], and after 1934, as [[Italian Libya|Libya]] (with the later addition of coastal Tunisia during the Second World War). From 1934 to 1939, all of Italian North Africa was then known as ''Libya'', as the North African territories were consolidated into one colony, Italian Libya.
{{Quote|''April 12, 1937: is established the Superior Army Command of "'''Italian North Africa'''"; the XX Army Corps are established in Italy and sent to Libya, with the 60th "Sabratha" transportable Infantry Division, located in the Garian, and the 61st "Sirte" transportable Infantry Division, located in the Misurata area, and the XXI Army Corps with the 62nd "Marmarica" transportable Infantry Division, located in the Derna area, and the 63rd "Cyrene" transportable Infantry Division, located in the Barce area. (12/4/1937. Viene costituito il Comando Superiore FF.AA. dell' "'''Africa Settentrionale Italiana'''"; sono costituiti in Italia e inviati in Libia il XX Corpo d'Armata, con la 60^ Divisione Fanteria autotrasportabile "Sabratha", dislocata nel Garian, e la 61^ Divisione Fanteria autotrasportabile "Sirte", dislocata nella zona di Misurata, e il XXI Corpo d'Armata con la 62^ Divisione Fanteria autotrasportabile "Marmarica", dislocata nella zona di Derna, e la 63^ Divisione Fanteria autotrasportabile "Cirene", dislocata nella zona di Barce)''. Militaria http://xoomer.virgilio.it/ramius/Militar... Africa settentrionale italiana]}}
In 1939 the Italian dictator [[Benito Mussolini]] called coastal Libya the [[4th shore|Fourth Shore]] (''Quarta Sponda'') of Italy and it was united with metropolitan Italy.
The term "Fourth Shore" derives from the geography of [[Italy]] being a long and narrow [[peninsula]] jutting into the Mediterranean with two main [[shoreline]]s, the First Shore on the east along the [[Adriatic Sea]] and the Second Shore on the west along the [[Tyrrhenian Sea]]. The third shore was the one facing south, to the Ionian sea and central Mediterranean (from Cape Leuca in the southern tip of Apulia, to the southern shores of Sicily near Trapani). The Adriatic Sea's opposite southern [[Balkans]] shore, with [[Dalmatia]], [[Montenegro]], and [[Albania]], was planned for Italian expansion as a possible Fifth Shore, with Libya on the [[Mediterranean Sea]] remaining as the Fourth.Moore, Martin (1940). http://afraf.oxfordjournals.org/content/... Fourth Shore: Italy's Mass Colonization of Libya] ''[[African Affairs]]'' XXXIX (CLV), p. 129-133. Thus the Fourth Shore was the southern part of [[Imperial Italy (fascist)|Imperial Italy]], an early 1940s [[Italian Fascism|Fascist]] project of enlarging Italy's national borders around their ''[[Mare Nostrum]]''.
From 1940 to 1943, during the Second World War, following Italy's declaration of war on Britain and France, it attempted to conquer [[Egypt]] and [[Tunisia]] to enlarge Italian North Africa. Indeed, the Axis's military advances led by [[Rommel]] in North Africa allowed Italy to lay claim to significant portions of western Egypt: Italian fascists anticipated creating a client Kingdom of Egypt under Italian control from 1941 to 1942 and successively claimed Tunisia from 1942 to 1943.
===Italian Tunisia===
After Italy's successful [[Italian invasion of France|invasion of southern France]], Mussolini demanded Tunisia, along with [[Djibouti]], [[Corsica]] and [[Nice]] from France.{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=lGCi2-tu2yIC |title=My rise and fall |first1=Benito |last1=Mussolini |first2=Richard Washburn |last2=Child |first3=Max |last3=Ascoli |first4=Richard |last4=Lamb |editor=Ascoli, Max |publisher=Da Capo Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-306-80864-7}} However it wasn't until November 1942 that Italian troops seized Tunisia, with German Field Marshal [[Erwin Rommel|Rommel]]'s [[Afrika Korps]] troop support, from the [[Vichy|French Vichy regime]] colonial administrators.
Tunisia was added administratively to the existing northern Italian Libya Fourth Shore, in Mussolini's last attempt to accomplish the fascist project of [[Imperial Italy (fascist)|Imperial Italy]].{{Cite book|last=Knox|first=MacGregor|title=Mussolini Unleashed, 1939-1941: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=138|isbn=0-521-33835-2|year=1986}}
[[File:Battaglione d'Assalto "Tunisia" (1943).svg|thumb|left|300px|"Tunisia" Assault Battalion (Battaglione d'assalto Tunisia dell'Africa Settentrionale Italiana) collar patch, Royal Italian Army (1943)]]
[[File:Battaglione d'Assalto "Tunisia" (1943).svg|thumb|left|300px|"Tunisia" Assault Battalion (Battaglione d'assalto Tunisia dell'Africa Settentrionale Italiana) collar patch, Royal Italian Army (1943)]]
In the first months of 1943 were opened Italian schools in Tunis and Biserta, while 4000 [[Italian Tunisians]] volunteered in the Italian Army. Also were reopened some Italian newspapers and magazines, that have been closed by the French government in the late 1930sBrondino, Michele. '' https://books.google.com/books?id=tbe-P4... La stampa italiana in Tunisia: storia e società, 1838-1956]''.Chapter 8. Milano: Jaca Book, 1998. .
There were nearly one thousand Italians of Tunisia who fought against the Allies in January-April 1943: they were in the so called ''Battaglione d'assalto Tunisia dell'Africa Settentrionale Italiana'' ("Tunisia" Assault Battalion of Italian North Africa).
In the last months of 1942 some Tunisians and local Italians did even join the [[National Fascist Party]] in Tunis. From December 1942 until February 1943 Tunisia and Italian Libya were under Italian control and administered as "Africa Settentrionale Italiana",Ezio Gray. "Le nostre terre ritornano..." Introduzione but later the Allies conquered all [[Italian Tripolitania]] and Italian control was reduced to the Tunisian area west of the [[Battle of the Mareth Line|Mareth Line]] (where was fought a last Axis stand).
All legally established territory of Italian North Africa was dissolved by early 1943, but Tunisia remained the last ''de facto'' Italian administered territory until all Tunisia fell to American and British forces.
In May 1943 the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]]' victorious [[Tunisia Campaign]] (1942—1943), part the Western Desert Campaign, regained all the Tunisian territory for France. The French colonial authorities then closed all Italian schools and newspapers.Watson, Bruce Allen ''Exit Rommel: The Tunisian Campaign, 1942-43'' p. 103
==Colonies and territories within Italian North Africa==
From 1912 to 1927, Italian North Africa (Italian Tripolitania and [[Italian Cyrenaica]]) was an entity to itself, and from 1934 to 1941, Italian North Africa was united into the single colony of Italian Libya. But in 1939 coastal Italian Libya was added to metropolitan Italy, while [[Military Territory of the South (Italian Libya)|Saharan Italian Libya]] remained as a colonial territory under military control.
From 1942 to 1943 Tunisia was added, and was administered as part of the Fourth Shore of Italy. Military units of Italians of Tunisia were created, because 4000 [[Italian Tunisians|Italo-Tunisians]] volunteered to fight in the Italian Army. One was called ''Reggimento Volontari Tunisini dell'Africa Settentrionale Italiana'' http://books.google.com/books?id=cgxPkzS... Reggimento Volontari Tunisini]
===1927–1934===
* Italian Cyrenaica
* Italian Tripolitania
* Italian Cyrenaica
* Italian Tripolitania
===1934–1941===
* Italian Libya. In 1939, [[Benito Mussolini]] coined the name '''Fourth Shore''', in [[Italian language|Italian]] ''Quarta Sponda'', to refer to coastal Italian Libya in Italian North Africa (later he added coastal [[Tunisia]] during [[WWII]]).
* Italian Libya. In 1939, [[Benito Mussolini]] coined the name '''Fourth Shore''', in [[Italian language|Italian]] ''Quarta Sponda'', to refer to coastal Italian Libya in Italian North Africa (later he added coastal [[Tunisia]] during [[WWII]]).
===1941–1943===
* Italian Libya (conquered by [[Western Allies]] by January 1943)
* German and Italian occupied western [[Egypt]] (from September to December 1940, and June to November 1942)
* German and Italian occupied [[Tunisia]] (from 17 November 1942 to 13 May 1943)
* Italian Libya (conquered by [[Western Allies]] by January 1943)
* German and Italian occupied western [[Egypt]] (from September to December 1940, and June to November 1942)
* German and Italian occupied [[Tunisia]] (from 17 November 1942 to 13 May 1943)
==See also==
* [[Italian Empire]]
* [[History of Libya as Italian Colony]]
* [[History of Libya]]
* [[History of Egypt]]
* [[History of Tunisia]]
* [[Italian Empire]]
* [[History of Libya as Italian Colony]]
* [[History of Libya]]
* [[History of Egypt]]
* [[History of Tunisia]]
==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}
==Bibliography==
* Battistelli, Pier Paolo. ''Italian Army Elite Units & Special Forces 1942-43''. Osprey Publishing. New York, 2011 {{ISBN|1849088950}}
* Gray. Ezio. ''Le nostre terre ritornano...Malta, Nizza, Corsica...''. Ed. De Agostini. Novara, 1943
* Battistelli, Pier Paolo. ''Italian Army Elite Units & Special Forces 1942-43''. Osprey Publishing. New York, 2011 {{ISBN|1849088950}}
* Gray. Ezio. ''Le nostre terre ritornano...Malta, Nizza, Corsica...''. Ed. De Agostini. Novara, 1943
{{Coord missing|Egypt}}
{{Italian Libya}}
{{Italian colonial empire}}
{{Italian Libya}}
{{Italian colonial empire}}
[[Category:Italian colonisation in Africa]]
[[Category:Former Italian colonies|North Africa]]
[[Category:History of North Africa]]
[[Category:Former colonies in Africa]]
[[Category:Former Italian colonies|North Africa]]
[[Category:History of North Africa]]
[[Category:Former colonies in Africa]]
==========================
www.sandrobassetti.it/cina/index.htm Possedimenti italiani in Cina (1900-1943) di S.Bassetti
https://cronologia.leonardo.it/2005/disa... Italia-44 anni in Cina, di M. Squillaci
GS Asm ara (copia cache)
GS Asmara
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
GS Asmara
Full name
Gruppo Sportivo Asmara
Ground
Cicero Stadium
Asmara, Eritrea
Capacity
20,000
League
Main Eritrean Championship
GS Asmara (officially called Gruppo Sportivo Asmara) was an Eritrean football club based in Asmara and founded in 1936.[1]
Contents [hide]
1
History
2
Achievements & Honours
3
Performance in CAF competitions
4
See also
5
References
History[edit]
The GS Asmara (usually called Asmara calcio) was in the Eritrean football championships since the colonial times of Eritrea. The team was initially founded in 1936 with the name Gruppo Sportivo Cicero [2] and soon was the favorite football team of the Italian "Asmarini" (as were called the Italians residents in Asmara). In 1938 the (still existing now) Cicero Stadium of Asmara was inaugurated by the GS Asmara[3].
So, in the first Eritrean championships the GS Cicero was one of the top teams[4]. In the championship 1939/1940 the "GS Cicero" changed name in "GS Asmara". In the years 1944/45, 1946/47, 1949 the GS Asmara won the Eritrea championship under the coaching of famous Enzo Artioli[5]
In 1958-1960 the GS Asmara won the local championship of Ethiopian Eritrea (because in those years Eritrea was partially annexed to Ethiopia), with the performance of the Italian Eritrean football star Luciano Vassalo.
By then in his mid-twenties, Luciano Vassalo came of age as a player while wearing the colours of GS Asmara. His left the defensive line to become an astute advanced playmaker. He wove patterns of play masterfully, but he had also become an insidious shooter. A successful team, during the run-up to the 1959 Africa Cup of Nations GS Asmara had managed to humiliate the Ethiopia national team in a friendly match. A picture of the 1960 GS Asmara squad is featured on the Mai Taclì: among 10 white faces wearing the team’s vertical-striped black and red jersey, Luciano Vassallo’s light brown skin stands out. Damiano Benzoni [6]
When Eritrea was officially a part of Ethiopia the GS Asmara won in 1962/63 and in 1963/64 the Ethiopian Championship in the region Eritrea[7]. When united to the Tele S.C. the team (called with the new name "Tele SC Asmara") won also in 1972 and 1973 the "Ethiopian championship" under the leadership of the famous "Eritrean Herrera" (the coach Massimo Fenili) [8].
The team as "Tele SC Asmara" participated in two editions of the "African Cup of Champions Clubs" in the early 1970s. Since the late 1970s the team has disappeared from the championships of Eritrea and Ethiopia, also as a consequence of the nearly complete disappearance of the Italian community in those countries with the Mengistu dictatorship.
Achievements & Honours[edit]
Eritrean Championship: 1944/45, 1946/47 and 1949
Local Eritrean Championship (as part of Ethiopia): 1958/59 and 1959/1960
Ethiopian Premier League's Champion as "Tele SC Asmara": 1972 and 1973
Performance in CAF competitions[edit]
CAF Champions League: 2 appearances
1973 African Cup of Champions Clubs
1974 African Cup of Champions Clubs
See also[edit]
Football in Eritrea
Tele S.C.
Luciano Vassalo
References[edit]
Jump up
^ Photo of the 1960 "GS Asmara", showing the Italo-eritrean champion Luciano Vassalo standing second to the right
Jump up
^ 1936-1941 first football championships in Eritrea (in Italian)
Jump up
^ Inauguration of Cicero Stadium in 1938
Jump up
^ [ http://www.rsssf.com/tablese/erit36.html First Eritrea Championship in 1936 ]
Jump up
^ Eritrean list of Champions
Jump up
^ "Citizen of Nowhere" ([1])]
Jump up
^ List of Eritrea football Champions
Jump up
^ Massimo Fenili and Tele SC Asmara
[show]
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Football in Eritrea
[show]
vte
Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)
Categories: Football clubs in EritreaAsmara
========================================
MASSAuA UNDERITALIAN RULE (copioa cache)
Massaua under Italian rule
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Massaua in 1887
Massaua or Massaua under Italian rule (called Massaua italiana in Italian language) was the main port of Eritrea during the Italian colonization of the region. It is now called Massawa.[1]
Contents [hide]
1
History
2
Notes
3
Bibliography
4
See also
History[edit]
Massawa was originally a small seaside village, lying in lands coextensive with the Kingdom of Axum in antiquity and overshadowed by the nearby port of Adulis about 50 kilometres (31 mi) to the south[2].
O. G. S. Crawford believed that the medieval city of Massawa (like Suakin to the north) remained a center of Christianity into the 13th century.Venetian merchants were said to have lived in Massawa in the 15th century.
The "Hotel Torino" (built in 1938), an example of Venetian influenced architecture in the old Ottoman section of the city
Following the Ottoman controlled Khedivate of Egypt's defeat at the Battle of Gura, Egyptian control of the port withered. With the help of the British, the city eventually came under Italian control: the Italians occupied the city at the end of the XIX century. It was initially the capital of their newly created colony of Eritrea, before Asmara. In the 1920s (after the 1921 earthquake that destroyed 70% of the buildings) their started a huge urbanization of the city, with enlargement of its port facilities[3].
The construction of buildings during the Italian administration in Massawa can be categorized into two main periods. The first period (1923-1930s) is a result of the destruction from major disasters of fire-burning and the two earth quakes, in 1884 and July14, 1921. Italian colonial architects and construction engineers repaired and rebuilt the damaged houses by maintaining and improving on features of the traditional Turkish and Egyptian styles. In the second period (1930s- 1940s), the construction continued in a modern architectural style. Hotels, open-air cinemas, bathing pools, officers´ clubs, administrative buildings and villas were constructed. It was a period of considerable urban development and infrastructure. Most of the buildings were constructed in Tawalud, and some near the port area like Hotel Torino, Hotel Savoia, Banca d’Italia, etc. Hotel Torino in Re´esi Midri (Wishti Batsie), which was built during the 1930s, was one of the fascinating buildings that were constructed following the modernist architectural style, popular during that time. Most of the Italian buildings were constructed on the island of Tawalud in response to the growing population density in the island. The Italians implemented the discrimination policy to divide the city racially and apparently had chosen Tawlud to be a district for the Italian citizens. During the Italian period, coral block was retained as a building material in most of these buildings, though other key additions have been made to include stone, brick and reinforced concrete.Eritrea Ministry of Information: Massaua, Pearl of the Red Sea
An airport was built in the 1930s to the west of the city, near Fort Otumlo: it was called Aerodromo Otumlo. Also were inaugurated in the same decade a huge Hospital (then named "Umberto 1"), a modern radio-telegraph station (linked to Rome), the state-of-the-art Asmara-Massawa Cableway and a railway station of the Eritrean Railway (that connected the city with Asmara).
Ocean liner "Conte Biancamano" docked at the Massaua port in 1939
Massaua under the Italian rule increased from a village of nearly 1,000 native persons in February 5, 1985 (when the Italians occupied the place for the first time[4]) to a modern (and cosmopolitan) city with a population of nearly 16,000 inhabitants in 1938/39. The Italians in the city were more than 2,000 before the start of WW2 and promoted the development of Catholicism in the city: they built the new Cathedral in the late 1930s[5].
A cable/rope linked Asmara to the port of Massawa during the Italian colonial period. This transportation system is said to have had a capacity of transporting about 200 tons one way. The whole system was dismantled during the British rule in the 1940s.GH Tesfagiorgis[6]
In the port of Italian Massaua was based the Red Sea Flotilla of the Italian Royal Navy. This Red Sea Italian Flotilla in 1940 had seven destroyers in two squadrons, a squadron of five Motor Torpedo Boats (MAS, Motoscafo Armato Silurante) and eight submarines in two squadrons.
Italian Massaua suffered huge damage when was conquered by the British in April 1941.[7]
Notes[edit]
Jump up
^ Map of Italian Massaua (1929)
Jump up
^ Adulis excavation videos
Jump up
^ Historical photos of Italian Massaua in the early 1900s: [1]
Jump up
^ Treccani: History of Massaua (in Italian)
Jump up
^ Massaua Cathedral
Jump up
^ G. Tesfagiorgis. "Emergent Eritrea"; p. 255]
Jump up
^ Map of the conquest of Massaua in 1941
Bibliography[edit]
Negash, Tekeste. Italian colonialism in Eritrea 1882-1941 (Politics, Praxis and Impact). Uppsala University. Uppsala, 1987.
Tesfagiorgis. Emergent Eritrea: Challenges of Economic Development. The Red Sea Press. Trenton/NJ, 1993 ISBN 0932415911
See also[edit]
Asmara under Italian rule
[hide]
vte
Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)
Main authorities
King & Emperor Vittorio Emanuele IIIPrime Minister Benito MussoliniList of viceroys of Italian East Africa
Eritrea Italiana. Red points are the new borders of Eritrea, enlarged in 1936 in the Governorate of Eritrea
Governors
Italian Governors of EritreaGovernorate of Eritrea: Pietro Badoglio, Alfredo Guzzoni, Vincenzo De Feo, Luigi Frusci
General History
Italian EritreaEritrea GovernorateBattle of KassalaBattle of DogaliFirst Italo-Ethiopian WarSecond Italo-Ethiopian WarEast African CampaignBattle of KerenRed Sea FlotillaEritrea (colonial ship)
Infrastructures
Eritrean RailwayAsmara-Massawa CablewayRailway stations in EritreaLinea dell'ImperoAsmara International AirportMassaua International AirportGovernor's Palace (Asmara)Asmara Presidential Palace (Asmara)Church of Our Lady of the Rosary, AsmaraCinema ImperoCicero StadiumFiat Tagliero BuildingAsmara's Opera
Related articles
Italian EritreansImperial ItalyItalian East AfricaAsmara under Italian ruleMassaua under Italian ruleItalian language in EritreaLiceo Marconi di AsmaraEritrean talleroItalian East African liraPostage stamps and postal history of Italian East AfricaEritrean Catholic ChurchItalian Eritrean cuisineFootball in Italian EritreaAsmara calcioAsmara circuitAsmara Brewery
Colonial troops
Eritrean AscariRoyal Corps of Colonial TroopsItalian 1st Eritrean DivisionItalian 2nd Eritrean DivisionItalian guerrilla units (A.O.I.)Italian African PoliceBandsZaptiéSpahis
Categories: Italian EritreaItalian colonisation in Africa
==========================================
ASMARA UNDER ITAWLIAN RULE (copia c ache)
Asmara under Italian rule
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Map of Asmara in 1929
Asmara under Italian rule was a colonial period when Eritrea's capital was ruled by the Italians. The city of Asmara came under Italian control in the 1880s after they conquered the territory of Italian Eritrea. In 1897, it was made the capital of the territory. The Italians subsequently referred to the city as Piccola Roma.[1]
Contents [hide]
1
History
2
Italian architecture
2.1
Features
3
See also
4
Notes
5
References
History[edit]
Asmara acquired some importance as a result of Alula's choice for the capital of his province, but started to grow in a huge way when it was occupied by Italy in 1889 and was made the capital city of Italian Eritrea in preference to Massawa by Governor Martini in 1897.
In the early 20th century, a railway line was built to the coast, passing through the town of Ghinda, under the direction of Carlo Cavanna. In both 1913 and 1915 the city suffered only slight damage in large earthquakes.[2] In the late 1930s the Italians changed the face of the town, with a new structure and new buildings: Asmara was called Piccola Roma (Little Rome).[3]
Asmara was populated by a large Italian community and consequently the city acquired an Italian architectural look. The city of Asmara had a population of 98,000, of which 53,000 were Italian according to the Italian census of 1939. This fact made Asmara the main "Italian town" of the Italian empire in Africa. In all of Eritrea the population of Italians was only 75,000 in total in that year, making Asmara by far their largest centre.[4] Italia Asmara enjoyed a huge development in the 1930s, not only economically but even socially and culturally: Italians even created the theater Asmara's Opera and the car race "Circuito Asmara".
Many industrial investments were made by Italy in Asmara (and surrounding areas of Eritrea),[5] but the beginning of World War II stopped the blossoming industrialization of the area.
Italian architecture[edit]
Italian Asmara represents one of the most concentrated and intact assemblage of "Modernist architecture" anywhere in the world. The urban design within the "Historic Perimeter" of modern Asmara has remained untouched since its original implementation and subsequent evolution in the 1930s, and the architectural elements exemplifies a superlative example of Modernist architecture in a complete urban setting.
The city's architecture is heavily influenced by Italian architecture, even since 1914, the Italians created urban plans for Asmara. The best plan was done in 1937 by Cafiero:
Vittorio Cafiero in 1937 did a new "Urban Plan" for Asmara ... maintaining the old street plans -done by the "Cavagnari Plan" in 1914- that divided Asmara in four sections: the Italian, the native Eritrean, the governmental and the industrial. He added a new section for future development with a "circular circle avenue". The improvement of the axis around "Rome square", "Mussolini boulevard", "Cadorna boulevard" and the "railways station", moved to the south the administrative/economic center of the planned city ...to the southeast there was the green quarter with rich villas around the Gamma Band "hill ... and to the north of the 'Milano boulevard' there was the indigenous quarter. Santoianni; Progettazione_Architettonica
In 1885, the Italians invaded Eritrea and by 1900 Asmara had become the capital city: the site was chosen mainly for its salubrious highland climate, reliable water supply and ideal geographic location in the center of Eritrea.
The "President's Office" in Asmara, built in 1897
In the early twentieth century, Asmara was a small city/village that grew to become a well-established town by the 1920s.
However, by the 1930s, it was clear that Italy, under the rule of Benito Mussolini, was intent on invading Ethiopia and would use Eritrea as the launch pad for this long-held ambition. In preparation for this substantial military attack, an unprecedented quantity of materials and labor flowed into Eritrea throughout the 1930s. In a matter of months, Asmara became a vast building site, as over 70,000 Italians arrived to established new lives for themselves.
The rapid transformation of Asmara, from a small town into Africa's most modern and sophisticated city, involved the global proliferation of "Modernism" and its various forms, including "Futurism", "Rationalism,"Novecento Italiano", and "Art Deco": the spirit of this new world of ideas and of the new forms of architecture was present in Asmara transformation and evolution to become a typical Italian city.
From 1935-1941, thousands of buildings were constructed in the city, most of which reflect various Modernist styles and some of which represent inimitable architectural forms, such as petroleum stations mimicking aeroplanes and boats, commercial buildings designed as trains, cavernous cinemas with fine period plasterwork and Art Deco interiors, fine ultra-modern hotels and offices, and government buildings with highly politicized monumental designs.
Features[edit]
The Cinema Impero was constructed in Asmara in 1937. It is a famous example of the Art Deco style
"Governor's Palace", now City Hall of Asmara
Fiat Tagliero Building
The city is known for its early 20th century buildings, including the Art Deco "Cinema Impero" (opened in 1937 and considered by the experts one of the world's finest examples of Art Déco style building), the Cubist "Africa Pension", the rationalist "Governor's Palace", the eclectic Eritrean Orthodox "Tewahdo" Church, the former "Asmara Opera House", the futurist architecture "Fiat Tagliero Building", the neo-Romanesque architecture "Roman Catholic Cathedral", and the neoclassical architecture "Presicent's Palace". The city is adorned by Italian colonial villas and mansions, one prominent example being the "Asmara's World Bank Building".
Most of central Asmara was built between 1935 and 1941, so effectively the Italians managed to build almost an entire city in just six short years [6].
At this time, the dictator Benito Mussolini had great plans for a second Roman Empire in Africa. War cut this short, but his injection of funds created the Asmara of today, which supposedly was to be a symbol that his "Fascism" worked and that it was an ideal system of government.
The city shows off most early 20th century architectural styles. Some buildings are "neo-Romanesque architecture", such as the Roman Catholic Cathedral, some villas are built in a late "Victorian Architecture" style. Art Deco influences are found throughout the city; essentially Asmara was then what Dubai is now.
Architects were restricted by nothing more than the bounds of their imaginations and were given the funds to create masterpieces which we can see today. Essences of "Cubism" can be found on the "Africa Pension Building", and on a small collection of buildings. The "Fiat Tagliero Building" shows almost the height of futurism, just as it was coming into big fashion in Italy. In recent times, some buildings have been functionally built which sometimes can spoil the atmosphere of some cities, but they fit into Asmara as it is such a modern city.
Italian Asmara was known in 1940 to be an exceptionally modern city, not only because of its architecture, but even because had more "traffic lights" than Rome had when the city was being built. The city incorporates many features of a planned city. Indeed, Asmara was an early example of an ideal modern city created by architects, an idea which was introduced into many cities across the world, such as Brasilia, but which was not altogether popular. Features include designated city zoning and planning, wide treed boulevards, political areas and districts and space and scope for development.
The city has been regarded as "New Rome" or "Italy's African City" due to its quintessential Italian touch, not only for the architecture, but also for the wide streets, piazzas and coffee bars. While the boulevards are lined with palms and indigenous shiba'kha trees, there are numerable pizzerias and coffee bars, serving "cappuccinos" and "lattes", as well as "ice cream" parlours.
Indeed the first brewery in Asmara (and Eritrea) was the Melotti Brewery, that was founded in 1939 by Luigi Melotti: even now it exists but with the new name "Asmara Brewery" and supports one of the best football teams in Eritrea (the "Asmara Brewery F.C.").
Asmara has been proposed as a possible new addition to the UNESCO's World Heritage Sites, under the direction of the "Cultural Assets Rehabilitation Project", for its outstanding examples of 20th century architecture and town planning when was called Asmara italiana.
Asmara, a village that became the capital in 1891, still conserves an almost intact urban structure and architectural features from its half century of colonialism. The first expansion of Asmara was regulated by a scheme plan, approved in 1902, which included the area to the East of the original military outpost on the Mai Belà river. The grid pattern was marked by two major arteries, parallel to each other: the King’s Way (il Corso del Re) and the Queen’s Avenue (il Viale della Regina). After the space of a decade, Cavagnari’s plan was the first to separate the European settlement from the indigenous zone. The advent of Fascism did not have an immediate impact in Eritrea; by then the capital had developed a well-integrated population. One is continuously surprised by testimonies of the residents in Asmara in the Thirties, which express a state of mind shared by both colonizers and colonized, describing the city as: ‘beautiful [...] inhabited by a mixed race, Italians and Africans ... a lot of traffic, shops, cinemas and restaurants...’ . It is commonplace to refer to ‘good Italian people’ (italiani brava gente), which is a most difficult viewpoint to abandon, and is also a most relevant perspective when considering the architectural patrimony of Asmara as a shared heritage.M. Casciato, University of Bologna[7]
See also[edit]
Asmara history and timeline
Italian Eritrea
Massaua under Italian rule
Mogadishu under Italian rule
Notes[edit]
Jump up
^ Italian Asmara
Jump up
^ Ambraseys, Nicolas; Melville, C.P.; Adams, R.D. (1994). The Seismicity of Egypt, Arabia and the Red Sea: A Historical Review. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-39120-2.
Jump up
^ Italian architectural planification of Asmara (in Italian) p. 64-66
Jump up
^ "Benvenuto sul sito del Maitacli" (in Italian). Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 8 July 2011.
Jump up
^ Italian Eritrea industries
Jump up
^ BBC: Reviving Asmara; [1]
Jump up
^ "Da campo militare a capitale: Asmara colonia italiana e oltre"
References[edit]
Boness, Stephan. Asmara - Africa´s Jewel of Modernity. Jovis Verlag, Berlin 2016, ISBN 978-3-86859-435-5
Gresleri et al. Architettura italiana d'oltremare (1870-1940)Ed. Marsilio. Roma, 1993 ISBN 8831759183
[hide]
vte
Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)
Main authorities
King & Emperor Vittorio Emanuele IIIPrime Minister Benito MussoliniList of viceroys of Italian East Africa
Eritrea Italiana. Red points are the new borders of Eritrea, enlarged in 1936 in the Governorate of Eritrea
Governors
Italian Governors of EritreaGovernorate of Eritrea: Pietro Badoglio, Alfredo Guzzoni, Vincenzo De Feo, Luigi Frusci
General History
Italian EritreaEritrea GovernorateBattle of KassalaBattle of DogaliFirst Italo-Ethiopian WarSecond Italo-Ethiopian WarEast African CampaignBattle of KerenRed Sea FlotillaEritrea (colonial ship)
Infrastructures
Eritrean RailwayAsmara-Massawa CablewayRailway stations in EritreaLinea dell'ImperoAsmara International AirportMassaua International AirportGovernor's Palace (Asmara)Asmara Presidential Palace (Asmara)Church of Our Lady of the Rosary, AsmaraCinema ImperoCicero StadiumFiat Tagliero BuildingAsmara's Opera
Related articles
Italian EritreansImperial ItalyItalian East AfricaAsmara under Italian ruleMassaua under Italian ruleItalian language in EritreaLiceo Marconi di AsmaraEritrean talleroItalian East African liraPostage stamps and postal history of Italian East AfricaEritrean Catholic ChurchItalian Eritrean cuisineFootball in Italian EritreaAsmara calcioAsmara circuitAsmara Brewery
Colonial troops
Eritrean AscariRoyal Corps of Colonial TroopsItalian 1st Eritrean DivisionItalian 2nd Eritrean DivisionItalian guerrilla units (A.O.I.)Italian African PoliceBandsZaptiéSpahis
Categories: Asmara19th century in Eritrea20th century in Eritrea
============================================
Carla MAWRIA PUCCINI (copia cache)
Carla Maria Puccini
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Carla Puccini on the right of the photo
Carla Maria Puccini (born in Gondar -Italian Ethiopia- in February 1941) is a former Italian actress and TV star.[1]
Contents [hide]
1
Life
2
Filmography
3
Notes
4
See also
Life[edit]
She was born in Gondar when the city was part of the Italian Ethiopia. After a few years living between the Italians of Ethiopia, since late childhood she moved back to Italy, where she started a career of actress while still being a teenager. She was the second wife of Romano Mussolini, son of the Italian head of Fascism, from whom she had a daughter (Rachele).
After being in 1965 in the cast of Italian television miniseries "The woman of flowers"[2] with Ubaldo Lay (and successively in the cast of another TV miniseries called "These our sons" in 1967), she presented in 1966 the Sanremo Festival. The show was presented by Mike Bongiorno, assisted by Paola Penni e Carla Maria Puccini. Gianni Ravera served as artistic director.[3]
In 1968 Carla Puccini did her most famous film: Red roses for the Führer.[4]
After her marriage, she retired to private life and in 1974 had her daughter Rachele (named as grandmother Rachele Mussolini). When her husband Romano died, she filed in 2009 a suit in order to get back a Mussolini property: the "Rocca delle Caminate".[5]
Filmography[edit]
The woman of flowers (1965), TV miniseries directed by Anton Giulio Majano
Questi nostri figli (1967), TV miniseries directed by Mario Landi
Red roses for the Führer (1968), Film directed by Fernando Di Leo
Notes[edit]
Jump up
^ "FOTOGRAFIA CARLA MARIA PUCCINI - eBay". www.ebay.it. Retrieved 16 February 2018.
Jump up
^ "La donna di fiori". Retrieved 16 February 2018 – via www.imdb.com.
Jump up
^ Eddy Anselmi. Festival di Sanremo: almanacco illustrato della canzone italiana. Panini Comics, 2009. ISBN 8863462291.
Jump up
^ "Code Name, Red Roses". 24 April 1968. Retrieved 16 February 2018 – via www.imdb.com.
Jump up
^ MonrifNet. "Il Resto Del Carlino - Forlì - I Mussolini all'attacco: "Ridateci la Rocca"". www.ilrestodelcarlino.it. Retrieved 16 February 2018.
See also[edit]
Romano Mussolini
Sanremo Music Festival 1966
Italians of Ethiopia
Categories: Italian film actressesItalian television actressesPeople from Gondar20th-century Italian actresses1941 birthsLiving peopleMussolini family
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This page was last edited on 17 February 2018, at 00:03.
========================================
New roads in Italian Ethiopia (copia cache)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Map showing in red the new roads (like the "Imperial road" between Asmara and Addis Abeba, and those in construction in 1941) created by the Italians in Ethiopia
New roads in Italian Ethiopia are the State roads of Ethiopia created as infrastructures for great communication, which from 1936 to 1941 were realized by the Kingdom of Italy in the territories of Italian East Africa (called in Italian: Africa Orientale Italiana, AOI).
Contents [hide]
1
Characteristics
1.1
Bus services
2
The New Roads
3
Notes
4
Bibliography
5
See also
Characteristics[edit]
No paved roads existed in Ethiopia before the Italian conquest.
At the outset of the Italian-Ethiopian war, few roads were completed and none had modern asphalt surface. Only two major unpaved tracks for lorries existed in 1935, the Jimma-Addis Ababa and the Addis Ababa-Dessié. M.Bertazzini[1]
The total development of the new roads in all AOI was almost 5,000 km, of which 400 km were already built in Italian Eritrea during the preparation phase of the war for the Italian conquest of Ethiopia. [2]
With the main roads of this AOI road plan, all asphalted and served by important infrastructural works, at the same time it was created a widespread secondary connection network (up to 4,000 km of development) that guaranteed the links of the smaller centers to the primary roads. [3]
According to historian Stefano Cecini in December 1937 there were 63.530 Italians and 52.742 Ethiopians/Eritreans working on the roads construction (with additionally 46.000 Sudanese & Yemenis at work on the Assab-Dessie under "very hot" temperatures)[4]. The work conditions were often very difficult (for example to make the Massaua-Decamerè in seven months died 247 Italians and more than 500 natives, mainly because of a cholera epidemy)[5]. Additionally in the first years there was the problem of the guerrilla attacks from the Ethiopian resistance fighters, that only in 1939 petered out.
However the construction of the AOI road system was carried out urgently on Mussolini's orders, but there were considerable increases in the cost of the works (that reached nearly 3/4 of the total Italian budget for the colonies)[6]. His fascist propaganda in 1940 pinpointed that Italy has given to Ethiopia two big "improvements" in just a few years: the abolition of slavery and the creation of an efficient paved roads system.
Indeed at the beginning of spring 1940, all the roads of the first "AOI road plan" of 1936 were realized, with the exception of some sections of the Addis Ababa-Gondar (a road that was also included in the next multi-year plan) and of the Gondar-Dessie.
But of the second road project of 1937, only the Addis Ababa-Harar was completed before summer 1940. There was also huge works on two of the three transoceanic roads that had to connect Italian Mogadiscio to the center of the Empire (that was the Governorate of Scioa, with the capital Addis Abeba).
Moreover, at the beginning of the World War 2 it was nearly completed the work on the roads Gimma - Sirè, Lechemti - Ghimbi and Gimma - Scioa Ghimira.
Bus services[edit]
The road systems was complemented with the 1938 creation of the Compagnia Italiana Trasporti Africa Orientale (CITAO), that served with Fiat buses[7] eight routes and related hotels/lodgings to rest[8]:
1. Massaua-Asmara-Gondar (hotel in Asmara & Adi Arcai);
2. Massaua-Dessiè-Addis Abeba (hotel in Quiha & Dessiè);
3. Assab-Dessiè-Addis Abeba (hotel in Dessiè);
4. Addis Abeba-Gimma;
5. Addis Abeba-Ambò (hotel in Lechemti);
6. Mogadiscio-Chisimaio (hotel in Modum);
7. Mogadiscio-Dolo (hotel in Baidoa);
8. Mogadiscio-Bulo Burti-Rocca Littorio (hotel in El Mos)
The New Roads[edit]
The simple list of the projected roads gives an idea of the magnitude of the investments undertaken. The vast majority of the works were managed by the AASS(Azienda Autonoma Statale della Strada), a public company purposely created by the Minister of the public works. The AASS obtained an incredibly large budget from Rome: not only did the six-year development plan destine more than 7.7bn Italian Lire (out of the total 12bn!) for road construction, but the AASS even received additional 3.1bn Lire, for the financial year 1936-7. In 1939, the newly built colonial transportation network totaled roughly 4,625 km of paved roads and 4,877 km of unpaved tracks.M. Bertazzini [9]
The following table shows the AOI new roads (in spring 1941) according to their number assigned, highlighting the urban centers connected to them (there are included also those in Eritrea [10]):
Number
Official Name
Length
Main connected cities
Note
1
Strada di Dogali
km 116
Massaua – Nefasit – Asmara
Fully asphalted
2
Strada della Vittoria
km 1,077
Asmara – Dessiè – Addis Abeba
Fully asphalted
3
Strada statale 3 Strada per Decamerè
km 40
Nefasit – Decamerè
4
Strada statale 4 Strada della Dancalia
km 485
Assab – Sardò – Dessiè
Fully asphalted
5
Strada statale 5 Strada dell'Eritrea Occidentale
km 379
Asmara – Agordat – Tessenei – Sabderat
Fully asphalted
6
Strada statale 6 Strada del Lago Tana
km 1,262
Asmara – Adua – Debarec – Gondar – Dangila – Debra Marcos – Ficcè – Addis Abeba
7
Strada statale 7 Strada del Gimma
km 340
Addis Abeba – Gimma – Gore – Gambèla
In construction
8
Strada statale 8 Strada di Lechemti
km 330
Addis Abeba – Lechemti – Ghimbi – Border near Kurmuk
In construction
9
Strada statale 9 Strada di Debra Tabor
km 360
Gondar – Debra Tabor – Dessiè
10
Strada statale 10 Addis Abeba-Deuallè
km 600
Addis Abeba – Dire Daua – Deuallè – Border near Ali Sabieh
11
Strada statale 11 Addis Abeba-Méga
km 400
Addis Abeba – Wondo – Méga
12
Strada statale 12 Addis Abeba-Mogadiscio
km 1,500
Addis Abeba – Sciasciamanna – Ginir – Imi – Ferfer – Mogadiscio
13
Strada statale 13 Wondo-Mogadiscio
km 1,350
Wondo – Neghelli – Dolo – Mogadiscio
14
Strada statale 14 Dire Daua-Garbaillè
km 300
Dire Daua – Harar – Giggiga – Garbaillec – Border near Aubarre
15
Strada statale 15 Giggiga-Mogadiscio
km 900
Giggiga – Ferfer – Mogadiscio
16
Strada statale 16 Giggiga-Buràmo
km 50
Giggiga – Buràmo – Border near Zeila
17
Strada statale 17 Mega-Neghelli
km 300
Mega – Neghelli
18
Strada statale 18 Sciasciamanna-Gimma
km 200
Sciasciamanna – Soddu – Gimma
In construction
Notes[edit]
Jump up
^ Road construction in Ethiopia before 1935; p.10
Jump up
^ Stefano Cecini: "La realizzazione della rete stradale in Africa orientale italiana (1936-41)", Dipartimento di Storia Moderna e Contemporanea – Università di Roma La Sapienza, 2007 (in Italian)
Jump up
^ Nicky Di Paolo: Le strade italiane in Africa Orientale" (in Italian)
Jump up
^ Stefano Cecini. "La realizzazione della rete stradale in Africa orientale italiana (1936-41)
Jump up
^ Stefano Cecini; p.3
Jump up
^ Alessio Gagliardi: "La mancata «valorizzazione» dell’Impero" (in Italian)
Jump up
^ 1938 Photo of Dire Dawa bus service to Harrar
Jump up
^ Stefano Cecini; p.4
Jump up
^ Bertazzini."The long-term impact of Italian colonial roads in the Horn of Africa. 1935-2000"; p.13
Jump up
^ Video of the 1937 works in the Gondar-Asmara
Bibliography[edit]
Attillo, Arcangelo. La camionale Mar Rosso – Altipiano Eritreo, Istituto Grafico Tibertino 1914
Cecini, Stefano. La realizzazione della rete stradale in Africa orientale italiana (1936-41), Dipartimento Storia Moderna e Contemporanea – Università La Sapienza. Roma, 2007
Fiore, Giacinto. Duecento pagine sull'Eritrea, Stab. Tipografico Percotto, 1950
Larebo H.M. The Building o fan Empire: Italian Land Policy and Practice in Ethiopia. 1935-1941 Clarendon P. Oxford, 1994
Bertazzini, Mattia. The long-term impact of Italian colonial roads in the Horn of Africa. 1935-2000. Department of Economic History; London School of Economics. London, 2016
Autori Vari, Annali dell'Africa Italiana (Le Opere Pubbliche), Mondadori 1939
Autori Vari, Strade Romane in Dancalia, Giuseppe Cobolli Gigli 1941
Guida dell' Africa Orientale Italiana. Editore CTI. Milano, 1938
See also[edit]
Italian Ethiopia
Italian Empire
[hide]
vte
Etiopia italiana
Main authorities
King & Emperor Vittorio Emanuele IIIPrime Minister Benito MussoliniList of viceroys of Italian East Africa
Governors
List of Italian Governors of Addis AbabaList of Italian Governors of AmharaList of Italian Governors of Galla-SidamoList of Italian Governors of HararList of Italian Governors of Scioa
Main Colonial governors: Agenore Frangipani; Guglielmo Nasi; Enrico Cerulli; Pietro Gazzera; Luigi Frusci; Alessandro Pirzio Biroli
General History
Italian EthiopiaAmhara GovernorateHarrar GovernorateGalla-Sidamo GovernorateScioa GovernorateFirst Italo-Ethiopian WarAbyssinia CrisisSecond Italo-Ethiopian WarItalian conquest of British SomalilandItalian attacks in KenyaItalian tentative to occupy French SomalilandEast African CampaignLast stand at Amba AlagiBattle of GondarBattle of CulqualberItalian guerrilla war in A.O.I. (1941-1943)
Infrastructures
New roads in Italian EthiopiaLinea aerea dell'ImperoItalian colonial railwaysEthio-Djibouti RailwaysAddis Ababa Stadium
Related articles
Italian EthiopiansAddis Abeba under Italian ruleImperial ItalyItalian East Africa40th Infantry Division Cacciatori d'AfricaItalian East African liraPostage stamps and postal history of Italian East AfricaRoman Catholicism in Ethiopia
Related personalities
Prince Amedeo d'AostaRodolfo GrazianiTito MinnitiLuciano ViolanteElisa Angela MeneguzziCarla Maria PucciniRosa DainelliAmedeo Guillet
Colonial troops
Royal Corps of Colonial TroopsItalian African PoliceBands
Categories: Italian East AfricaHistory of EthiopiaRoad transport in Ethiopia
================================================
PANNONIAN ROMANCE
{{Infobox language
|name=Pannonian Romance
|region=[[Pannonia]]
|era=ca. 500–700 CE
|ref=linglist
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2 = [[Italic languages|Italic]]
|fam3 = [[Romance languages|Romance]]
|linglist=lat-pan
|glotto=none
}}
'''Pannonian Romance''' was a Romance language that developed in [[Pannonia]] after the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]]. It seems to have lasted until the 10th century. The development of Pannonian Romance shows some similarities with that of [[British Latin|British Romance]], lasting only a few centuries.
==History==
{{Quote|In the north, a Roman population probably still lived in the former province of Pannonia at least in all the 6th century and the question whether the "dialect" spoken there belonged to East Latin or to the Occidental dialects has been discussed by scholars without a definite conclusion.André du Nay. ''The Origins of the Rumanians. The early history of the Rumanian language''}}
The Romanized population of Pannonia (for which the historian [[Theodor Mommsen]] calculated a population of about 200,000 around the 4th century) survived Barbarian invasions (by the [[Huns]], [[Goths]], [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]] and others), although they were reduced to a few thousands by the 6th century, living mainly in fortified villages like [[Keszthely]] and Fenékpuszta.
There were other places in [[Pannonia]] where the local population continued to speak forms of [[Vulgar Latin]] after the 5th century: Pécs, Sopron, Szombathely, Dunaújváros. Many Christian relics with inscriptions in Latin have been found in these towns.
[[File:RomanPannoniagirl.jpg|thumb|Image of Roman Pannonia girl (6th century), wearing ornaments of the [[Keszthely culture]]]]
But it was on the western shore of [[Lake Balaton]] where a peculiar society of craftsmen formed, called the [[Keszthely culture]], of which more than 6,000 artisan tombs and many products (including in gold) are left.
Romance dialects disappeared due to assimilation with German and Slavic invaders in borders areas of the Roman [[limes]] near the [[Danube]] river in Pannonia, [[Raetia]] (today Bavaria and Switzerland) and [[Noricum]] (today Austria), http://books.google.com/books?id=lULWOT1... Romance disappearance in "Romania submersa"] but in the area of Lake Balaton survived because the Avars needed a population of skilled artisans and craftsmen for their own needs.
After the Avars were defeated by [[Charlemagne]] and disappeared at the beginning of the 9th century, the Romanized craftsmen of the "Keszthely culture" were no longer needed and so quickly were assimilated: their language, Pannonian Romance, soon disappeared with them in the 10th century.Sós, Árthur/Salamon Á. ''Cemeteries of the Early Middle Ages (6th-9th c.) at Pókaszepetk''
==Geography==
Pannonian Romance was spoken around Lake Balaton in western [[Hungary]], mainly in the fortified villages of Keszthely and Fenékpuszta.{{dubious||reason=strange statement considering the size of Pannonia, the Roman province|date=March 2014}}{{Citation needed|date=March 2014}}
Other places where Romanized tombs of Pannonians of the 6th century were found include Pécs (the Roman Sopianae), Sopron (Scarbantia), Szombathely (Savaria), Tokod and Dunaújváros.
The area around Lake Balaton has an almost [[Mediterranean]] climate, similar to the one of the subalpine lakes in the north of [[Italy]].
According to Alexandru Magdearu, this special mild climate is one of the reasons of why the Pannonians remained in Keszthely and did not flee during the Barbarian incursions towards the relatively near coasts of the [[Adriatic Sea]].
==Language==
[[File:Hungary Pecs 2005 June 085.jpg|thumb|Remains of a Christian church of the 5th century in [[Sopianae]] (Pécs), Pannonia (Hungary)]]
{{Quote|At Fenekpuszta (Keszthely) [...] excavations have brought to light a unique group of finds that suggest not only Christians but Romans too [...] There are finds such as a gold pin with the name BONOSA proving that some ethnic group of Roman complexion remained at Fenekpuszta (after the barbarian invasions) [...] http://books.google.com/books?id=6L49AAA... Romans in Kezsthely (Fenekpuszta) in the fifth and sixth century (Google book)]
}}
Some words in Pannonian Romance were of [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] or [[Illyrian languages|Illyrian]] origin.{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}} According to the linguist Roxana Curc,{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}} the main source of evidence on this extinct language are the numerous toponyms in the area of [[Lake Balaton]] and some anthroponyms, hydronyms and ethnonyms that come from the [[Keszthely culture]].
The name ''Keszthely'' ([[IPA]] ['kεst.hεj]) could be related to the [[Istriot language|Istriot]]–[[Venetian language|Venetian]] ''castei'', which means "castle", and is probably an original word of the Pannonian Romance language, according to the Austrian linguist [[Julius Pokorny]].''[[Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch]]'' He also posits that the word ''Pannonia'' is derived via Illyrian from a [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] root ''*pen-'' "swamp, water, wet". If true, that would suggest that the pre-Roman language of Pannonia was an Illyrian language.
According to Romanian linguist Alexandru Rossetti,Istoria limbii române'' Pannonian Romance probably contributed to the creation of the 300 basic words of the "Latin substratum" of the Balkan Romance languages.
Some scholars argue that the Pannonian Romance lacks clear evidences of existence, because no written sources exist. However, according to Árthur Sós,''Cemeteries of the Early Middle Ages (6th-9th c.) at Pókaszepetkin'' in some of the 6000 tombs of the Keszthely culture, there are words in [[vernacular Latin]]. This is the case, for example, of a gold pin with the inscription ''BONOSA''.Mócsy, András. ''Pannonia and Upper Moesia: a history of the middle Danube provinces of the Roman Empire'' p.353 In the opinion of Árthur Sós, the Pannonian Romance has probably links with the [[Rhaeto-Romance languages|Rhaeto Romance]] of the Alps.
==See also==
* [[African Romance]]
* [[Moselle Romance]]
* [[British Latin]]
* [[Keszthely culture]]
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
==Bibliography==
* Du Nay, Andre. ''The Origins of the Rumanians—The early history of the Rumanian language''. Matthias Corvinus Publishing. Toronto,1996
* Magdearu, Alexandru. ''Românii în opera Notarului Anonym''. Centrul de Studii Transilvane, Bibliotheca Rerum Transsylvaniae, XXVII. Cluj-Napoca 2001.
* Mócsy, András. ''Pannonia and Upper Moesia: a history of the middle Danube provinces of the Roman Empire''. Publisher Routledge. London, 1974 ISBN 0-7100-7714-9
* Mommsen, Theodore. ''The Provinces of the Roman empire''. Barnes & Noble Books. New York 2003
* Remondon, Roger. ''La crise de l’Empire romain''. Collection Nouvelle Clio – l’histoire et ses problèmes. Paris 1970
* Rosetti, Alexandru. "History of the Romanian language" (''Istoria limbii române''), 2 vols., Bucharest, 1965-1969.
* Sós, Árthur/Salamon Á. ''Cemeteries of the Early Middle Ages (6th-9 th c.) at Pókaszepetk''. Ed by. B. M. Szőke. Budapest 1995.
* Szemerényi, Oswald. ''Studies in the Kinship Terminology of the Indo-European Languages''. Leiden 1977
* Tagliavini, Carlo. ''Le origini delle lingue neolatine''. Patron Ed. Bologna 1982
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2010}}
{{Romance languages}}
[[Category:Extinct Romance languages]]
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https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-L8UNyPKWwoQ/V... FOTO IN LIBIA DI MAURIZIO RAVA, governatore Somalia 1931-1935 (il primo in alto a sinistra a fianco della bandierra italiana)
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https://books.google.com/books?id=ti6GDA... The Colonial Legacy in Somalia , Paolo Tripodi (OTTIMO sui 1948 riots contro italiani a Mogadiscio)
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http://afriques.revues.org/1145?lang=en Roman commerce in sub-Saharan west Africa Sonja Magnavita (Initial Encounters: Seeking traces of ancient trade connections between West Africa and the wider world)
(see also map to Jenne-jeno in my computer files)
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ROMANS IN SUBSAHARAN AFRICA
[[File:RomanexplorationsinSubSaharanWesternAfrica.png|thumb|right|350px|Map showing the main Roman expeditions in Sub-Saharan western Africa]]
'''Romans in Sub-Saharan Africa''' were a group of expeditions & explorations to [[Lake Chad]] and [[West Africa|western Africa]]. These expeditions were done by a group of military and commercial units of [[Roman Empire|Romans]] who moved across the [[Sahara Desert]] and into the interior of Africa and its coast. They were made by the [[Roman Empire]] between the first and the fourth century [[AD]]. The primary motivation for the expeditions was to secure sources of gold and spices.Roman objects are, indeed, found in the Sahara, and, significantly, along the western caravan route. Numerous Roman artifacts have been found at the Garamantes’ capital of Germa in the [[Fezzan]]. There is evidence of Roman style irrigation being introduced and for at least some Garamantes adopting a sedentary and a town, if not urban, lifestyle. Most striking is the large Roman-syle mausoleum found there, evidence either of Roman presence or of Romanization of the elite. Between Germa and Ghat in the Hoggar have been found Roman ceramics, glass, jewelry and coins dating from the 1st to the 4th centuries. Farther down the route, at the oasis of Abelessa, is the site known locally as the Palace of Tin Hinan. There is a charming local legend about it, but it seems to have been a fortress, in one room of which was found the skeletal remains of a woman, along with a number of Late Roman objects, including a lamp, a golden bracelet and a 4th century coin. Finally, there was a cache of Roman coins found at Timissao only 600 kilometers from the Niger. Heinemann-University of California-UNESCO ( https://books.google.com/books?id=gB6DcM... p.514 Map])
==Characteristics==
The Romans organized expeditions to cross the [[Sahara]] desert with five different routes:
*through the western Sahara, toward the [[Niger]] river and actual [[Timbuktu]].
*through the Tibesti mountains, toward Lake Chad and actual [[Nigeria]].
*through the [[Nile]] river, toward actual [[Uganda]] (and [[Ethiopia]]).
*through the western coast of Africa, toward the [[Canary Islands]] and the [[Cape Verde]] islands.
*through the [[Red Sea]], toward actual [[Somalia]] and perhaps [[Tanzania]]. http://researchomnia.blogspot.com/2015/1... Romans in Azania/Raphta]
All these expeditions were supported by legionaries and had mainly a commercial purpose. Only the one done by emperor [[Nero]] seemed to be a preparative for the conquest of [[Ethiopia]] or [[Nubia]]: in 62 AD two [[Nile exploration by Roman emperor Nero|legionaries explored the sources of the Nile river]].
One of the main reasons of the explorations was to get gold using the camel to transport it.Roth, Jonathan 2002. ''The Roman Army in Tripolitana and Gold Trade with Sub-Saharan Africa''. APA Annual Convention. New Orleans.
The explorations near the African western and eastern coasts were supported by Roman ships and deeply related to the naval commerce (mainly toward the [[Indian Ocean]]).
==Main explorations==
The main explorations were four (two in western Sahara and two in central Sahara) plus one (done by Festus) in the lake Chad/Niger river area.
===Western Sahara expeditions===
In western Sahara there were two Roman expeditions, just south of the [[Atlas Mountains|Atlas mountains]]:
* ''Cornelius Balbus expedition'': https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTNTz3... Balbus expedition and successive expeditions, with map]
The first expedition done by Romans in the Sahara—according to Plinius—was the one of [[Lucius Cornelius Balbus the Younger|Cornelius Balbus]], who in 19 BC probably reached the river Niger near Timbouctou. He moved from Libyan [[Sabratha]] and conquered with ten thousand legionaries the [[Garamantes]] capital in [[Fezzan]] and sent a small group of his legionaries further south across the [[Ahaggar]] mountains in order to explore the "land of the lions": they found a huge river (the [[Niger river|Niger]]) that in their opinion was going toward the Nile river. Indeed in 1955, many Roman coins and some Latin ceramics were found in the area of actual [[Mali]].
{{Quote|''According to Plinius this (Balbus) expedition started with the conquest of [[Gadames]] and later of Rapsa, actual [[Ghat]]. After the conquest of [[Garama]] and surrounding area, Plinius wrote that the Roman legionaries went further south to the [[Tassili]] mountains: the [[Legio III Augusta]] of Cornelius Balbus reached the oasis of Bistra in southern [[Algeria]], and then reached Alasi ([[Abalessa]] in the [[Ahaggar]]) and Balsa (actual Ilezy), until some rivers then existing (but now disappeared) like the Dasibari river. According to the scholar [[Henri Lhote]], Balbus probably used the old "road of carts", an old caravan route on the east side of the Bahr Attla, the "Atlantis sea", named even in the [[Bible]]. Along this road there are some stone inscription showing the Garamantes charriots. The Romans then crossed the Tamanrasset area on the actual border between Algeria and [[Niger]], and reached the [[river Niger]] near actual [[Gao]] after crossing the caravan center of [[Tadmekka|Tabemekka]] (in [[Mali]]).''Jonathan Roth. San Jose State University}}
According to Jonathan Roth, some Roman coins have been recently discovered in the Mali northern region, confirming this expedition. Roman objects are, indeed, found in the Sahara, and, significantly, along the western caravan route: many Roman artifacts have been found at the [[Garamantes]] capital of Germa in the [[Fezzan]]. There is evidence of Roman style irrigation being introduced and for at least some Garamantes adopting a sedentary and a town, if not urban, lifestyle. Most striking is the large Roman-syle mausoleum found there, evidence either of Roman presence or of Romanization of the elite. Between Germa and Ghat in the Hoggar have been found Roman ceramics, glass, jewelry and coins dating from the 1st to the 4th centuries. Farther down the route, at the oasis of [[Abelessa]], is the site known locally as the Palace of [[Tin Hinan tomb|Tin Hinan]]. There is a charming local legend about it, but it seems to have been a fortress, in one room of which was found the skeletal remains of a woman, along with a number of Late Roman objects, including a lamp, a golden bracelet and a 4th century coin. Finally, there was a cache of Roman coins found recently at Timissao, only 600 kilometers from the Niger river.
* ''Suetonius Paulinus expedition'':
The second was done in the year 41 AD by [[Gaius Suetonius Paulinus|Suetonius Paulinus]], a Roman Consul, who was the first of the Romans who led an army across the Atlas range. At the end of ten days' march he reached the mountains summit covered by snow and later he arrived at a river called Gerj. He then penetrated into the semi deserted country south of [[Morocco]] and some of his legionaries probably went near the river Daras (modern [[Senegal river]]).
{{Quote|''In the year 41 AD Suetonius Paulinus, afterwards Consul, was the first of the Romans who led an army across Mount Atlas. At the end of a ten days' march he reached the summit,—which even in summer was covered with snow,—and from thence, after passing a desert of black sand and burnt rocks, he arrived at a river called Gerj...he then penetrated into the country of the Canarii and Perorsi, the former of whom inhabited a woody region abounding in elephants and serpents, and the latter were Ethiopians, not far distant from the Pharusii and the river Daras (modern river Senegal)''.The journal of the Royal Geographical Society of LondonRoyal Geographical Society (Great Britain). Journal Vol. 1-10; page 7}}
From the first century after Christ there is evidence (coins, fibulas) of Roman commerce and contacts in [[Akjoujt]] and Tamkartkart near Tichit in [[Mauritania]].
===Central Sahara expeditions===
The two main explorations/expeditions in the central Sahara were:
*''Flaccus expedition'':
During [[Augustus]] times [[lake Chad]] was a huge lake and two Roman expeditions were done in order to reach it: Septimius Flaccus and Julius Maternus reached the "lake of ippopotamus" (as was called the lake Chad by Claudius Ptolomeus). They moved from coastal Tripolitania and passed near the Tibesti mountains. Both did their expeditions through the [[Garamantes]] territories, and were able to leave a small garrison on the "lake of ippopotamus and rhinoceros" after 3 months of travel in desert lands.
Ptolemy wrote that in 50 AD Septimius Flaccus did his expedition in order to retaliate against nomad raiders who attacked [[Leptis Magna]], and reached Sebha and the territory of Aozou https://books.google.com/books?id=LY5Lmc... John Coleman De Graft-Johnson." African Glory: The Story of Vanished Negro Civilizations"; p.26]. He then reached the rivers Bahr Ergig, Chari and Logone in the lake Chad area, described as the "land of Ethiopes" (or black men) and called ''[[Agisymba]]''.
*''Matiernus expedition'':
Ptolomeus even wrote that around 90 AD Julius Maternus (or Matiernus) did a mainly commercial expedition. From the Sirte gulf he reached the Oasis of Cufra and the Oasis of Archei, then arrived -after 4 months travelling with the king of the Garamantes- to the river Bahr Salamat and Bahr Aouk, near the actual Central African Republic in a region then called Agisymba. He went back to [[Rome]] with a rhinoceros with two horns, that was shown in the [[Colosseum]]. http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/en... Agisymba and Maternus]
According to Raffael Joorde, Maternus was a diplomat who explored with the king of Garamantes the territory south of the [[Tibesti mountains]], while this king did a military campaign against rebellious subjects or as a "razzia". Raffael Joorde."
Römische Vorstöße ins Innere Afrikas südlich der Sahara: die geheimnisvolle
Landschaft Agisymba", Dortmund, 2015 ( https://www.academia.edu/16951827/R%C3%B...])
===Niger river area===
However some historians (like Susan Raven Raven, Susan. Rome in Africa. 3rd ed. London, 1993 ( https://books.google.com/books?id=WEd8Ne...])) believe that there was even another Roman expedition to sub-saharan central Africa: the one of Valerius Festus, that could have reached the equatorial Africa thanks to the Niger river.
[[File:Sub-Saharan Roman expeditions-explorations.png|thumb|right|250px|Map showing the Festus expedition, during Roman explorations of Sub-Saharan Africa]]
*''Festus expedition'':
Plinius wrote Plinius the Elder. "Naturalis Historia", V, 5.36 that in 70 AD a legatus of the [[Legio III Augusta]] named Festus repeated the Balbus expedition toward the Niger river. He went to the eastern [[Hoggar Mountains]] and the entered the [[Air Mountains]] until the [[Gadoufaoua]] plain (full of dinosaur fossils). Gadoufaoua (Touareg for “the place where camels fear to go”) is a site in the [[Tenere]] desert of [[Niger]] known for its extensive fossil graveyard, where remains of [[Sarcosuchus imperator]], popularly known as SuperCroc, have been found. Festus finally arrived to the area were now there it is [[Timbouctou]] and [[Gao]].
But a few academics -like Fage https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTNTz3... Cambridge History of Africa; p.286]- think that he only reached the [[Ghat]] region in southern [[Libya]], near the border with southern Algeria and Niger (however it is possible that a few "explorers" of his legionaries reached the Niger river and went down to the equatorial forests navigating the river toward the delta in actual [[Nigeria]], like happened in the [[Nile exploration by Roman emperor Nero|Nile river exploration done under Nero emperor]] when Roman centurions reached the [[lake Victoria]] region).
However it is noteworthy to pinpoint that in actual [[Burkina Faso]] there it is a place -near the border with Niger (and Gao)- where in 1975 has been discovered the so called [[Bura culture]]. This culture existed since the late first century (when the Festus expedition was done) and produced a variety of distinctive [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]] made of [[clay]], [[iron]] and stone.Note the exhibits of Bura culture artifacts (someone a bit similar to the Roman Africa artifacts ) at the Hamill Gallery at {{cite web|url=http://www.hamillgallery.com/BURA |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2009-10-16 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807214209/http://www.hamillgallery.com/BURA/ |archivedate=2011-08-07 |df= }} and the Barakat Gallery at http://www.barakatgallery.com]. Christopher Kelly claims that analysis of copper-based objects found at Kissih in northen Burkina Faso (and belonging to the Bura culture) suggests that material of them is derived from ores in the north Africa Mediterranean area under Roman control: this fact shows highly probable Roman merchants presence in Burkina FasoKelly Christopher. Burkina Faso ("Italy invades" section)
==Maritime explorations==
The western coast of Africa was explored by the Romans after the conquest of northern Morocco (then called ''[[Mauretania Tingitana]]''): the Roman vassal king Juba II organized a successful trade from the area of [[Volubilis]]. Pliny the Elder, a 1st century Roman author and military officer, drawing upon the accounts of Juba II, king of Mauretania, stated that a Roman expedition from Mauritania visited the islands of the archipelago of the Canaries and [[Madeira]] around 10 AD and found great ruins but no population, only dogs (from those animals he called the islands, using the latin word "canarius" or "canis" for dog).
According to Pliny the Elder, an expedition of Mauretanians sent by Juba II to the archipelago visited the islands: when King Juba II dispatched a contingent to re-open the dye production facility at [[Mogador]] (historical name of Essaouira, [[Morocco]]) in the early 1st century CE Juba's naval force was subsequently sent on an exploration of the [[Canary Islands]], [[Madeira]] and probably the Cape Verde islands, using Mogador as their mission base.
We have even recorded historically that, according to Pliny the Elder, the Greek Xenophon of Lampsacus stated that the "Gorgades" ([[Cape Verde islands]]) were situated two days from "Hesperu Ceras" (today called Cap-Vert), the westernmost part of the African continent, showing a knowledge of the area by the Romans.
Furthermore, according to Pliny the Elder and his citation by Gaius Julius Solinus, the sea voyage time crossing the Gorgades (Cape Verde islands) to the islands of the Ladies of the West ("Hesperides"Some historians argue that the "Hesperides" of Solinus could have been the eastern Antilles, actual São Tomé and Príncipe and Fernando Po) was around 40 days: this fact has created academic discussions about the possibility of further Roman travels toward Guinea and even the Gulf of Guinea. A Roman coin of the emperor [[Trajan]] has been found in [[Congo]]Kelly Christopher. Republic of Congo ("Italy invades" section). Other Roman coins have been found in [[Nigeria]] and [[Niger]], but also in [[Guinea]], [[Togo]] and [[Ghana]].
Additionally must be remembered that emperor [[Augustus]] decided that the circumnavigation of Africa should also be attempted (in 1 BC). Romans had two naval ouposts in the Atlantic coast of Africa: Sala colonia near present [[Rabat]] and [[Essaouira|Mogador]] in southern Morocco (north of [[Agadir]]). The [[Mogador island|island of Mogador]] prospered for the local exploitation of purple (highly esteemed in imperial Rome) from Augustus until Septimius Severus times. Augustus, based even in the discovery of a sunken merchant ship from southern Roman Hispania (Spain) in the [[Djibuti]] area (done by his adoptive son Gaius Caesar when he sailed toward [[Aden]]), wanted to organize an expedition from [[Egypt]] to Mogador and Sala around Africa. But it was never done.
==See also==
* [[Roman Empire]]
* [[Exploration of Africa]]
==Notes==
==Bibliography==
*Coleman De Graft-Johnson, John. ''African glory: the story of vanished Negro civilizations''. Black Classic Press. New York, 1986 {{ISBN|0933121032}}
*Fage, JD. ''The Cambridge History of Africa'' Volume 2. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, 1979 {{ISBN|0521215927}}
*Kelly, Christopher & Stuart Laycock. ''Italy invades''. Publisher Greenleaf Book Group. Washington, 2015 ISBN 0996882502 ( https://books.google.com/books?id=3rqACw... ])
*Mattern, Susan. ''Rome and the enemy: imperial strategy in the principate''. University of California Press. San Francisco, 2002 {{ISBN|0520236831}}
*Miller, J. Innes. ''The Cinnamon Route in the Spice Trade of the Roman Empire''. University Press. Oxford, 1996 {{ISBN|0-19-814264-1}}
*Raven, Susan. ''Rome in Africa''. Publisher Routledge. London, 2012 {{ISBN|113489239X}}
*Roth, Jonathan. ''The logistics of the Roman Army at war (264 B.C. - A.D. 235)''. Köln : Brill, 1998 (Columbia studies in the classical tradition ; Vol. 23) ISBN 90–04–11271–5
*The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2 (from CA. 500 B.C. to A.D. 1050). Michael Crowder (& J. Fage). Cambridge University Press, 1975 ISBN {{ISBN|052122215X}}
{{Territories with limited Roman Empire occupation & presence}}
[[Category:Exploration]]
[[Category:Roman Empire]]
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqZMCS7c... LIRATV simonacataldo 29-09-2015
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L"ITALIA IN GUERRA (OTTIMISSIMO E PERFETTO!!!!!!)
http://www.difesa.it/Area_Storica_HTML/e... Isole Ionie pag 371
PERFETTISSIMOOOOOO!!!!!!:
http://www.difesa.it/Area_Storica_HTML/e... STATO MAGGIOE$ DIFESA - UFFICIO STORICO (TERZO ANNO DI GUERRA:1942)
http://www.difesa.it/Area_Storica_HTML/e... IL SECONDO ANNO DI GUERRA - 1941
http://www.difesa.it/Area_Storica_HTML/e... IL PRIMO ANNO DI GUERRA - 1940
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LA CARLOTA - Rincon italiano di Caracas
http://www.eluniversal.com/noticias/cara...
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https://www.viqueria.com/occupazione-fas... Isole Ionie italiane nel 1941
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MAPPA GERMANIA ROMANA
GERMANIA (Roman province)
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?tit...(Roman_province)&oldid=794601194 (da wikipedia "reverted")
MAPPA OLANDA ROMANA
https://i.pinimg.com/736x/63/14/ec/6314e...
MAPPA E STORIA TUNISIA/ALGERIA ROMANA (Roman colonies in Berber Africa)
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?tit...
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Oberaden (Roman Fort)
Actual area of the Oberaden castrum
The Oberaden (Roman Fort) was a big castrum of 56 hectares at Oberaden, a district of Bergkamen in Westphalia (actual Germany).[1] The castrum -for 15000 legionaries- was built during the Drusus campaign against the Germanic population of Catti in the Wetterau region, probably around 11 BC.
Contents [hide]
1
History
2
Data
3
Discovery
4
Notes
5
Bibliography
6
See also
History[edit]
Drusus had begun construction of large camps on the right of the Rhine. Some of these places were abandoned a few years later, perhaps in the 8 BC, such as Oberaden or Rödgen, important only for military purposes. Werner Eck; University of Bologna [2]
In the late summer of 11 BC, in the course of the planned expansion of the Roman Empire from the Rhine to the Elbe by Roman legions under the orders of Drusus, a stepson of the Emperor Augustus, the Roman camp Oberaden was built on a hill in today's district Bergkamen-Oberaden: it was a legion castrum for two legions and auxiliary troops, that was used also and in order to create the Roman province of Germania.
Indeed, Drusus in 11 BC set crossed the Rhine river and entered inside Magna Germania with a force consisting of five legions in addition to auxiliaries. Setting out from Vetera castra on the Rhine, he ascended the River Lippe. Here he encountered the Tencteri and Usipetes, whom he defeated in two separate engagements.[3] He reached the Werra Valley before deciding to turn back for the season, as winter was starting and supplies were dwindling. While his forces were making their way back through the territory of the Cherusci, the latter tribe laid an ambush for them at Arbalo. The Cherusci failed to capitalize on their initial advantage, whereupon the Romans broke through their lines and defeated the Germanic attackers. To show his continued mastery of the area, Drusus garrisoned a number of positions within western Germania during the winter of 11–10 BC, including one in Cheruscan territory: Oberaden.
Map of the short-lived "Germania provincia", showing the location of Oberaden castrum
Oberaden castrum remained active from 11 BC until 8 BC, when was substituted by the Aliso/Haltern castrum.[4] In that year it seems the Romans withdrew to the west of the Rhine river and burned the castrum: it was abandoned after the subjugation of the Germanic tribes of the Sicambri and the Bructeri. But recent excavations indicate that some sections were not destroyed and were used until the Varus disaster in 9 AD.
However, probably was used again by Germanicus in his campaigns from 14 AD to 16 AD. Since then the castrum has disappeared from History, even because there was no civilian Canabae near the military fortifications after Germanicus withdrawal to the west of the Rhine river.
Data[edit]
The castrum of 56 hectares lies on a hill south of the Lippe river. It has a seven-corner shape and has an area of 571200 m² with its sides of about 840 x 680 meters. The Oberaden fort was surrounded by a 2.7 kilometer-long encirclement, consisting of a four to five-meter wide trench, which was two to three meters deep. Then there was a three-meter-wide wooden wall, with every 25 yards defensive towers. Four Gate structures were found in the north, east, south and west of the fortification.
The inner area of the castrum was built according to a rectangular pattern. The buildings consisted of a half-timbered structure with a clay roof. Near the wooden wall there were the houses of the centurions and the legionaries barracks. A complex building structure was discovered in the area between the "Praetorium" (commander's house) located north of the camp and the southern gate. The Praetorium was about 41 × 59 meters in size. To the south, separated by the 42-meter-wide "Via principalis" (main road of the castrum), there was the 94 x 103 meters staff building, called "Principia". Between the staff building and the southern gate stood five small "villas" with annexed peristyle farms. The largest of these houses covered an area of 39 x 29 meters and also had a perimeter garden of 36 x 17.5 meters. These houses were reserved for the military leadership (military tribunes, centurions and legates).[5]
The Oberaden castrum was supported by a small fortlet, located not far away on the Lippe river: Beckinghausen.
The fortlet at Beckinghausen lies ca. 2 km W of the fortress on gently rising ground immediately S of the Lippe. It is 1.6 ha in extent, oval in plan, and surrounded by three V-shaped ditches, except on the river side. One is inclined to think of harbor installations and to imagine that goods brought by ship up the Lippe for the great fortress at Oberaden were unloaded here. H. Schonberger [6]
Inside the area of the castrum there were 40 wells to get water for the legionaries. Because of the enormous storage space, an occupancy of three legions with auxilia troops is not excluded.
Oberaden castrum is the largest Roman military camp north of the Alps and the oldest known castrum in Westphalia. Some finds [7] and reconstructions can be found in the town museum of Bergkamen.[8]
Discovery[edit]
This Roman military camp was discovered in 1905 by the priest Otto Prein, who had already indicated to the archaeologists the remains of the much smaller Roman camp in Beckinghausen that was used by "auxiliaria".
The first excavations began in 1906 under the leadership of Gerhard Kropachek, and they continued until 1914. Further excavations were carried out in 1937 and 1938 under the direction of Christoph Albrecht, in the years 1962/1963 and since 1976 in continuous succession under the direction of the Münsteran archaeologist Johann Sebastian Coolborn.
Notes[edit]
Jump up
^ Imaginary reconstruction of the castrum in the actual city of Bergkamen
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^ Germania of Augustus
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^ The legions in question this time were the I Germanica, the V Alaudae, the XVII, the XVIII, and the XIX.
Jump up
^ D.B.Campbell, Roman legionary fortresses 27 BC - AD 378, Oxford 2006, p.8
Jump up
^ Treccani: Oberaden (in Italian)
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^ Princeton: "Oberaden"
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^ Gladiator "sica" found inside Oberaden castrum
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^ Stadtmuseum-Bergkamen
Bibliography[edit]
Albrecht, Christoph. Das Römerlager in Oberaden. Veröffentlichung des Städtischen Museums für Vor - und Frühgeschichte, Dortmund II, l (Dortmund, 1938)
Campbell, D.B. Roman Legionary Fortresses 27 BC-AD 378 Oxford-N.Y. 2006
Kühlborn, Johann-Sebastian. Oberaden in: Bendix Trier (Hrsg.): 2000 Jahre Römer in Westfalen (Ausstellungskatalog, Zabern). Mainz 1989, ISBN 3-8053-1100-1.
Wells, C.M. The german policy of Augustus 1972.
See also[edit]
Germania (Roman province)
Anreppen
Rodgen (Roman Fort)
Hedemunden (Roman Fort)
[hide]
vte
Roman Forts in "Germania Provincia"
Roman Civilian Vicus & Fort
AlisoMarktbreitWaldgirmes
Main Legionary Castrum
AnreppenOberadenRodgenHedemunden
Camp (small & marching)
FlevumErmeloBentumersielTeceliaHolsterhausenOlfenNidaBeckinghausenKneblinghausenPorta WestfalicaLimburgOberbrechenLahnau-DorlarHachelbichWilkenburgTreva (possible marching camp)
Civis/Fort in actual Germany
Colonia Ulpia TraianaColoniaAugusta TreverorumAugusta VindelicorumCastra Regina
Categories: Roman sites in GermanyGermania (Roman province)Roman Germany
===============
Beckinghausen
Aereal photo of the Lippe river in the area of Benckinghausen-Lünen
Beckinhause was a Roman fortification of 1.6 hectares on the Lippe river.[1] Actually the camp is located inside the city of Lünen in northwestern Germany.
Contents [hide]
1
Discovery
2
History
3
Notes
4
Bibliography
5
See also
Discovery[edit]
The discovery of the Roman camp near Beckinghausen (now a district of Lünen), known as a river bank, is based on the assumptions of the priest Otto Prein.[2]
As he found out, Roman finds were supposedly discovered in the area of the Beckinghaus cemetery in the river Lippe in the 19th century. Even a ford through the lip should have existed at that time. Prein therefore presumed that the Romans could have built a fortified lip junction in this area.
In 1906 there were actually found pottery pieces, which were dated by Constantin Koenen from Neuss in the first half of the 1st century AD. In 1911, the excavators of the nearby Oberaden castrum (Albert Baum and Gerhard Kropatschek) were able to confirm Prein's guessing in a search excavation. Further excavations took place in the years 1912 to 1914. The size and shape of the fixture could be determined by means of individual search sections; Larger areas were not explored.
Also in 1937 and 1938 the area was dug. The last excavation took place in 1995–1998. An extensive finding was not obtained because the area is considerably affected by floods. Only a safe building in the inner part of the camp was discovererd, that is a 12.9 m wide and 13.20 m long storage building (horreum).
History[edit]
In the late summer of 11 BC, in the course of the planned expansion of the Roman Empire from the Rhine to the Elbe rivers by Roman legions under the orders of Drusus, a stepson of the Emperor Augustus, the Roman small camp Beckinghausen was built on the river Lippe. Romans in order to create the Roman province of Germania invaded Magna Germania and to show their continued mastery of the area, they garrisoned a number of positions within western Germania during the winter of 11–10 BC, including two in Cherusci territory: Beckinghausen and the big castrum Oberaden.
The fortlet at Beckinghausen lies ca. 2 km W of the fortress on gently rising ground immediately S of the Lippe. It is 1.6 ha in extent, oval in plan, and surrounded by three V-shaped ditches, except on the river side. One is inclined to think of harbor installations and to imagine that goods brought by ship up the Lippe for the great fortress at Oberaden were unloaded here. That is possible, but it is also conceivable that Beckinghausen was a largely independent supply base that played a role in military activities farther up the Lippe. At any rate, both Oberaden and Beckinghausen were occupied for more than just a summer. At Beckinghausen a long period of occupation is proved by the fact that pottery kilns were constructed here to supply the needs of the garrison.H. Schonberger[3]
The military camp lies on a high bank sloping down to the lip; It is of oval shape. With a maximum length of 185 meters and a width of 88 meters, its area measures around 1.6 hectares.
Map of the short-lived "Germania provincia", showing the location of the Beckinghausen fortification
Three parallel trenches surrounded the plant in the west, south and east, the inner up to 3.7 meters wide and more than two meters deep. Towards the north the eleven meters of the steep bank of the Lippe river protected the camp.
Behind the trenches lay a three-meter wide wooden-earth wall, possibly reinforced every 30 meters by towers. A gateway was found only in the west of the facility. The two inner peaks were interrupted by an earth bridge.
Within the camp were found four road trenches. At the gate in the west were discovered -in addition to two unclear building grounds- some pits. Two of them were pottery furnaces in which Roman pottery was made. Several brick-like stones were found in one of the stoves.[4]
A few coins and ceramics -that were discovered in the excavations- are also classified as contemporary with the finds from the nearby Oberaden castrum.
The end of its use could have occurred with the defeat of Varus in 9 AD. The fortification could have been also re-used during the Germanicus campaigns of 14-16 AD. No canabae evidences have been found around the small castrum, meaning that the area remained depopulated since then and until the Middle Ages.
Notes[edit]
Jump up
^ Map of Beckinghausen Roman fortlet near the Lippe river
Jump up
^ Kuhlborn: Das romische uferkastell Beckinghausen (in German)
Jump up
^ "The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, OAKWOOD, Selkirkshire, Scotland – OBERADEN Kr.Unna, Land Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany". perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2017-08-03.
Jump up
^ Beckinghausen excavation results
Bibliography[edit]
Albrecht, Christoph. Das Römerlager in Oberaden und das Uferkastell in Beckinghausen an der Lippe. Veröffentlichung aus dem Städtischen Museum für Vor- und Frühgeschichte. Dortmund II,1. 1938, S. 21–24.
Campbell, D.B. Roman Legionary Fortresses 27 BC-AD 378 Oxford-N.Y. 2006
Berke, Stephan. Beckinghausen. In: Bendix Trier (Hrsg.): 2000 Jahre Römer in Westfalen. 1989, ISBN 3-8053-1100-1 oder ISBN 3-8053-1115-X (Museumsausgabe), S. 52–54.
Kühlborn, Johann-Sebastian. Das Uferkastell in Beckinghausen. In: Johann Sebastian Kühlborn (Hrsg.): Germaniam pacavi – Germanien habe ich befriedet. Münster 1995, S. 125
Kühlborn, Johann-Sebastian. Das römische Uferkastell Beckinghausen (Museum der Stadt Lünen. Informationen aus dem Museum der Stadt Lünen, 4). Lünen 1996, S. 1–4.
Kühlborn, Johann-Sebastian. Beckinghausen, Stadt Lünen, Kreis Unna. In: Johann-Sebastian Kühlborn: Oberaden, Stadt Bergkamen, Kreis Unna und Beckinghausen, Stadt Lünen, Kreis Unna (Römerlager in Westfalen 3). Münster: Altertumskommission für Westfalen 2008, S. 28–32.
Wells, C.M. The german policy of Augustus 1972.
See also[edit]
Germania (Roman province)
Oberaden (Roman Fort)
Anreppen
Rodgen (Roman Fort)
Hedemunden (Roman Fort)
[hide]
vte
Roman Forts in "Germania Provincia"
Roman Civilian Vicus & Fort
AlisoMarktbreitWaldgirmes
Main Legionary Castrum
AnreppenOberadenRodgenHedemunden
Camp (small & marching)
FlevumErmeloBentumersielTeceliaHolsterhausenOlfenNidaBeckinghausenKneblinghausenPorta WestfalicaLimburgOberbrechenLahnau-DorlarHachelbichWilkenburgTreva (possible marching camp)
Civis/Fort in actual Germany
Colonia Ulpia TraianaColoniaAugusta TreverorumAugusta VindelicorumCastra Regina
Categories: Roman sites in GermanyGermania (Roman province)Roman Germany
==============
http://www.altwege.de/roemer-und-kelten/... OTTIMO SU FORTI IN GERMANIA ROMANA (Hogenkamp in Elsfleth)
================
http://nihk.de/index.php?id=460&L=1 Elsfleth roman navy base in Weser river estuary (north Germany) OTTIMISSIMO!
================
http://www.wandern-bad-nauheim.de/images... Immagine di RODGEN castrum
====================
ITALIAN MOGADISCIO (cache)
http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se...
Mogadishu, or Mogadiscio, was the capital of Italian Somalia in the first half of the 20th century. In Italian language, the city was called Mogadiscio italiana and the inhabitants were called Mogadiscini. Italian Mogadiscio [1] was under direct Italian control from 1885 until February 1941, but formal control was only officially ended with the recognition of the independence of Ethiopia in the 1947 Treaty of Peace with Italy following the end of World War II.
History
Mogadishu (or Mukdishu) is mentioned by Marco Polo and described by Ibn Batuta as an “immense” city. This was in the early part of the 14th century.....In 1892 it was transferred to Italy. The name of the town is spelt in a great variety of ways, including Madeigascar, whence the name of the island of Madagascar. Alfred Grandidier points out that the Portuguese, misled by Marco Polo's description of Mukdishu as an island, fancied they had discovered the land of which he wrote when they touched at Madagascar 1911 E. Britannica
The first Italian to write about Mogadiscio was Marco Polo, who knew of the city during his merchant travels in Asia. But the Italians showed up in Mogadishu's history only in the late 19th century, when the commerce company "Filonardi" from Italy took control of facilities in the port of Mogadishu.
By 1882, Mogadishu was under the joint control of the Somali Geledi Sultanate (which was also holding sway over the Shebelle Valley region in the interior called Benadir) and the Omani Sultan of Zanzibar.[2] In 1885, Ali bin Said leased the city to an Italian chartered company owned by Vincenzo Filonardi. This "Compagnia Filonardi" (1893–96) -and later the "Società Anonima Commerciale Italiana del Benadir" (1899-1905)- was finally taken by the Italian government, that obtained the control of the entire region of Benadir with the port of Mogadishu through an agreement with the British government in 1892. From 3 August 1889 to 15 May 1893 Filonardi was the first Governor of the "Somalia italiana" (he was governor again from 1896 to 1897).
"Banca d'Italia" building
The Kingdom of Italy purchased the city in 1905 and made Mogadishu the capital of the newly established Somalia italiana. The Italians subsequently referred to the city as Mogadiscio.
The city was soon modernized in the early 1910s with the creation of the first sewage system, the first hospital, the first paved roads and the new electricity facilities. In the 1910s and 1920s the Italians enlarged the Port of Mogadishu and created the first airport (initially only for military airplanes). In the 1910s was created the first radio-telegraph station in eastern Africa, under the supervision of Guglielmo Marconi, that was able to connect Mogadishu directly with Italian Eritrea and Rome: it was celebrated worldwide.
From 5 April 1908 to 5 May 1936, the Royal Corps of Somali Colonial Troops (Regio corpo truppe coloniali della Somalia Italiana), originally called the "Guard Corps of Benadir", served as the territory's formal military corps with headquarters in Mogadiscio. At the start of its establishment, the force had 2,600 Italian officers.[3] Between 1911 and 1912, over 1,000 Somalis from Mogadishu served as combat units along with Eritrean and Italian soldiers in the Italo-Turkish War.[4] Most of the troops stationed never returned home until they were transferred back to Italian Somaliland in preparation for the invasion of Ethiopia in 1935.[5]
In November 1920, the Banca d'Italia, the first modern bank in Italian Somaliland, was established in Mogadishu.[6] [7] Later were founded in the city the branches of other Italian banks: in 1936 Banco di Roma and in 1938 Banco di Napoli established their offices in the Somalia's capital (Banco di Napoli replaced Cassa di Risparmio di Torino, which had opened an office in Mogadishu in 1932). After WWII, from the Banca d'Italia was developed the Central Bank of Somalia: on July 1960, the newly independent Republic of Somalia established in Mogadishu the Banca Nazionale Somala (National Bank of Somalia) to take over the activities of the Cassa per la Circolazione Monetaria della Somalia and the Mogadishu branch of "Banca d'Italia" (the new bank combined central banking activities with commercial banking activities); and on February 1975, the Somalian government renamed the "Banca Nazionale Somala" with the name "Central Bank of Somalia" (Bankiga Dhexe ee Soomaaliya).
On December 5, 1923, Cesare Maria De Vecchi di Val Cismon was named Governor in charge of the new colonial administration and promoted the process of complete pacification of the Somalia italiana, with the initial integration of the native population. Italian colonial policy followed two principles in Italian Somaliland: preservation of the dominant clan and ethnic configurations and respect for Islam as the territory's religion.[8]
In 1928, the Italian authorities built the Mogadishu Cathedral (Cattedrale di Mogadiscio). It was constructed in a Norman Gothic style, based on the Cefalù Cathedral in Cefalù, Sicily.[9] Following its establishment, Crown Prince Umberto II made his first publicized visit to Mogadishu.[10] [11] To commemorate the visit, the Arch of Umberto was constructed.[11] The arch was built at the center of Mogadishu Garden.[12] The Mogadishu International Airport was constructed that same year. The facility was regarded as one of the finest in the region.
In the early 1930s, the new Italian Governors, Guido Corni and Maurizio Rava, started a policy of full assimilation of the Somalis. Many Somalis were enrolled in the Italian colonial troops, and thousands of Italian colonists moved to live in Mogadishu. The city grew in size and some small manufacturing companies opened up. The Italians also settled in agricultural areas around the capital, such as Villabruzzi (actual Jowhar) and Genale (actual Janaale).[13]
year
Italians
Mogadishu population
%
1905
100
5,000
2%
1914
900
18,000
5%
1930
17,000
50,000
30%
1940
30,000
90,000
33%
1945
40,000
100,000
40%
1960
9,000
118,000
10%
1970
1,962
230,000
1%
1989
500
800,000
0,1%
The Italian population in Mogadishu, from 1905 to 1989
In 1930, there were 22,000 Italians living in Italian Somaliland, representing 2% of the territory's population. The majority resided in the capital Mogadishu, with other Italian communities concentrated in Jowhar (Villabruzzi), Adale (Itala), Janale (Genale), Barawa (Brava), Marka (Merca), Hafun (Dante) and Kismayo (Chisimaio).[14] [15]
By 1935, Mogadishu began to serve as a major naval base and port for the Italians.[16] Then Prime Minister of Italy Benito Mussolini regarded Greater Somalia (La Grande Somalia) with capital Mogadiscio as the crown jewel in Italy's colonial empire in eastern Africa. Consequently, from 1936 to 1940, new roads were constructed in the region around Mogadiscio, such as the "Imperial Road" from Mogadishu to Addis Abeba. New railways (114 km from Mogadishu to Jowhar) and many schools, hospitals, ports and bridges were also built.[17]
Mogadishu airport was established in 1928 with the name Petrella-Mogadiscio aeroporto, the first such facility to be opened in the Horn of Africa. It served as the main military airport for Italian Somaliland. In the mid-1930s, the airport began offering civilian and commercial flights. A regular Asmara-Assab-Mogadishu commercial route was started in 1935, with an Ala Littoria Caproni 133 providing 13-hour flights from the Mogadishu airport to Italian Eritrea. The aircraft had a maximal capacity of 18 passengers, which at the time was a record. In 1936, Ala Littoria launched an intercontinental connection between Mogadishu-Asmara-Khartoum-Tripoli and Rome. The voyage lasted four days and was one of the first long range flights in the world.[18]
The port of Italian Mogadiscio had an exportation in 1934 of 43.467 tons of agricultural products (mainly bananas) toward Italy and Europe. For this commercial transport were used the service of special container-ships called "RAMB" (that were built with the possibility to be converted to be an auxiliary cruiser). The Ramb II was a banana boat based even in Mogadishu. Ramb II was the second of four sister ships all built to the same design: the other ships were the Ramb I, the Ramb III, and the Ramb IV. The four ships were built for the Royal Banana Monopoly Business ("Regia Azienda Monopolio Banane") to transport refrigerated bananas from Italian Somalia to Italy.
The Italian ocean liner Vulcania was the biggest ship to serve the port of Mogadishu
From 1936 the port started to have a weekly international ship line for passengers, connecting Mogadishu with Massaua in Eritrea and Genova in Italy with the Italian Lloyd Triestino and Italian Line.[19] The MS Vulcania was a transatlantic ship that served the port of Mogadiscio. Later, in 1941 the port was damaged by British bombings during WWII.
In the 1930s, Italian authorities began to organize professional sport in Somalia. These sports were initially concentrated only in the capital Mogadishu.[20] In 1931 governor Maurizio Rava created the Federazione Sportiva della Somalia, which organized competences of athletics, tennis and football for the Italian community and promoted the first sport activities among the young native population. In 1933 the first Somalian football championship was created in Mogadishu, called Coppa Federazione Sportiva, with three teams ("Societa' Mogadiscio", "Marina" and "Milizia"). In 1938 the football championship was won by the "Amaruini" team, made up mainly of local Somalians; in 1939 the winning team was the "Araba". In 1938 competitions of other sports, like swimming and cycling, were held.
In summer 1938 was created the Circuito Mogadiscio (called even "Circuito di Mogadiscio" and in English: "Mogadishu Circuit"), a car race done in the main streets of Mogadishu that was one of the firsts in Africa.[21] The main Italian newspaper of Mogadiscio and the Italian colonies, "Il Littoriale",[22] reported that on mid-August 1938 was done the first car race circuit of Mogadiscio. Indeed, on August 15 the Governor Francesco Saveno flagged the start of a car race followed by many thousands in the "Corso Vittorio Emanuele" (actual "Somalia Boulevard") of Somalia's capital, where there were the main stands. On Mogadiscio streets many native Somalis enjoyed enthusiastically to the first car race in their country. It was followed even by a motorcycle race, done with 250 cc and 350 cc category. The "Circuito di Mogadiscio" was repeated in 1939, but the edition of 1940 was not done because of the beginning of the war.
Since 1925 the currency in Mogadiscio was the Lira Somala, that was in use (with the AOI lira) until 1941 and that after WWII -with the Cassa per la circolazione monetaria della Somalia in 1950- was to develop into the Somalo, the only currency of Somalia with a name -by orders of the Italian government- not related/associated to a foreign money (like rupia, lira or shilling).
The Somalo was the only currency in Mogadiscio & Somalia with no reference to foreign money
After the conquest of Ethiopia and the enlargement of Italian Somalia with the addition of the Ogaden, the Viceroy Amedeo d'Aosta wanted to create a manufacturing area in southern Mogadiscio. So, between the port and the new "Petrella" airport an area with mechanical facilities was developed: later there were assembled the first Fiat trucks to serve all Somalia.[23] In 1939 in this area was also established the headquarter of the biggest salt mine of the 1930s world: the Saline Dante.
Furthermore, Prince Amedeo d'Aosta promoted in early 1940 the construction of a Somalian coastal road (similar to the Via Balbia in coastal Libya) from Kismayo up to Dante, but WWII blocked his proposal. However he was able (together with Francesco Saveno Caroselli, governor of the Somalia Governorate) to get asphalted all the roads of Mogadiscio and its outskirsts for the first vehicles circulating in Somalia (3,026 in December 1939, using the tag Som [24] ).
In the first years of the 20th century there were only one hundred Italian civilians (mostly members of the colonial administration with their families) in Mogadishu, but soon started to arrive thousands of colonists (with some merchants and entrepreneurs) from Italy: by March 1940, over 30,000 Italians lived in Mogadishu, representing around 33% of the city's total 90,000 residents.[25] [26] They frequented local Italian schools that the colonial authorities had opened, such as a local "Liceum".[27] So, in early 1940 "Africa Orientale Italiana", Mogadiscio was second only to Asmara as a city used to live an Italian way-of-life with plenty of café-bars, shops and restaurants for people strolling in the afternoon.[28]
During WWII Italian Mogadiscio was conquered by the British in February 1941: nearly all the Italians in Somalia took refuge in the city -for security reasons- during those war years until 1945. Because of these refugees Mogadishu in those years had a population that was nearly half Italian, when added the nearly 7,000 descendants of Italian soldiers who had illegitimate offsprings with Somalian girls.[29]
Since then the Italian population of Mogadiscio started to diminish, mainly after 1948 when there was the killing of Italians by the Somali Youth League,[30] and practically disappeared a few decades later. Indeed, Somali nationalist agitation against the possibility of renewed Italian rule reached the level of violent confrontation in 1948, when on 11 January, large riots broke out that left fifty-two Italians dead in the streets of Mogadishu and other coastal cities in which many more were injured.[31]
Even if there was an important community of nearly 10,000 Italians in Mogadishu in the 1950s, when Italy administrated the country with a ONU mandate, in the late 1990s practically there were no more Italians in Mogadishu.
Legacy
The legacy of the Italian presence in Mogadishu is mainly related to the decision to develop this city as the capital of actual Somalia: in 1885 the Italians found a small city/village with 3,000 inhabitants living in ruined medieval buildings[32] and in just half a century the city was transformed in a modern capital (of one of the biggest countries in eastern Africa) with 100,000 inhabitants, that was nicknamed the White Pearl of the Indian Ocean.
However some other legacies of the Italian presence in Mogadishu still remain: from the diffused use of pasta (baasto) such as spaghetti and of polenta (mishaari),[33] that comes from the Italian Somalis families, to the latin script in the Somalian language and to the architecture of the city.
Architecture
The story of Mogadishu’s Modernist buildings begins during the time of Italian colonial rule. Unlike Asmara in Eritrea and Tripoli in Libya, where the Italians built their colonial city alongside the native walled town, in Mogadishu the walls of the old medina were torn down and the occupiers’ buildings imposed in the city centre.Rakesh Ramchum [34]
In 1905 was started a plan to develop the city, that the Italians found divided in two medieval areas: Amaruini and Scingani. In the middle was built the new "Corso Vittorio Emanuele III" (the main avenue) and governmental buildings with a garden area (that in 1934 was beautified with the "Arch of Umberto"). In 1928 was created the "Piano regolatore di Mogadiscio", the first urban planification for the city, when the medioeval Scingani was demolished and was created a modern area with new buildings and tree lined roads.
Villa Somalia in 1938
Since then in Mogadishu were made many architectural improvements before WWII.[35] The most important are:
1) Villa Somalia. It is the official residential palace and principal workplace of the President of Somalia, Hassan Sheikh Mohamud. It sits on high ground that overlooks the city on the Indian Ocean, with access to both the harbour and airport.[36]
The edifice was built -in partially modern art deco style[37] - by the colonial authorities in Italian Somaliland, serving as a residence for the Italian Governors.[38]
Villa Somalia (originally called Villa Vicereale when inaugurated in October 1936 [39] ) sits on high ground that overlooks Mogadishu on the Indian Ocean, with nearby the first athletic structure for sport in Somalia. It was originally a large, squarish stucco building with a modern tiled roof.[36]
Villa Somalia was built in the new section of the city created by the Italians in the late 1930s: it was a worldwide famous symbol of modernist "Art Deco" architecture.
2) Palazzo degli Uffici del Governo.[40] In the late 1920s was built a huge building for the offices of the Italian colonial government in Somalia, located in front of the Catholic Cathedral. Later it was used as headquarters for the Amministrazione Fiduciaria della Somalia italiana (1950-1960). In front of the Palazzo's central balcony there was located a beautiful water fountain,[41] still existing.[42]
Actually it has been restructured -after the civil war damages- and reopened in 2015:[43] now it is the City Hall of Mogadishu[44]
Image of the Governor Palace
3) Governor's Palace of Mogadishu. In the 1930s it was the seat of the governor of Italian Somaliland, and then the administrator of the Trust Territory of Somalia.It was built during the colonial period (in the late 1920s) in the capital city of Mogadishu: in those decades the city was improved with Italian architecture and urbanism: this palace was one of the most representatives of the colonial fascist architecture.[45]
It was located on the "Corso Umberto", the main street of Italian Mogadiscio, and overlooked the ocean & the port. The architecture was a mixture of Italian and Arab styles, with the second floor decorated with Italian Renaissance furniture. A huge garden was created in front of the main entrance.
In the Palace, among other things, there were the following halls in the lower floor:
Arab hall with decorations, which were derived from the Islamic architecture of the old Mogadishu.
Rooms of "Queen Elena of Italy" with tapestries.
"Sala della Giustizia" with furniture in the Gothic style of the Aosta Valley.
Hall of deliberations, with the wall-scenes taken from the classical style of the Italian architecture and with a huge panel showing "San Giorgio".
The second floor was for private use, with rooms for royal guest.
It was inaugurated by Italian governor Cesare Maria De Vecchi, who ruled from 1923 to 1929. He ordered excavations in the gardens in front of the Palace that proved to be the ancient Arab palace of "El Muzaffar".[46]
In 1975 the Palace was completely razed to the ground (for political reasons) and the site was dedicated to the new construction of the luxurious "Al Uruba" (Curuuba) Hotel.[47]
The main avenue of Mogadishu in 1936, the "Corso Vittorio Emanuele III", with the "Arch of Umberto" and the "Mogadiscio Catholic Cathedral" in the background
4) Mogadishu Cathedral. Known as the "Cattedrale di Mogadiscio" (when inaugurated on March first, 1928), the Mogadishu Cathedral was constructed in a Norman Gothic style, based on the Cefalù Cathedral in Cefalù, Sicily. It was built in nearly six years by the Italian authorities in their former Italian Somaliland, in a central area of the capital not far from the Governor's Palace[48]
Indeed, the Cathedral was built as the biggest in eastern Africa by order of Cesare Maria De Vecchi, a catholic governor of "Somalia italiana" who promoted the "Missionari della Consolata" Christianization of Somalian people.[49] It was built between 1923 and 1928 and was used as a model the "Cathedral of Cefalu" (in northern Sicily), created to commemorate the Christian reconquest of Sicily from the Arabs in the 10th century.
The Cathedral was done in "Norman" Gothic style, designed by architect Antonio Vandone. The facade, with an impressive appearance, was delimited to the sides by two towers, each 37.50 meters high. The plan of the building was a Latin cross; inside was divided into three naves separated by piers with pointed arches.[50]
The church was entrusted to the "Consolata" missionaries,[51] then replaced by the Franciscans (Friars Minor). The altar had a huge statue -done by sculptor Cesare Biscarra- of the Virgin Mary of Consolata,[52] that looked at the parishioners in an impressive way like a statue of Roman Gods inside an ancient imperial temple.[53]
5) Garesa Museum. In 1933, the building that used to be the "Garesa" residence of the Zanzibar Sultanate was totally reconstructed by the Italian governor Rava and adapted to the Somalia Museum (Museo della Somalia).[54] It was the most important cultural place in Italian Mogadiscio.[55]
The "Museo della Garesa" (as was called by the Italian colonists) was officially opened to the public the next year by Governor Maurizio Rava.[56] The museum suffered heavy damages during WWII. After WWII, the old Garesa Museum was turned into the National Museum of Somalia. The National Museum was later moved in 1985, renamed to the Garesa Museum, and converted to a regional museum.[57] [58] After shutting down, the National Museum later reopened. As of January 2014, it holds many culturally important artefacts, including old coins, bartering tools, traditional artwork, ancient weaponry and pottery items.[59]
6) Arch of Umberto. In 1934 Crown Prince Umberto II made his first publicized visit to Mogadishu.[10] [11] To commemorate the visit, the Arch of Umberto was constructed.[11] The arch was built at the center of Mogadishu Garden.[12]
Cinema Italia
7) Ginnasio De Bono. Originally was inaugurated in 1935 as the first Liceum of Mogadiscio with the name "Ginnasio Emilio De Bono",[60] then after WWII it was enlarged with a new floor and was renamed " Liceo scientifico Leonardo da Vinci". Following Somalia independence, in the 1960s it was called by Somalian authorities "Yusuf AlKowneyn Secondary School"[61]
Fiat's Boero Building. In 1939 Mogadishu was created a building that was judged as a masterpiece of Italian-Arab architecture. In the surrounding manufacturing area was created the "Inataree" Somali version of the famous Fiat 650 truck.[62]
9) Other important architectures & buildings were: the Casa del Fascio [63] (later headquarter of Somalian Parliament in the 1960s); the Arco Trionfale [64] (made in 1928); the Albergo Croce del Sud[65] (a modern art deco hotel); the Scuola Regina Elena [66] (the first educational building in Mogadiscio); the Monumento ai Caduti (initially created in the 1930s to honor the unknown soldier of the Italian Army including the Somalian colonial troops[67] and rebuilt in the late 1970s as "Victory Monument"[68] of the Somalia republic); the Palazzo De Vincenzi [69] (one of the main social centers with its famous "Caffé Nazionale") and the Cinema Italia (the first cinema theater in Mogadishu).
See also
Italian Somaliland
Italians of Somalia
Mogadishu
History of Mogadishu
Villabruzzi
Genale
Notes
Map of Mogadiscio Somalia in 1930
I. M. Lewis, A modern history of Somalia: nation and state in the Horn of Africa, (Westview Press: 1988), p.38
Robert L. Hess. Italian colonialism in Somalia. p. 91.
W. Mitchell. Journal of the Royal United Service Institution, Whitehall Yard, Volume 57, Issue 2. p. 997.
William James Makin. War Over Ethiopia. p. 227.
Abdi Kusow. Putting the cart before the horse: contested nationalism and the crisis of the nation-state in Somalia. p. 179.
Salah Mohamed Ali. Huddur & the history of Southern Somalia. p. 68.
Ben-Ghiat, p. 311
Giovanni Tebaldi. Consolata Missionaries in the World (1901-2001). p. 127.
R. J. B. Bosworth. Mussolini's Italy: Life Under the Fascist Dictatorship, 1915-1945. p. 48.
Peter Bridges. Safirka: An American Envoy. p. 71.
Mohamed Osman Omar. The road to zero: Somalia's self-destruction. p. 35.
Bevilacqua, Piero. Storia dell'emigrazione italiana. p. 233
Article with photos on a 2005 visit to 'Villaggio Duca degli Abruzzi' and areas of former Italian Somaliland (in Italian)
Population of Somalia in 1939
Robert E. Harkavy. Strategic Basing and the Great Powers, 1200-2000. p. 87.
Paul S. Gilbert, Scott Winfield Street, Robert A. Blume. Beginning Somali History. p. 75.
Flavio Riccitelli (A.I.D.A.). "ALA LITTORIA S.A. (1934–1941)". Il Postalista. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
Ship lines of Mogadishu port (in Italian)
Sport e fascismo (in Italian); p. 248
Photo of the Circuit Stands
"Il Littorale" on the 1938 Auto Circuit on page 5 (in Italian)
in the 1950s in Mogadishu was assembled the "Inataree" Somali version of the famous Fiat 650 truck, exported even to Ethiopia and Kenya
Targhe colonie italiane: Somalia
Alexander Hopkins McDannald. Yearbook of the Encyclopedia Americana. Retrieved 2014-04-06.
Ferdinando Quaranta di San Severino (barone). Development of Italian East Africa. Retrieved 2014-06-22.
"Photo of a mixed Italian and Somali school in Mogadishu". 11 October 2008. Retrieved 2014-03-29.
One of the main "Caffe" & cinema in the city
According to historian Tripodi, in Somalia nearly 10,000 children were born from Italians (mainly soldiers) and Somalian native girls during the half a century of colonial presence in Italian Somalia. Most of them lived in the Mogadishu area
Video related to January 1948 massacre
Mogadishu massacre on January 1948
Map of 1890s Mogadishu, showing in an inlet small map the original medieval walls
Somalian recipes (in Italian)
Italian era modernist buildings in Mogadishu
Italian architecture -with images- in 1935 Mogadiscio (in Italian)
Reports Service: Northeast Africa series, Volume 13, Issue 1. American Universities Field Staff. 1966.
Photo of Ogaden authorities looking the art deco characteristics of Villa Vicereale
1938 photo, showing the athletic race track near the newly built Villa Somalia
Video showing (in the second section) the inauguration of Villa Somalia in October 1936 in front of Somalian leaders from the Ogaden just united to Italian Somalia
Photo of the "Palazzo degli Uffici"
The "Uffici" fountain in 1935
Actual "Italianate" Water Fountain
Historic Mogadishu Mayoral Seat reopened in 2015
Photo of reopened "City Hall"
Mogadiscio's colonial architecture
Photo taken 1935 showing the gardens around the Governor's Palace and the ruins of "El Muzaffar" (enlarge the photo center)
Photo of the "Al Uruba" Hotel
Giovanni Tebaldi. Consolata Missionaries in the World (1901-2001). p. 127. Retrieved 2014-04-06.
The catholic missionaries of "Consolata" promoted by governor De Vecchi (in Italian)
Religious ceremony inside the naves
Photo of "Missione della Consolata" in Mogadiscio
Statue & decorations inside the Mogadiscio Cathedral
Image of the Virgin Mary over the Altar
Postcard showing the works done to the "Garesa" in the early 1930s
Museo della Garesa: original detailed information when inaugurated in 1934 (in Italian)
Mohamed Haji Mukhtar. Historical Dictionary of Somalia. p. xxxi. Retrieved 2014-04-06.
Crespo-Toral, H. (1988). "Museum development and monuments conservation: Somalia" (PDF). UNESCO. Retrieved 23 January 2014.
Lengyel, Oguz Janos (1982). "National Museum of Somalia, Mogadiscio: Roof Restoration Project" (PDF). UNESCO. Retrieved 23 January 2014.
"Mogadishu Points of interest". Aden Adde International Airport. Retrieved 24 January 2014.
Photo of Ginnasio De Bono in 1938
Actual secondary school building in 2009
Photo of a "Inataree" Fiat in Somalia
Photo of "Casa del Fascio"
Photo of Arco trionfale
Photo of the Albergo Croce del Sud
Photo of Regina Elena
Photo of Monumento ai Caduti
Photo of "Victory Monument"
Photo of "Palazzo De Vincenzi", one example of private buildings with Italian-Arab architecture in the city
Bibliography
Antonicelli, Franco. Trent'anni di storia italiana 1915 - 1945. Mondadori Editore. Torino, 1961.
Bevilacqua, Piero. Storia dell'emigrazione italiana. Donzelli Editore. Roma, 2002 ISBN 88-7989-655-5
Fitzgerald, Nina J. Somalia. Nova Science, Inc. New York, 2002.
Hess, Robert L. Italian Colonialism in Somalia. University of Chicago P. Chicago, 1966.
Abdisalam Issa-Salwe. The Collapse of the Somali State: The Impact of the Colonial Legacy. Haan Associates Ed. London, 1996 ISBN 187420991X ([1])
Pedrini, Carlo. Regio Laboratorio Foto Cinematografico Mogadiscio."Rivista Aeronautica" of January 1929. Mogadiscio, 1932 ([2])
Tripodi, Paolo. The Colonial Legacy in Somalia: Rome and Mogadishu. Michigan State University Press. Chicago, 1999
External links
Italian architecture in Somalia (in Italian)
Video of 1936 Mogadiscio with governor Graziani
Video of 1939 Mogadiscio
1939 Map of roads in Mogadishu & Benadir area
Website with many postcards of Italian Somalia & Mogadiscio (click to enlarge)
Original photos of Italian Mogadiscio
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CHULLU (Roman colonia)
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https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u... OTTIMO ESSAY SU GUERRA IN AFRICA ORIENTALE ITASLIANA (buono per Researchomnia…)
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http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/1688/1/U173786.... OTTIMA TESI SU FASCISMO IN INGHILTERRA ED ALL'ESTERO
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FQjGnRe1... Cure per dandruffmaria
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http://www.icsaicstoria.it/wp-content/up... ITALIANI NEL GUATEMALA (OTTIMO!!!)
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FQjGnRe1... Cure per dandruffmaria
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http://www.icsaicstoria.it/wp-content/up... ITALIANI NEL GUATEMALA (OTTIMO!!!)
Mustafa Maizran------www.libya-watanona.com politici di libia indipendenza
Brano su libia italiana negli anni 1950, preso da http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/e...
The Italian community occupies a rather special position in the Libyan economy. According to the 1954 census, there were then 38,000 Italians still living in the country, practically all in Tripolitania. These Italians retain their right of Italian citizenship. Two-thirds of them
22 THE MAIN REPORT
live in and around the city of Tripoli and most of the rest in the "demographic" colonies established by the Italian Government before the war at the places then known as Bianchi, Preveglieri, Garibaldi, Oliveti, Micca, Crispi, Gioda and elsewhere. One-third of the farms in these colonies have been returned to the Libyan Government, but about 1,400 remain in Italian hands, and their future is governed by a Libyan-Italian agreement signed in October 1956. Under this agreement the Italian Government is continuing to provide the present occupants of the farms with financial assistance until 1960, and thereafter the occupants obtain full rights of ownership. There are also a number of private Italian farms in Tripolitania, some of them large and prosperous. Italian farms are on the average considerably more developed than farms owned by Libyans and make a major contribution to Libyan exports. The management of industry in Tripolitania is almost entirely in Italian hands, and Italians play an important role in the operation of public utilities, the staffing of the medical services, agricultural research, banking and commerce, the management of hotels and many other branches of economic activity. The skills which the Italians can offer, and their experience of modern farming techniques, are valuable assets for the Libyan economy.
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The Italian community occupies a rather special position in the Libyan economy. According to the 1954 census, there were then 38,000 Italians still living in the country, practically all in Tripolitania. These Italians retain their right of Italian citizenship. Two-thirds of them
22 THE MAIN REPORT
live in and around the city of Tripoli and most of the rest in the "demographic" colonies established by the Italian Government before the war at the places then known as Bianchi, Preveglieri, Garibaldi, Oliveti, Micca, Crispi, Gioda and elsewhere. One-third of the farms in these colonies have been returned to the Libyan Government, but about 1,400 remain in Italian hands, and their future is governed by a Libyan-Italian agreement signed in October 1956. Under this agreement the Italian Government is continuing to provide the present occupants of the farms with financial assistance until 1960, and thereafter the occupants obtain full rights of ownership. There are also a number of private Italian farms in Tripolitania, some of them large and prosperous. Italian farms are on the average considerably more developed than farms owned by Libyans and make a major contribution to Libyan exports. The management of industry in Tripolitania is almost entirely in Italian hands, and Italians play an important role in the operation of public utilities, the staffing of the medical services, agricultural research, banking and commerce, the management of hotels and many other branches of economic activity. The skills which the Italians can offer, and their experience of modern farming techniques, are valuable assets for the Libyan economy.
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http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/spettacoli... FIUIME SOGNAVA DI ESSERE ITALIANA -Il giornale
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COHORS BREUCORUM
[[File:Africae romanae Urbes.jpg|thumb|right|500px|Map showing Cohors Breucorum]]
'''Cohors Breucorum''' was a Roman castrum located in western [[Mauretania Caesariensis]].
==History==
The castrum was created under [[Septimius Severus]] emperor in the third century. It served as a Roman station and fort on a new military road called "Nova Praetentura", that was created in order to expand to the south the roman controlled territories in western Mauretania and connect this region to [[Volubilis]] https://www.persee.fr/doc/antaf_0066-487... Speidel: Nova Praetentura; p.170-173]
{{Quote|''Under the reign of Septimius Severus, presumably in 201 AD, the Romans occupied vast territories in the Oran region, moving the limes established by the Antonines to the south and creating a new frontier line with a new military road: the "Nova praetentura".....this road, connecting with the previous frontier from Rapidum, including the Ouarsenis and the mountains of Frenda and, through the urban centers of Usinaza (Saneg), Cohors Breucorum (Takhemaret), Altava (Ouled-Mimoun), Pomaria (Tlemcem), progressively approached westward to the Mediterranean coast, only a distance of about thirty kilometers from Numerum Syrorum (Lalla Maghnia)''M. A. Ruiu http://eprints.uniss.it/5861/1/Ruiu_M_Co... La cohors II Sardorum ad Altava (in Italian)]}}
The name was given because it was under the control of the [[Cohors]] of the "Breuci", a tribe from ancient [[Illyria]], stationed there (like the cohors from [[Roman Syria]] were stationed in nearby [[Numerus Syrorum]].
The castrum had a small "vicus" located nearby, that had nearly 1500 inhabitants and that survived for a few centuries the removal of the Roman legionaries (that probably happened at the end of the third century). With the [[Arab]] invasion in the seventh century the vicus disappeared.
==Notes==
=See also==
*[[Mauretania Caesariensis]]
*[[Mauretania Caesariensis]]
==Bibliography==
* Bowna, Alan. ''The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193-337''. Cambridge university Press. Cambridge, 2005
* Ruiu, Maria Antonietta. ''La Cohors II Sardorum ad Altava (Ouled-Mimoun, Algeria)''. Universita' degli Studi di Sassari. Sassari, 2012
* Villaverde Noé, Vega. ''Tingitana en la antigüedad tardía, siglos III-VII: autoctonía y romanidad en el extremo occidente mediterráneo''. Ed. Real Academia de la Historia. Madrid, 2001 {{ISBN|8489512949}}, 9788489512948
* Bowna, Alan. ''The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193-337''. Cambridge university Press. Cambridge, 2005
* Ruiu, Maria Antonietta. ''La Cohors II Sardorum ad Altava (Ouled-Mimoun, Algeria)''. Universita' degli Studi di Sassari. Sassari, 2012
* Villaverde Noé, Vega. ''Tingitana en la antigüedad tardía, siglos III-VII: autoctonía y romanidad en el extremo occidente mediterráneo''. Ed. Real Academia de la Historia. Madrid, 2001 {{ISBN|8489512949}}, 9788489512948
{{Romano-Berber cities in Roman Africa}}
[[Category:Mauretania Caesariensis]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Algeria]]
[[Category:Roman towns and cities in Mauretania Caesariensis]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Algeria]]
[[Category:Roman towns and cities in Mauretania Caesariensis]]
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CASTELLUM DIMMIDI
[[File:Africae romanae Urbes.jpg|thumb|right|600px|Map showing Castellum Dimmidi, south of Icosium (Algier) and bordering the Sahara desert]]
'''Castellum Dimmidi''' was a Roman [[castrum]] located in the south of the [[Mauretania Caesariensis]] https://journals.openedition.org/encyclo... Map of Castellum Dimmidi]
==History==
As the ''Castellum'' (castle) implies, the settlement was a fortress near the [[Fossatum Africae]], the southern border of the province of [[Numidia]]. It was a prosperous village and hosted a Roman garrison (of the "III Legio Augusta") from roughly 198 to 240 AD.{{fr icon}} Dr. Rebound, " http://www.php4arab.info/ghosn/revaf/htm... Notes Archéologiques sur les Ruines de Djelfa]", ''php4arab.com''. URL last accessed on 8 May 2006. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050927050058/http://www.php4arab.info/ghosn/revaf/html/n1_56/notes_archeo.html |date=27 September 2005 }}
It was located about {{convert|290|km|abbr=on}} south of [[Algiers]] (then called [[Icosium]]), at the border of the Sahara desert https://www.djelfa.info/ar/mobile/tag/ca... Photo of the actual area]. During the second century of the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] period it was created under emperor [[Septimius Severus]].Francois Decret, Early Christianity in North Africa (James Clarke & Co, 2011) p6 It is unclear if the second part of the name, ''Dimmidi'', was a native name transliterated into [[Latin]], or a new name given by the Romans.
{{Quote|''In 198 AD the legate propraetor of the Third Legion had sent legionaries there, supported by Pannonian cavalry and under the command of Flavius Superus. The installation of a permanent camp undoubtedly dates to that time. The camp was maintained until about 238 AD, the date of the temporary disbanding of the Third Legion.Excavations have revealed a part of the rampart which protected the soldiers' quarters. The wall was irregular in plan. Today very little can be seen on the site since the excavations were not continued and no attempt was made to consolidate the remains. The inscriptions also have almost all disappeared. They have been published and permit the reconstruction of certain aspects of the life of the camp. About 100 men relieved one another there; they were legionaries and later, after Alexander Severus, Palmyrans.The inscriptions and the paintings (now deposited at the Algiers Museum) give an idea of the soldiers' religious life as it pertained to official and Palmyrene cults.''P. Fevrier http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text... Princeton E.: Castellum Dimmidi]}}
Probably -according to Philippe Leveau- the village survived the removal of the legionaries' castrum for another century and half, until the end of the fourth century https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Cart... Map showing the region occupation by the Romans].
Only in 1856 the French Reboud found some remnants, that were fully studied only in 1939-1941 by Gilbert-Charles Picard http://djelfa.org/castellum.htm C. Dimmidi (in French)].
==Notes==
==See also==
* [[Icosium]]
* [[Mauretania Caesariensis]]
* [[Icosium]]
* [[Mauretania Caesariensis]]
==Bibliography==
*Leveau, Philippe. ''Caesarea de Maurétanie. Une ville romaine et ses campagnes''.École française de Rome. Roma, 1984
*Nacéra, Benseddik. ''De Caesarea à Shershel''."Actes du Coll. Intern. sur l’Hist. et l’Arch. de l’Afrique du Nord", Grenoble 1983, C.T.H.S., 19b, 1983, p. 451-456.
*Y. Le Bohec. ''Dimmidi''. Encyclopédie berbère, 15 | Daphnitae – Djado, Aix-en-Provence, Edisud, 1995, p. 2345-2349 ( https://journals.openedition.org/encyclo...])
*Leveau, Philippe. ''Caesarea de Maurétanie. Une ville romaine et ses campagnes''.École française de Rome. Roma, 1984
*Nacéra, Benseddik. ''De Caesarea à Shershel''."Actes du Coll. Intern. sur l’Hist. et l’Arch. de l’Afrique du Nord", Grenoble 1983, C.T.H.S., 19b, 1983, p. 451-456.
*Y. Le Bohec. ''Dimmidi''. Encyclopédie berbère, 15 | Daphnitae – Djado, Aix-en-Provence, Edisud, 1995, p. 2345-2349 ( https://journals.openedition.org/encyclo...])
{{Romano-Berber cities in Roman Africa}}
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Algeria]]
[[Category:Mauretania Caesariensis]]
[[Category:Roman towns and cities in Mauretania Caesariensis]]
[[Category:Ancient Berber cities]]
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CONCESSIONSANDFORTSOFITALYINCHINA (WIKIWAND COPYCACHE)
Concessions and forts of Italy in China are the commercial and military concessions & fortifications that the Kingdom of Italy had in different Chinese localities until WWII.
History
Italy in the first half of the 20th century has had concessions and fortifications in Peking, Tientsin, Shanghai, Shan Hai Kuan, Ta Ku, Amoy and Hankow. Since 1925 they were defended mainly by the "Battaglione Italiano in Cina" (Battaglione San Marco) and by some Italian Navy ships, like the gunboats "Carlotto" and Caboto" (later substituted by the minelayer "Lepanto").
The small Italian area inside the 1900 Peking Legation Quarter
They were ruled by "Consoli" (Governors), all resident in Tientsin:
Cesare Poma (1901–1903)
Giuseppe Chiostri (1904–1906)
Oreste Da Vella (1907–1911)
Vincenzo Fileti (1912–1919)
Marcello Roddolo (1920–1921)
Luigi Gabrielli di Quercita (1921–1924)
Guido Segre (1925–1927)
Luigi Neyrone (1928–1932)
Filippo Zappi (1933–1938)
Ferruccio Stefenelli (1939–1943)
There was even the Treaty Port in Beihai (southern China), that was allowed to have a small area for Italian commerce.[1]
In 1932...the Italian shipping company "Lloyd Triestino" opened a new service linking Italy to Shanghai by scheduling on that route two modern trans-atlantic vessels, the "Conte Biancamano" and "the Conte Rosso" (which immediately set a speed world record of only 23 days during the first voyage). With this new service, supported by those of other companies employed in the trade of various goods and products, the economic exchange between Italy and China reached such good levels to alarm Great Britain and France. Alberto Rosselli [2]
The Italian possessions in China enjoyed a relatively good economic development with huge Italian-Chinese commerce in the 1920s and mainly in the 1930s.
Peking Legation Quarter
Italian troops occupied a section of the Peking "Legation Quarter" in 1900. Indeed the Eight-Nation Alliance of which Italy belonged, at the end of the Battle of Peking, obtained the right to station troops to protect their legations in China's capital by the terms of the Boxer Protocol.
The Legation Quarter was encircled by a wall and all Chinese residents in the area were ordered to relocate away. Sealed from its immediate environment, the Legation Quarter became a city within the city exclusively for foreigners and many Chinese nationalists resented the Quarter as a symbol of foreign dominance. Italy had this small concession until 1943.
Tientsin Italian concession
Main article: Italian concession of Tientsin
Main square of Italian Tientsin
On 7 September 1901, a concession in Tientsin (that consisted approximately of half a square kilometer - or 51.42 ha.[3]) was ceded to the Kingdom of Italy by the Qing Dynasty of China.[4] On 7 June 1902, the concession was taken into Italian possession and administered by an Italian consul: the first was Cesare Poma and the last (in 1943) was Ferruccio Stefenelli. Along with other foreign concessions, the Italian concession lay on the Pei Ho, southeast of the city centre.[5]
In 1917 China terminated the leases of Germany and Austria-Hungary concessions. The districts were converted into "Special Areas" with a separate administration from the rest of Tientsin. But Italy requested the Austrian concession after WWI: it was obtained only in June 1928 and soon returned to Chinese authorities,[6] when the Second Special Area (the one of former Austrian concession) was in danger of war and occupation during the China civil war.
In 1935 the total population was 6,261, of which 5,725 Chinese and 536 foreigners including 392 Italians, according to historian Pistoiese.[7] He even wrote that the concession in those years experienced huge improvements and assumed "the role of showcase of Italian art" with rich urban developments. As stated by Woodhead, in 1934 "The Italian concession ... was becoming the most popular centre for the palatial residences of retired Chinese militaries and politicians".[8]
In the late 1930s the Italian concession of Tientsin and the consulates of Shanghai, Hankow and Beijing lived a quite peaceful period. Italian Tientsin enjoyed a small economic boom, fueled by rich Chinese who moved to live in the Italian area escaping the Japanese invasion of China. But WWII changed everything.
During World War II, the Italian concession in Tientsin had a garrison of approximately 600 Italian troops on the side of the Axis powers. On 10 September 1943, when Italy signed an armistice with the Allies, the concession was occupied by the Imperial Japanese Army.
Italian concession in the Shanghai International Settlement
The flag of the Shanghai International Settlement, showing even the Italian one
After WWI the Kingdom of Italy maintained troops in an area of Shanghai, that was used as commercial concession inside the Shanghai International Settlement (S.I.S.). This settlement was wholly foreign-controlled, with staff of all nationalities, including British, Americans, Danes, Germans and Italians.
Italian concession in the S.I.S. (borders in yellow)
In reality, the British held the largest number of seats on the Council and headed all the Municipal departments. The only department not chaired by a Briton was the "Municipal Orchestra", which was controlled by an Italian.
The International Settlement maintained its own fire-service, police force (the Shanghai Municipal Police), and even possessed its own military reserve in the Shanghai Volunteer Corps.
Following some disturbances at the British concession in Hankow in 1927, the defences at Shanghai were augmented by a permanent battalion of the British Army, which was referred to as the Shanghai Defence Force and a contingent of US Marines. Other armed forces would arrive in Shanghai: the French Concession had a defensive force of Annamite troops, the Italians also introduced their own marines, as did the Japanese (whose troops eventually outnumbered the other countries' many times over).
In ‘Old Shanghai’, there were specific areas with a high concentration of Italian economic activities (in the International Settlement: Kiukiang Road; Kiangse Road; crossroads between Nanking Road and Szechuen Road; Bubbling Well Road), areas with Italian residences (French Concession), other suburban areas with Italians (Zikawei; in this case, they were priests). Moreover, Italians were involved in specific economic sectors (primarily, silk): as the textile sector was developed mainly in Lombardy at that time, most of the expatriate Italian managers and supervisors in Shanghai mills came from this Italian region.Stefano Piastra [9]
In the late 1930s was reinforced the military presence in the small area of Shanghai (that was next to the American concession and north of the French concession) controlled by the Italians. The Italian Navy stationed in the Shanghai port periodically some ships like the cruisers Trento and Montecuccoli during the Japanese invasion of China.[10] In 1947 the Peace Treaty forced Italy to renounce to it with article 26, that stated: "(Italy) agrees to the reversion of the said Settlements (at Shanghai and Amoy) to the Administration and control of the Chinese Government".
Forts in Shan Hai Kuan & in Ta-Ku
From 1900 until the late 1930s, the Italians even held small forts like the Forte di Shan Hai Kuan[11] near the Great Wall of China in Manchuria[12] and the Forte nordoccidentale in Ta-Ku.[13] The one in Ta-Ku (called "N.W fort of Ta-Ku") was held together with the British for a couple of years.[14]
Commercial Concessions in Hankow and in Amoy
Italian consulate in the 1912 Hankow concessions
In Hankow since the 1900 was located an Italian consulate, that later was enlarged in order to have a small commercial concession.
Hankow was the center of catholic missions and had many Italian priests and nuns who were protected by Italian troops in the 1920s and early 1930s (in the late 1920s nearly 40% of the Italian civilians in China were religious personnel of the Roman Catholic Church[15]).
Another small commercial area under Italian control was in Amoy (Xiamen), after WWI.[16] Amoy's European settlements (like the small Italian consulate) were concentrated on the islet of Gulangyu off the main island of actual Xiamen in the region of Hong Kong. Today, Gulangyu is known for colonial architecture, with some examples of the Italian one.[17]
In the early 1930s only the small consulate of Hankow remained under Italian control.
After 1940
When started WWII Italy had only the Tientsin concession under direct control, while remained a garrison in the Shanghai international settlement, in the fort of Shan Hai Kuan and in the Legation of Peking.
In 1940 the soldiers of the Battaglione San Marco were stationed in the remaining areas controlled by Italy: nearly 200 were in Shanghai, 180 in Tientsin, 25 in Shan Hai Kuan and 15 in Peking. They were helped by the marines and sailors of the Italian Navy stationed in Tientsin.[18]
After September 1943 -when Italy surrendered to the Allies- started a very difficult period for the Italians in China. Japanese forces took control of the Italian possessions in China, after some fightings (like in the legation of Peking, and with the scuttle in Shanghai port of the ships "Carlotto" and Caboto").
Italy agrees to the cancellation of the Lease from the Chinese Government under which the Italian Concession at Tientsin was granted......Italy renounces in favor of China the rights accorded to Italy in relation to the International Settlements at Shanghai and Amoy, and agrees to the reversion of the said Settlements to the Administration and control of the Chinese Government. Articles 25 & 26 of 1947 Peace Treaty.([19])
Finally, on 10 February 1947, by virtue of the peace treaty with Italy, all the Italian concessions and fortifications were formally ceded by Italy to Chiang Kai-shek's Republic of China.
NOTES:
^ Tianjin Shehui Kexueyuan Lishi yanjiousuo, Tianjin jianshi, Tianjin: Renmin Chubanshe, 1987
^ Laura Rampazzo. "Un pizzico d’Italia nel cuore della Cina: la concessione di Tianjin" (in Italian)[1]
^ Sandro Bassetti."Colonia italiana in Cina". Section:Le Forze Armate italiane (in Italian)
^ "Italian occupation of former Austrian Concession". Retrieved 23 November 2014.
^ Gennaro E. Pistolese, «La Concessione Italiana di Tien-Tsin» p.306
^ Marinelli, Maurizio. "Maurizio Marinelli: Chinese residents in Italian Tientsin". Retrieved 23 November 2014.
^ Italians in the "Old Shanghai"
^ Shanghai international settlements in red, italian sector #4 on Chinese written map [2]
^ "Photo of the Fort just conquered with Italian flag". Flickr. Retrieved 23 November 2014.
^ Trentoincina. "Italian Fort near the "China Great wall" (in Italian)". Retrieved 23 November 2014.
^ Avvenimenti in Cina nel 1900 (in Italian). Retrieved 23 November 2014.
^ Landor, A. "China and the Allies". p. 126
^ Guido Samarani, p.52. Retrieved 23 November 2014.
^ Concessions in Shanghai and China (in French)
^ "Gulangyu/Amoy". Retrieved 23 November 2014.
^ Maurizio Marinelli, p.54
^ 1947 Peace Treaty articles on Italian possessions in China. Retrieved 23 November 2014.
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https://books.google.com/books?id=Ts9aAw... OTTIMISSIMO LIBRO SU ITALIA IN CINA E SULL"ANTICA ROMA (CINA, Ecc..)
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https://books.google.com/books?id=cd30Ag... OTTIMO LIBRO SULLA REGIA MARINA IN WW2 CON DATI PRECISI( PER RESEARCHOMNIA)
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MAURIZIO RAVA
{{Infobox officeholder
| name =Maurizio Rava
| image=
| imagesize=
| caption=
|order1=[[List of colonial governors of Italian Somaliland|Italian Governor of Somalia]]
| term_start1= July 1, 1931
|term_end1 = March 6, 1935
| predecessor1=[[Guido Corni]]
| successor1=[[Rodolfo Graziani]]
|order2=
|term_start2 =
| term_end2=
| predecessor2=
| successor2=
| birth_date= January 31, 1878
|birth_place = Milano
| death_date= November 1941
| death_place= Roma
| nationality=Italian
|party =[[National Fascist Party|Italian Fascism]]
| footnotes=
}}
'''Rava Maurizio''' (January 31, 1878, Milan, Italy – 1941, Rome) was the Italian Governor of [[Italian Somaliland]] from 1931 to 1935, and was also a politician and general of the [[Regio Esercito]]. He was one of the first fascist jews of Italy.{{cite web|url=http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/maurizio-rava_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/ |title=RAVA, Maurizio in "Enciclopedia Italiana" |website=Treccani.it |date= |accessdate=2016-12-11}}
==Life==
Rava was born in a [[Jewish]] family in [[Milan]]. He enthusiastically joined the [[National Fascist Party]] during [[World War I]]: in 1919 he was a cofounder of the "Fascio" of Roma. But in the late 1930s he faced problems within the party because of German [[Nazi]] influences against Italian Jews.
In the 1920s Rava was "Segretario generale delle Colonie" and in 1930 vice-governor of [[Italian Tripolitania]]{{cite book|url=https://books.google.it/books?id=0WTFAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA179&lpg=PA179&dq=maurizio+rava+governor&source=bl&ots=C9eRrH-zzJ&sig=ir8ZpS7Xc20YxAdhyxG1ZpAz3Y8&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0CCcQ6AEwATgKahUKEwiXtP2G1LrIAhVLoYAKHQ_TAXo#v=onepage&q=maurizio%20rava%20governor&f=false |title=Italian Jews from Emancipation to the Racial Laws |author=C. Bettin |page=179 |website=Books.google.it |date= |accessdate=2016-12-11}} and a general in the ''Fascist Militia''.{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/12/22/opinion/l-italian-fascism-didn-t-practice-anti-semitism-707193.html |title=Italian Fascism Didn't Practice Anti-Semitism |location=ITALY |website=NYTimes.com |date=1993-12-22 |accessdate=2016-12-11}}
From 1 July 1931 to 6 March 1935 Rava was the [[List of colonial heads of Italian Somaliland|Governor of Italian Somaliland]]. In his time as governor thousands of Italian colonists came to [[Mogadishu under Italian rule|Mogadishu]] and many Somalis joined the Italian colonial troops as a result of his policy to assimilate the [[Somalis]]. Rava promoted the creation of the first postal service stations in all Somalia.{{cite web|url=https://italiacoloniale.files.wordpress.com/2015/04/servizi-postali-ed-elettrici-in-somalia.jpg?w=547 |format=JPG |title=1937 Map of postal service & radio stations in Italian Somalia|website=Italiacoloniale.files.wordporess.com |accessdate=2016-12-11}}
Maurizio Rava had a famous son, Carlo Enrico Rava, who was an important Italian architect of the [[Gruppo 7]].
==Works==
Maurizio Rava was also a painter and a writer. When young he studied at Rome's "Accademia di Belle Arti" {{cite web|url=http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:giOeuFbr1ywJ:www.istitutomatteucci.it/dizionario-degli-artisti/rava-maurizio+&cd=1&hl=it&ct=clnk&gl=it |title=Rava Maurizio* |website=Webcache.googleusercontent.com |date=2016-11-22 |accessdate=2016-12-11}} and until 1903 he exposed his paintings with a relative success.
Rava wrote some literary works.{{cite web|url=https://www.maremagnum.com/ricerca-avanzata/risultati?utf8=%E2%9C%93&search%5Bauthor%5D=maurizio+rava&search%5Btitle%5D=&search%5Bkeyword%5D=&search%5Bean%5D=&search%5Bpublisher%5D=&search%5Bpublishing_year_from%5D=&search%5Bpublishing_year_to%5D=&search%5Bdescription%5D=&search%5Bsubject%5D=&search%5Bprice_eur%5D=&search%5Bbookshop_id%5D=&search%5Bitem_type%5D=&search%5Blanguage%5D=&search%5Bcreated_at%5D=&commit=Cerca |title=Libri antichi, moderni, introvabili e novità |website=Maremagnum.com |date= |accessdate=2016-12-11}} In the late 1930s he wrote a famous book about Somalia (titled "''Parole ai Coloniali''"), that had a preface written by [[Benito Mussolini]].{{cite web|author=Maurizio Rava |url=https://www.maremagnum.com/libri-antichi/parole-ai-coloniali-prefazione-di-s-e-benito-mussolini/150160246 |title=Parole ai coloniali prefazione di S. E. Benito Mussolini | 246 |website=Maremagnum.com |date= |accessdate=2016-12-11}}
==See also==
* [[Italian Somalia]]
* [[Guido Corni]]
* [[Cesare Maria De Vecchi]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Bibliography==
*Bettin, Cristina. ''Italian Jews from Emancipation to the Racial Laws''. Italian and Italian American Studies. Editore Palgrave Macmillan. New York, 2010 {{ISBN|0230114377}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Guido Corni]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Italian Governors of Somaliland|years=1 July 1931 – 6 March 1935}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Rodolfo Graziani]]}}
{{s-end}}
{{Italian Governors of Eritrea and Somaliland}}
{{Somalia italiana (Colonia)}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Maurizio, Rava}}
[[Category:20th-century Italian politicians]]
[[Category:1878 births]]
[[Category:1941 deaths]]
[[Category:Governors of Italian Somaliland]]
==================================================================
OTTONE GABELLI
{{ Infobox officeholder
| name =Ottone Gabelli
| image=
| imagesize=
| caption=
|order1=[[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea|Italian Governor of Eritrea]]
| term_start1= January 15, 1935
|term_end1 = January 18, 1935
| predecessor1=[[Riccardo Di Lucchesi]]
| successor1=[[Emilio De Bono]]
|order2=
|term_start2 =
| term_end2=
| predecessor2=
| successor2=
| birth_date=
|birth_place =
| death_date=
| death_place=
| nationality=Italian
|party =
| footnotes=
}}
'''Ottone Gabelli''' (1880-1939) was an Italian diplomat and writer. http://www.bibliotecadibabele.com/upload... Image of the front cover of his famous book about Italian Tripolitania] He was [[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea|Italian colonial "acting governor"]] of [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]] in 1935, but only for a few days from January 15 to January 18.
==Life==
Ottone Gabelli was born in Friuli in 1880, near [[Udine]]. He started a bureaucratic career in the "Ministero della Colonie", becoming General Director in the early 1930s. He also was a member of the "Istituto per L'oriente", a magazine about colonial studies.
He moved to Italian Africa in 1934, becoming temporarily governor of Eritrea.
His role of "Regent Governor" in [[Italian language|Italian]] was ''Funzionario ruolo colonie (attribuzione: Reggente)'' in January 1935. http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/pca-gov.htm Governors (and their titles) of Italian Eritrea (in Italian)] In July 1938 he was one of those who signed the "Manifesto della Razza" http://www.alterhistory.altervista.org/D... Manifesto della Razza supporters]
Ottone Gabelli died in 1939.
==Literary works==
* ''LA TRIPOLITANIA DALLA FINE DELLA GUERRA MONDIALE ALL'AVVENTO DEL FASCISMO'' - 2 VOLUMI. Editore: A. AIROLDI. Verona, 1939
* ''Le vicende della colonizzazione italiana in Eritrea e Somalia'' in "L'Africa orientale italiana e il conflitto italo-etiopico"; p. 113-126. Roma, 1936
==Notes==
==See also==
* [[Italian Eritrea]]
* [[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea]]
{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Riccardo Di Lucchesi]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Italian Governor of Eritrea|years=January 1935}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Emilio De Bono]]}}
{{s-end}}
{{Italian Governors of Eritrea and Somaliland}}
{{Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Gabelli, Ottone}}
[[Category:Italian diplomats]]
[[Category:20th-century Italian writers]]
[[Category:20th-century male writers]]
[[Category:Italian Governors of Eritrea]]
[[Category:1880 births]]
[[Category:1939 deaths]]
====================================================
LUDOVICO P{OLLERA
{{ Infobox officeholder
| name =Ludovico Pollera
| image=
| imagesize=
| caption=
|order1=[[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea|Italian Governor of Eritrea]]
| term_start1= November 20, 1920
|term_end1 = April 13, 1921
| predecessor1=[[Camillo De Camillis]]
| successor1=[[Giovanni Cerrina Feroni]]
|order2=
|term_start2 =
| term_end2=
| predecessor2=
| successor2=
| birth_date=
|birth_place =
| death_date=
| death_place=
| nationality=Italian
|party =
| footnotes=
}}
'''Ludovico Pollera''' (1870–1953) was an [[Italians|Italian]] governor of [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]].
==Life==
Pollera was born in [[Lucca]] on July 4, 1870. He was a member of a [[Tuscany]] family with aristocracy roots.
Pollera was a colonial official like his brother Alberto, an ethnographist and writer. He arrived in Eritrea in 1895 and remained there until 1928. He participated in the [[battle of Adwa]] in March 1896. The next year he fought the [[Dervishi]] in Sudan.
In 1900 he left the military service and started to work as civilian for the Italian "Ministero Affari Esteri" (Foreign Policy Ministry).
Pollera started as a "Commissioner resident" of [[Agordat]] and then was regional commissioner of some areas of Eritrea. In 1912 he accompanied an aggregated [[Zaptie]] Mehariste company of the V Battalion [[Eritrean Ascari|Ascari]] in war operations in [[Italian Libya]]. Subsequently, he became the head of the "Civil and Political Affairs Department" in Eritrea (1918-1920).
From November 20, 1920 to April 13, 1921, he was [[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea|Governor of the Colony of Eritrea]] and successively he remained "General Secretary" of Eritrea until 1928. He wrote only one book, a "Report" in 1913: ''Relazione Commissariato generale del Barca (1883-1892)'' for the "Camera dei Deputati" of [[Rome|Roma]].
Ludovico Pollera returned from Africa in the mid-thirties of the last century to be elected -between 1938 and 1945- President of the ''Cassa di Lucca'', a regional bank of his hometown. http://www.assiter.org/file/2004-africus... Biography of Alberto and Ludovico Pollera]
He died in Lucca on January 21, 1953.
==See also==
* [[Italian Eritrea]]
* [[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea]]
==Notes==
==Bibliography==
* Bandini, Franco. ''Gli italiani in Africa, storia delle guerre coloniali 1882-1943''. Longanesi. Milano, 1971.
{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Camillo De Camillis]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Italian Governor of Eritrea|years=1920–1921}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Giovanni Cerrina Feroni]]}}
{{s-end}}
{{Italian Governors of Eritrea and Somaliland}}
{{Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Pollera, Ludovico}}
[[Category:Italian Governors of Eritrea]]
[[Category:1870 births]]
[[Category:1953 deaths]]
===============================================
CAMILLO DE CAMILLIS
{{ Infobox officeholder
| name =Camillo De Camillis
| image=
| imagesize=
| caption=
|order1=[[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea|Italian Governor of Eritrea]]
| term_start1= July 1, 1919
|term_end1 = November 16, 1920
| predecessor1=[[Giacomo De Martino (governor)|Giacomo De Martino]]
| successor1=[[Ludovico Pollera]]
|order2=
|term_start2 =
| term_end2=
| predecessor2=
| successor2=
| birth_date=
|birth_place =
| death_date=
| death_place=
| nationality=Italian
|party =
| footnotes=
}}
'''Camillo De Camillis''' was an Italian diplomat. He was an Italian colonial governor of [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]].
==Data==
His role of "Regent Governor" in [[Italian language|Italian]] was ''Funzionario ruolo colonie (attribuzione: Reggente)'' from July 1919 to November 1920.
The Regent Governor of Eritrea Camillo De Camillis instructed all colonial commissaries in Eritrea to attribute Italian citizenship automatically to the sons and daughters of unknown Italian paternal parenthood, even in the absence of paternal legal acknowledgement. So these "mulatto" Eritrean kids became Italian citizens by law. https://books.google.com/books?id=KQ0MAA...(governor+of+Eritrea)+biography&source=bl&ots=_wL0Rabaum&sig=DnLnWLvAThKmDkOhAd6iRJfvq1c&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjb4KPY-tPQAhWhq1QKHXiGC5sQ6AEIRDAH#v=onepage&q=Camillo%20De%20Camillis%20(governor%20of%20Eritrea)%20biography&f=false A Political History of National Citizenship and Identity in Italy, 1861–1950, by Sabina Donati]
This was a revolutionary law when created, opening the first steps toward racial integration in colonial [[Africa]].
==See also==
* [[Italian Eritrea]]
* [[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea]]
==Notes==
==Bibliography==
* Donati, Sabina. ''A Political History of National Citizenship and Identity in Italy, 1861–1950''. Publisher Stanford University Press. Stanford, 2013. {{ISBN|0804787336}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Giacomo De Martino (governor)|Giacomo De Martino]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Italian Governor of Eritrea|years=1919–1920}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Ludovico Pollera]]}}
{{s-end}}
{{Italian Governors of Eritrea and Somaliland}}
{{Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Camillis, Camillo De}}
[[Category:Italian diplomats]]
[[Category:Italian Governors of Eritrea]]
=============================================================
MASSAUA UNDER ITALIAN RULE (translation from it. wiki):
[[File:Banco dItalia (8527950453).jpg|thumb|right|450px|The former "Banco d'Italia" building in Italian Massaua, built in the 1920s http://tesfanews.net/photo-the-new-look-... Banco d'Italia in Massaua being rebuilt]]]
'''Massawa, Eritrea''' (or '''Massaua italiana''' in [[Italian language]]) was the name used during the Italian colonization of [[Eritrea]] for the port-city of [[Massawa]]. http://www.miol.it/stagniweb/mappe/tci29... Map of Italian Massaua (1929)]
==History==
On February 5, 1885 Massawa was occupied by 1500 Italian [[Bersaglieri]] under the command of colonel Tancredi. http://cronologia.leonardo.it/storia/a18... "Occupazione di Massaua" (in Italian)]
Massawa, at the beginning of the Italian civil administration, was the capital of [[Italian Eritrea]] and the only urban center of the colony. From February 1885 until 1897, Massawa served as the administrative center of the region, before Governor [[Ferdinando Martini]] moved his administration to [[Asmara, Eritrea|Italian Asmara]].{{cite book|last1=Belula Tecle-Misghina|title=Asmara - an urban history|publisher=Edizioni Nuova Cultura, 2015|isbn=8868123541}} Between 1887 and 1932, the Italians expanded the [[Eritrean Railway]], connecting Massawa with [[Asmara]] and then [[Bishia]] near the [[Sudan]] border, and completed the [[Asmara-Massawa Cableway]].{{cite book|last1=Belula Tecle-Misghina|title=Asmara - an urban history|publisher=Edizioni Nuova Cultura, 2015|isbn=8868123541}} At 75 km long, it was the longest ropeway conveyor in the world at the time.{{cite book|last1=Giovanni Gentile, Calogero Tumminelli|title=Enciclopedia italiana di scienze, lettere ed arti, Volume 1|publisher=Istituto Giovanni Treccani, 1929|page=66}}
[[File:City Administration Building (8527951359).jpg|thumb|left|300px|The old Italian City Hall of Massaua italiana]]
In 1890, Massaua had 5,000 inhabitants, of which almost 200 were [[Italian Eritreans|Italians]] residents, with nearly one thousand of Italian military personnel. In the early 20th century, an architectural plan similar to the one in Asmara was adopted for city. It included a commercial and industrial area. http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/1/Santoia... Italian Massaua Plan (in Italian). p. 65]
The plan to improve the city that was prepared was aimed at reordering distinct parts that made up the town and that bordered the inlet of the port, the islands of Massawa and Taulud, connected to each other and the mainland by dams, the peninsulas of Gerar and Abd-el-Kader and the hinterland Edaga Berai near the dam Taulud. The "master" plan was prepared by the Italian Central Office of Civil Engineers in 1914, but was approved only for the part about the island of Taulud. The zoning required by the building code of 1915 fixed a structure which was confirmed by subsequent plans of the twenties and thirties.
The island of Massawa, where the ancient [[Ottoman empire|Ottoman-Arab]] core, unlike other urban colonial areas, had a mixed use for a variety of reasons, including a major that was linked to the use of the port, being the platform that limited its northern flank of the island the only one for the docking of large ships. So, in this area were concentrated all commercial activities. The island of Taulud, on whose northern end stood the palace of the "[[Khedive]]" Turkish, was reused first as the headquarters of the Italian military command, and then as the Government Palace: later became the area where was focused the [[Italian-Eritreans]]-metropolitan population. The area reserved to the natives was across the plain of Edgarà Berai, where arose the new suburbs after the Italian occupation. The peninsula of Gerar was given to the industrial area, while that of Abd-el-Kader remained occupied by military installations.
The works for the relocation of the port was started in 1913 on the basis of a draft by architect Luigi Luiggi and the Central Office of Civil Engineers of Massawa. In 1921 the city was badly damaged by an earthquake, but the reconstruction was done quickly through the grant of loans and government subsidies to individuals and businesses. In the same year were approved with a new plan where the building were programmed with earthquake standards.
[[File:Hotel Savoyia (8529064448).jpg|thumb|300px|right|Hotel Savoia, built in the 1930s]]
From 1928, with [[fascism]] rule were carried out in the port further expansion works, even in relation to the newly created railway and cableway to the capital Asmara. During the 1935/1936 war with Ethiopia in Massawa was recorded a significant increase in traffic, since it had become the main base for the supplies of the military campaign; and in subsequent years, with the new role of "Port of the Italian Empire", the city saw a great development with the increase of the population.
Italian Massaua in 1938 touched 15,000 inhabitants. Italians favored the development of [[Catholicism]] in the city, and a new catholic cathedral was built in the late 1930s. http://www.kagnewstation.com/scrapbook/g... Massaua Cathedral] The urban plans for the various areas of the city were implemented: in the island of Massawa was traced a road ring, while in that of Taulud was to be built a residential neighborhood. A settlement with industrial plants was expected in the peninsula of Gerar, with new areas to the decentralized Archico-Gurgussum. In addition it was decided the reorganization of the nearby villages of Edaga Berai and Amatereh with the small nucleus Otumlo located inside.
In the port area was planned the construction of a huge "Stazione marittima" (Sea Station) for ocean liners, but the beginning of [[WWII]] blocked all this further improvements of Italian Massaua.
==The Port of Italian Massaua==
At the end of the 19th century, the [[Kingdom of Italy]] created a modern port in Massaua for their newly acquired colony of [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]]. http://digilander.libero.it/trombealvent... Images of Italian Massaua before WWI]
[[File:Massawa station - 2008-10-31.jpg|thumb|left|The Massaua Station on the [[Eritrean Railway]].]]
The Italian colony suffered repeated earthquakes. Most of the city was completely destroyed by the [[1921 Massawa Earthquake|1921 Earthquake]]: it took until 1928 to fully restore the port,{{cite book| last=Killion | first=Tom | title=Historical Dictionary of Eritrea |isbn= 0-8108-3437-5 | publisher=The Scarecrow Press | year=1998}} hampering initially the Italian colonial ambitions.
The Italian colonialists had nevertheless built Italian Massaua to become the largest and safest port on the east coast of Africa, and the largest [[deep-water port]] on the Red Sea. Between 1887 and 1932, they expanded the [[Eritrean Railway]], connecting the port of Massawa with the Eritrean capital [[Asmara]], and completed the 75 km long [[Asmara-Massawa Cableway]]. http://www.trainweb.org/italeritrea/tele... "La Teleferica Massaua-Asmara" cableway brochure, translated by Mike Metras, Dave Engstrom, and Renato Guadino] As a consequence the commercial activity of the port grew to nearly one million tons of merchandise, with more than 180000 passengers in 1939.GuglielmoEvangelista. "Porti dell'Eritrea" ( http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-porti.ht...])
In early 1941, Italian Massaua had nearly 20,000 inhabitants, of which almost 3,500 were [[Italian Eritreans|Italians]].
After the creation of the [[Italian East Africa|Africa Orientale Italiana]] the Italian government increased the international ship lines serving the port of Massaua: while in the late 1920s were needed 16 days from Massaua to [[Genova]] or [[Venice]] in [[Italy]], after 1939 were needed only 5 days.
List of main ship routes from Italian Massaua in early 1940, just before the start of war against the Allies:"Porti dell'Eritrea", by Guglielmo Evangelista
[[File:ConteBiancamano reconstructed.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ocean Liner "Conte Biancamano" connected Massaua with Italy and China/Japan]]
* Italia-Massaua-China/Japan ([[Italian Line]]), biweekly
* Genova-Massaua-Mogadiscio-Chisimaio ([[Lloyd Triestino]]), weekly
* Italia-Massaua-Australia (Lloyd Triestino), weekly
* Napoli-Massaua-Assab-Gibuti (LLoyd Triestino), weekly
* Italia-Massaua-Assab-South Africa (Lloyd Triestino), monthly
* Venezia-Massaua-India (Veneta di navigazione), weekly
* Genova-Massaua-Mogadiscio (RAMB), weekly
* Venezia-Massaua-Mogadiscio (RAMB), biweekly
* Genova-Massaua-Assab (I. Messina), biweekly
The service was done with modern [[Ocean liner]]s like the [[SS Conte Biancamano|Conte Biancamano]], "Victoria", "Esquilino" and "Viminale".
In those years there was even a local service (called "linea Circolare del Mar Rosso") that connected all the main ports in the Red Sea. Another (called "linea Intercoloniale") connected Massaua with Assab-Gibuti and the main ports of [[British Somaliland]] and [[Italian Somaliland]].
The port of Massaua was going to be enlarged in 1941, but [[WWII]] blocked it.
Italy was one of the [[Axis powers of World War II|Axis]] powers during [[World War II]] and Massawa was the homeport for the [[Red Sea Flotilla]] of the [[Regia Marina|Italian Royal Navy]]. On April 8, 1941 one motor-torpedo boat of the Flotilla, the ''MAS 213'', made a successful torpedo attack on the british cruiser [[HMS Capetown (D88)|HMS ''Capetown'']] partially sinking it just out of the Massaua port. http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-melecaar... MAS 213 attack on British cruiser (in Italian)] When the city fell during the [[East African Campaign (World War II)|East African Campaign]], a large number of Italian and German ships were sunk in an attempt to [[Scuttling#Blockade of Massawa (1941)|block use of Massawa's harbor]]. https://www.magnumphotos.com/image/LON15... Photo of sunken ships in Massaua port]
From 15 April 1942, later master diver and salvage specialist RNR Lieutenant Peter Keeble (then a complete rookie in both disciplines) was assigned to the clearing of the harbour.Keeble, Peter (1957). ''Ordeal by water.'' Longmans, Green & co. No ISBN number available. He succeeded only in the simple task of salvaging an ex-Italian tugboat. The same month, [[United States Navy]] [[Commander]] [[Edward Ellsberg]] and his handful of crew arrived to take over. The wrecks were salvaged in short order and the port was returned to service, as part of what had now become the British protectorate of Eritrea.
In 1945, following the end of [[World War II]], the port of Massawa suffered damage as the occupying British either dismantled or destroyed much of the facilities. These actions were protested by [[Sylvia Pankhurst]] in her book ''Eritrea on the Eve''.Also detailed in the chapter "The Feminist Fuzzy-Wuzzy" of Michela Wong's ''I didn't do it for you: how the world betrayed a small African nation'' (New York: Harper-Perennial, 2005), pp. 116-150.
[[File:ST-Massowa.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|Massaua in 1888, when just occupied by the Italian Bersaglieri]]
======================================================
TLAIL MEGALITHS
{{Infobox ancient site
|name = Tlail megaliths
|native_name =
|alternate_name =
|image =
|alt =
|caption =
|map_type = Lebanon
|map_alt =
|map_size = 200
|location = [[Lebanon]]
|region = [[Akkar District]]
|coordinates = {{coord|34.540278|36.088611|display=inline}}
|type =
|part_of =
|length =
|width =
|area =
|height =
|builder =
|material =
|built =
|abandoned =
|epochs = [[Heavy Neolithic]]
|cultures = [[Qaraoun culture]]
|dependency_of =
|occupants =
|event =
|excavations =
|archaeologists =
|condition =
|ownership =
|management =
|public_access = Yes
|website =
|notes =
}}
'''Tlail megaliths''' are megalith structures -probably [[dolmen]]- located in the [[Akkar District]] of northern [[Lebanon]].
==Data==
The area were are located the Tlail megaliths is one of the first region in the world that saw the [[Neolithic Revolution]] of agriculture. It is not far from the [[Hermel]] dolmens of the northern [[Bekaa valley]]. Indeed the 'Akkar plain foothills' are the location of several surface [[archaeological]] sites found near [[Halba, Lebanon|Halba]].
[[Lorraine Copeland]] classified the structures as a [[Heavy Neolithic]] [[assemblage (archaeology)|assemblage]] of the [[Qaraoun culture]] in light of more modern research.Copeland-Wescombe; p.20
Like [[Wadi Boura]] Tlail has the remains of some megalithic monuments -described as [[dolmen]] by archeologist [[Maurice Tallon]]- scattered on a semi-deserted plain, that used to be wooded in classical times https://books.google.com/books?id=-FFHDw... Dolmens in the Levant: the Bekaa valley (figure 4.15)].
In the area around the Tlail megaliths have been found some remains of [[Roman Phoenicia|Roman tombs]]Wescombe-Copeland; p.50.
==Notes==
==Bibliography==
*{{cite book|author1=L. Copeland|author2=P. Wescombe|title=Inventory of Stone-Age Sites in Lebanon: North, South and East-Central Lebanon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qhPRQwAACAAJ|year=1966|publisher=Impr. Catholique}}
{{Portal|Lebanon|Archaeology|Ancient Near East}}
* Tallon, Maurice. ''Tumulus et mégalithes du Hermel et de la Beqāʹ Nord'' Imprim. Catholique. Beyrouth, 1959 ( https://books.google.com/books?id=yAtbHA...])
==See also==
*[[Hermel]]
*[[Wadi Boura]]
{{Archaeological sites in Lebanon}}
{{Middle Eastern megaliths}}
[[Category:Akkar District]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Lebanon]]
[[Category:Megalithic monuments in the Middle East]]
=========================================
WADI BOURA
{{Infobox ancient site
|name = Wadi Boura
|native_name =
|alternate_name =
|image =
|alt =
|caption =
|map_type = Lebanon
|map_alt =
|map_size = 200
|location = [[Lebanon]]
|region = [[Bekaa valley]]
|coordinates = {{coord|34.15|36.39|display=inline}}
|type =
|part_of =
|length =
|width =
|area =
|height =
|builder =
|material =
|built =
|abandoned =
|epochs =
|cultures = [[Shepherd Neolithic]]
|dependency_of =
|occupants =
|event =
|excavations =
|archaeologists =
|condition =
|ownership =
|management =
|public_access = Yes
|website =
|notes =
}}
'''Wadi Boura''' is a [[wadi]] in the [[Bekaa valley]] area of [[Lebanon]] http://www.getamap.net/maps/lebanon/beqa... Wadi Boura map]. Some flints of the [[Shepherd Neolithic]] culture have been discovered in it. Wadi Boura has also the remains of some megalithic monuments (possibly [[dolmens]]) https://books.google.com/books?id=-FFHDw... Dolmens in the Levant: the Bekaa valley (figure 4.17)].
{{
Infobox archaeological culture
|name = Shepherd Neolithic
|map = Shepherd Neolithic flint tools.jpg
|mapalt =
|altnames =
|horizon =
|region = [[Lebanon]]
|period = [[Epipaleolithic]]
|dates = ''circa'' 10,200 B.C.E. — ''circa'' 8,800 B.C.E.
|typesite = [[Qaa]], [[Maqne]]
|majorsites = [[Hermel]], [[Kamouh el Hermel]], [[Douris (Baalbek)|Douris]], [[Hermel]], [[Kamouh el Hermel]], [[Qalaat Tannour]], [[Rayak North]], [[Riha Station]], [[Wadi Boura]]
|extra =
|precededby =
|followedby =
}}
==Data==
The Wadi Boura is located at more than 2000 meters of altitude (at 34°7'60" N ; 36°28'0" E). This Wadi is a ravine, bounded by relatively steep banks, which in the rainy season becomes a watercourse.
A [[Heavy Neolithic]] archaeological site of the [[Qaraoun culture]] is located near the Wadi Boura{{cite book|author1=L. Copeland|author2=P. Wescombe|title=Inventory of Stone-Age Sites in Lebanon: North, South and East-Central Lebanon, p. 51 & 52|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qhPRQwAACAAJ|year=1966|publisher=Impr. Catholique}}.
Successively, type sites (like Wadi Boura) of the [[Shepherd Neolithic]] have been discovered at [[Qaa]] and [[Maqne I]]. Other sites with Shepherd Neolithic finds in the area include [[Douris (Baalbek)|Douris]], [[Hermel II]], [[Hermel III]], [[Kamouh el Hermel]], [[Qalaat Tannour]] and possibly [[Rayak North]] and [[Riha Station]].
Indeed Shepherd Neolithic material can be found dispersed over a wide area of the north Beqaa Valley in low concentrations. Furthermore, archeologist [[Maurice Tallon|Tallon]] wondered whether the Wadi Boura [[Cairn|cairns]] represented covered examples of "Dolmens" known in [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]]Fraser; chapter 5
At the wadi Boura have been found some remains of [[Roman Phoenicia|Roman tombs]]Wescombe-Copeland; p.50.
==Notes==
==Bibliography==
* Fraser, James. ''Dolmens in the Levant''. Publisher Routledge. Sydney, 2018 {{ISBN|1351375423}}
* Krebs, Robert E. & Carolyn A. (2003). ''Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions & Discoveries of the Ancient World''. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. {{ISBN|0-313-31342-3}}.
* Moore, A.M. ''The Neolithic of the Levant''. Oxford University. Oxford, 1978 ( http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/206.ht...])
* Tallon, Maurice. ''Tumulus et mégalithes du Hermel et de la Beqāʹ Nord'' Imprim. Catholique. Beyrouth, 1959 ( https://books.google.com/books?id=yAtbHA...])
* Wescombe-Copeland. ''Inventory of Stone-Age Sites in Lebanon: North, South and East-Central Lebanon'' Université Saint-Joseph. Impr. Catholique. Beirut, 1966
==See also==
* [[Wadi Koura]]
* [[Rayak North]]
* [[Hermel]]
* [[Duris, Lebanon|Douris]]
{{Heavy Neolithic sites}}
{{Shepherd Neolithic sites}}
{{Archaeological sites in Lebanon}}
[[Category:Wadis of Lebanon|Boura]]
[[Category:Neolithic sites of Asia]]
[[Category:Shepherd Neolithic sites]]
[[Category:Neolithic settlements]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Lebanon]]
============================================
Nile exploration by Roman emperor Nero (copia cache)
Nile exploration by Roman emperor Nero was a Roman expedition undertaken around 61 AD that aimed to reach the sources of the Nile.
Contents [hide]
1
History
2
See also
3
Notes
4
Bibliography
History[edit]
Emperor Nero sent a small group of Praetorian guards to explore the sources of the Nile in Africa around 61 AD. He did this in order to obtain information for a possible conquest of Ethiopia, as equatorial Africa was called by the Romans.[2]
The Roman legionaries navigating the Nile from southern Egypt reached the city of Meroe and, later, the Sudd, where they found it difficult to go further.
From Meroe the Roman party travelled 600 miles up the White Nile, until they reached the swamp-like Sudd in what is now southern Sudan, a fetid wetland filled with ferns, papyrus reeds and thick mats of rotting vegetation. In the rainy season, it covers an area larger than England, with a vast humid swamp teeming with mosquitoes and other insects. The only large animals in the Sudd were the crocodiles and hippos that occupied the muddy pools within its vast expanse. Those who entered this region had to endure severe heat and risk disease and starvation. The Sudd was discovered to be too deep to be crossed safely on foot, but its waters were also too shallow to be explored any further by boat. The Romans ‘reached an area where the swamp could only bear a small boat containing one person’. At this point the party despaired of ever finding a definite source for the Nile and turned back reluctantly to report their findings to the emperor in Rome. They had probably reached a position nearly 1,500 miles south of the Roman-Egyptian border.
— Raoul McLaughlin, Desert Legions: The Romans in Africa, History Today, Volume 64, Issue 6, June 2014
Seneca the Younger's De Nubibus in Naturales Quaestiones documents the expedition to "explore the top of the world" (caput mundi investigandum). In this book he recounts what two legionaries told him about their discovery of the source of the Nile:
"There we saw two huge rocks, from which the power of the river went out in a powerful way.....[The Nile] comes from a very large lake of the [African] lands."[3]
Furthermore, Seneca wrote that the legionaries told him that the water of the Nile river, that jumped through two huge rocks, was coming from a very big lake inside the African lands. This lake - according to Vannini and others - could only be Lake Victoria, the biggest African lake. And the only river that goes out from this huge lake is the White Nile (named "Victoria Nile" when exits the lake), that in Jinja (Uganda) goes north toward the "Murchison Falls".
Historian Giovanni Vannini argues that this place is Murchison Falls in northern Uganda, meaning that the Romans reached Equatorial Africa. Vannini wrote in the magazine Nigrizia in 1996 that the legionaries made an exploratory journey of more than 5,000 km from Meroe to Uganda, a remarkable feat undertaken with small boats in order to bypass the Sudd, a vast swamp full of dangerous Nile crocodiles. According to Vannini, the Nero expedition from Roman Egypt reached the area of Jinja in present-day Uganda; he believes that the legionaries were able to reach Lake Victoria, based on the description of waterfall.
Murchison Falls, with the huge gap in the rocks
Vannini noted that the falls described in Seneca's interview with the legionaries cannot be found in the "Sudd" area, but are very similar to Murchison Falls, where the Nile forces its way through a gap in the rocks, only 7 metres (23 ft) wide and falls 43 metres (141 ft) before flowing west into Lake Albert. Furthermore, according to Vannini, the lake described by the legionaries could only be Lake Victoria, the largest lake in Africa and the source of the White Nile (known as the "Victoria Nile" when exits the lake), which only flows north from Jinja toward Murchison Falls and the Sudd.
However it is noteworthy to pinpoint that the legionaries, according to Seneca (who is the only to have written in full detail about this expedition/exploration discovery), saw the Nile water coming with enormous power from a big lake behind the huge rocks that are described as the Murchison Falls, but they never declared failure in finding the Nile sources (as was mistakenly stated by McLaughlin): the same Nero declared to have "found" the 'Caput mundi' from where the Nile river comes.
Subsequently, historian David Braund wrote in 2015 that Nero's expedition to the Nile's sources probably opened a new route toward the Indian Ocean, bypassing the dangers of piracy in the Red Sea area while allowing future Roman trade with India and Azania:[4]
What begins to emerge is an on-going process under the early emperors, whereby Roman imperium was indeed stretching towards the rubrum mare in every sense of the term, embracing the Red Sea, Indian Ocean... No provincia Aethiopia was ever established or seriously attempted, but Roman imperium could be said to have reached across Nubia to the Red Sea. David Braun[5]
However, the death of Nero prevented further exploration of the Nile as well as Roman conquest south of Egypt.[6]
See also[edit]
Nero
Sudd
Murchison Falls
Romans in Sub-Saharan Africa
Notes[edit]
Jump up
^ Romans in Azania-Raphta
Jump up
^ Accounts are found in Seneca the Younger (VI.8.3) and Pliny (Natural History, VI.XXXV, p. 181-187)
Jump up
^ Ibi Vidimus duas Petras, ex quibus ingens vis fluminis excidebat...ex magno terrarum lacu ascendere.
Jump up
^ David Braund: Nero’s Nubian Nile, India and the rubrum mare (Tacitus, Annals 2.61)
Jump up
^ David Braun; p.155
Jump up
^ Buckley & Dinter: A Companion to the Neronian Age
Bibliography[edit]
Braund, David. Kings beyond the claustra. Nero’s Nubian Nile, India and the rubrum mare (Tacitus, Annals2.61) University of Exeter (UK), 2015 ([1])
Buckley, Emma & Martin Dinter. A Companion to the Neronian Age. Publisher John Wiley & Sons. London, 2013 ISBN 1118316533
Emberling, Geoff. Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa. Institute for the Study of the Ancient World. New York, 2011 ISBN 978-0-615-48102-9.
Vantini, Giovanni. Nigrizia (it) (article of 1996 edition); Comboniani editions. Roma, 1996 ([2])
===============================================
===============================================[[Category:Mauretania Caesariensis]]
[[Category:Roman towns and cities in Mauretania Caesariensis]]
[[Category:Ancient Berber cities]]
=============================================
=================
CONCESSIONSANDFORTSOFITALYINCHINA (WIKIWAND COPYCACHE)
Concessions and forts of Italy in China are the commercial and military concessions & fortifications that the Kingdom of Italy had in different Chinese localities until WWII.
History
Italy in the first half of the 20th century has had concessions and fortifications in Peking, Tientsin, Shanghai, Shan Hai Kuan, Ta Ku, Amoy and Hankow. Since 1925 they were defended mainly by the "Battaglione Italiano in Cina" (Battaglione San Marco) and by some Italian Navy ships, like the gunboats "Carlotto" and Caboto" (later substituted by the minelayer "Lepanto").
The small Italian area inside the 1900 Peking Legation Quarter
They were ruled by "Consoli" (Governors), all resident in Tientsin:
Cesare Poma (1901–1903)
Giuseppe Chiostri (1904–1906)
Oreste Da Vella (1907–1911)
Vincenzo Fileti (1912–1919)
Marcello Roddolo (1920–1921)
Luigi Gabrielli di Quercita (1921–1924)
Guido Segre (1925–1927)
Luigi Neyrone (1928–1932)
Filippo Zappi (1933–1938)
Ferruccio Stefenelli (1939–1943)
There was even the Treaty Port in Beihai (southern China), that was allowed to have a small area for Italian commerce.[1]
In 1932...the Italian shipping company "Lloyd Triestino" opened a new service linking Italy to Shanghai by scheduling on that route two modern trans-atlantic vessels, the "Conte Biancamano" and "the Conte Rosso" (which immediately set a speed world record of only 23 days during the first voyage). With this new service, supported by those of other companies employed in the trade of various goods and products, the economic exchange between Italy and China reached such good levels to alarm Great Britain and France. Alberto Rosselli [2]
The Italian possessions in China enjoyed a relatively good economic development with huge Italian-Chinese commerce in the 1920s and mainly in the 1930s.
Peking Legation Quarter
Italian troops occupied a section of the Peking "Legation Quarter" in 1900. Indeed the Eight-Nation Alliance of which Italy belonged, at the end of the Battle of Peking, obtained the right to station troops to protect their legations in China's capital by the terms of the Boxer Protocol.
The Legation Quarter was encircled by a wall and all Chinese residents in the area were ordered to relocate away. Sealed from its immediate environment, the Legation Quarter became a city within the city exclusively for foreigners and many Chinese nationalists resented the Quarter as a symbol of foreign dominance. Italy had this small concession until 1943.
Tientsin Italian concession
Main article: Italian concession of Tientsin
Main square of Italian Tientsin
On 7 September 1901, a concession in Tientsin (that consisted approximately of half a square kilometer - or 51.42 ha.[3]) was ceded to the Kingdom of Italy by the Qing Dynasty of China.[4] On 7 June 1902, the concession was taken into Italian possession and administered by an Italian consul: the first was Cesare Poma and the last (in 1943) was Ferruccio Stefenelli. Along with other foreign concessions, the Italian concession lay on the Pei Ho, southeast of the city centre.[5]
In 1917 China terminated the leases of Germany and Austria-Hungary concessions. The districts were converted into "Special Areas" with a separate administration from the rest of Tientsin. But Italy requested the Austrian concession after WWI: it was obtained only in June 1928 and soon returned to Chinese authorities,[6] when the Second Special Area (the one of former Austrian concession) was in danger of war and occupation during the China civil war.
In 1935 the total population was 6,261, of which 5,725 Chinese and 536 foreigners including 392 Italians, according to historian Pistoiese.[7] He even wrote that the concession in those years experienced huge improvements and assumed "the role of showcase of Italian art" with rich urban developments. As stated by Woodhead, in 1934 "The Italian concession ... was becoming the most popular centre for the palatial residences of retired Chinese militaries and politicians".[8]
In the late 1930s the Italian concession of Tientsin and the consulates of Shanghai, Hankow and Beijing lived a quite peaceful period. Italian Tientsin enjoyed a small economic boom, fueled by rich Chinese who moved to live in the Italian area escaping the Japanese invasion of China. But WWII changed everything.
During World War II, the Italian concession in Tientsin had a garrison of approximately 600 Italian troops on the side of the Axis powers. On 10 September 1943, when Italy signed an armistice with the Allies, the concession was occupied by the Imperial Japanese Army.
Italian concession in the Shanghai International Settlement
The flag of the Shanghai International Settlement, showing even the Italian one
After WWI the Kingdom of Italy maintained troops in an area of Shanghai, that was used as commercial concession inside the Shanghai International Settlement (S.I.S.). This settlement was wholly foreign-controlled, with staff of all nationalities, including British, Americans, Danes, Germans and Italians.
Italian concession in the S.I.S. (borders in yellow)
In reality, the British held the largest number of seats on the Council and headed all the Municipal departments. The only department not chaired by a Briton was the "Municipal Orchestra", which was controlled by an Italian.
The International Settlement maintained its own fire-service, police force (the Shanghai Municipal Police), and even possessed its own military reserve in the Shanghai Volunteer Corps.
Following some disturbances at the British concession in Hankow in 1927, the defences at Shanghai were augmented by a permanent battalion of the British Army, which was referred to as the Shanghai Defence Force and a contingent of US Marines. Other armed forces would arrive in Shanghai: the French Concession had a defensive force of Annamite troops, the Italians also introduced their own marines, as did the Japanese (whose troops eventually outnumbered the other countries' many times over).
In ‘Old Shanghai’, there were specific areas with a high concentration of Italian economic activities (in the International Settlement: Kiukiang Road; Kiangse Road; crossroads between Nanking Road and Szechuen Road; Bubbling Well Road), areas with Italian residences (French Concession), other suburban areas with Italians (Zikawei; in this case, they were priests). Moreover, Italians were involved in specific economic sectors (primarily, silk): as the textile sector was developed mainly in Lombardy at that time, most of the expatriate Italian managers and supervisors in Shanghai mills came from this Italian region.Stefano Piastra [9]
In the late 1930s was reinforced the military presence in the small area of Shanghai (that was next to the American concession and north of the French concession) controlled by the Italians. The Italian Navy stationed in the Shanghai port periodically some ships like the cruisers Trento and Montecuccoli during the Japanese invasion of China.[10] In 1947 the Peace Treaty forced Italy to renounce to it with article 26, that stated: "(Italy) agrees to the reversion of the said Settlements (at Shanghai and Amoy) to the Administration and control of the Chinese Government".
Forts in Shan Hai Kuan & in Ta-Ku
From 1900 until the late 1930s, the Italians even held small forts like the Forte di Shan Hai Kuan[11] near the Great Wall of China in Manchuria[12] and the Forte nordoccidentale in Ta-Ku.[13] The one in Ta-Ku (called "N.W fort of Ta-Ku") was held together with the British for a couple of years.[14]
Commercial Concessions in Hankow and in Amoy
Italian consulate in the 1912 Hankow concessions
In Hankow since the 1900 was located an Italian consulate, that later was enlarged in order to have a small commercial concession.
Hankow was the center of catholic missions and had many Italian priests and nuns who were protected by Italian troops in the 1920s and early 1930s (in the late 1920s nearly 40% of the Italian civilians in China were religious personnel of the Roman Catholic Church[15]).
Another small commercial area under Italian control was in Amoy (Xiamen), after WWI.[16] Amoy's European settlements (like the small Italian consulate) were concentrated on the islet of Gulangyu off the main island of actual Xiamen in the region of Hong Kong. Today, Gulangyu is known for colonial architecture, with some examples of the Italian one.[17]
In the early 1930s only the small consulate of Hankow remained under Italian control.
After 1940
When started WWII Italy had only the Tientsin concession under direct control, while remained a garrison in the Shanghai international settlement, in the fort of Shan Hai Kuan and in the Legation of Peking.
In 1940 the soldiers of the Battaglione San Marco were stationed in the remaining areas controlled by Italy: nearly 200 were in Shanghai, 180 in Tientsin, 25 in Shan Hai Kuan and 15 in Peking. They were helped by the marines and sailors of the Italian Navy stationed in Tientsin.[18]
After September 1943 -when Italy surrendered to the Allies- started a very difficult period for the Italians in China. Japanese forces took control of the Italian possessions in China, after some fightings (like in the legation of Peking, and with the scuttle in Shanghai port of the ships "Carlotto" and Caboto").
Italy agrees to the cancellation of the Lease from the Chinese Government under which the Italian Concession at Tientsin was granted......Italy renounces in favor of China the rights accorded to Italy in relation to the International Settlements at Shanghai and Amoy, and agrees to the reversion of the said Settlements to the Administration and control of the Chinese Government. Articles 25 & 26 of 1947 Peace Treaty.([19])
Finally, on 10 February 1947, by virtue of the peace treaty with Italy, all the Italian concessions and fortifications were formally ceded by Italy to Chiang Kai-shek's Republic of China.
NOTES:
^ Tianjin Shehui Kexueyuan Lishi yanjiousuo, Tianjin jianshi, Tianjin: Renmin Chubanshe, 1987
^ Laura Rampazzo. "Un pizzico d’Italia nel cuore della Cina: la concessione di Tianjin" (in Italian)[1]
^ Sandro Bassetti."Colonia italiana in Cina". Section:Le Forze Armate italiane (in Italian)
^ "Italian occupation of former Austrian Concession". Retrieved 23 November 2014.
^ Gennaro E. Pistolese, «La Concessione Italiana di Tien-Tsin» p.306
^ Marinelli, Maurizio. "Maurizio Marinelli: Chinese residents in Italian Tientsin". Retrieved 23 November 2014.
^ Italians in the "Old Shanghai"
^ Shanghai international settlements in red, italian sector #4 on Chinese written map [2]
^ "Photo of the Fort just conquered with Italian flag". Flickr. Retrieved 23 November 2014.
^ Trentoincina. "Italian Fort near the "China Great wall" (in Italian)". Retrieved 23 November 2014.
^ Avvenimenti in Cina nel 1900 (in Italian). Retrieved 23 November 2014.
^ Landor, A. "China and the Allies". p. 126
^ Guido Samarani, p.52. Retrieved 23 November 2014.
^ Concessions in Shanghai and China (in French)
^ "Gulangyu/Amoy". Retrieved 23 November 2014.
^ Maurizio Marinelli, p.54
^ 1947 Peace Treaty articles on Italian possessions in China. Retrieved 23 November 2014.
=============================================================
https://books.google.com/books?id=Ts9aAw... OTTIMISSIMO LIBRO SU ITALIA IN CINA E SULL"ANTICA ROMA (CINA, Ecc..)
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https://books.google.com/books?id=cd30Ag... OTTIMO LIBRO SULLA REGIA MARINA IN WW2 CON DATI PRECISI( PER RESEARCHOMNIA)
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MAURIZIO RAVA
{{Infobox officeholder
| name =Maurizio Rava
| image=
| imagesize=
| caption=
|order1=[[List of colonial governors of Italian Somaliland|Italian Governor of Somalia]]
| term_start1= July 1, 1931
|term_end1 = March 6, 1935
| predecessor1=[[Guido Corni]]
| successor1=[[Rodolfo Graziani]]
|order2=
|term_start2 =
| term_end2=
| predecessor2=
| successor2=
| birth_date= January 31, 1878
|birth_place = Milano
| death_date= November 1941
| death_place= Roma
| nationality=Italian
|party =[[National Fascist Party|Italian Fascism]]
| footnotes=
}}
'''Rava Maurizio''' (January 31, 1878, Milan, Italy – 1941, Rome) was the Italian Governor of [[Italian Somaliland]] from 1931 to 1935, and was also a politician and general of the [[Regio Esercito]]. He was one of the first fascist jews of Italy.{{cite web|url=http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/maurizio-rava_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/ |title=RAVA, Maurizio in "Enciclopedia Italiana" |website=Treccani.it |date= |accessdate=2016-12-11}}
==Life==
Rava was born in a [[Jewish]] family in [[Milan]]. He enthusiastically joined the [[National Fascist Party]] during [[World War I]]: in 1919 he was a cofounder of the "Fascio" of Roma. But in the late 1930s he faced problems within the party because of German [[Nazi]] influences against Italian Jews.
In the 1920s Rava was "Segretario generale delle Colonie" and in 1930 vice-governor of [[Italian Tripolitania]]{{cite book|url=https://books.google.it/books?id=0WTFAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA179&lpg=PA179&dq=maurizio+rava+governor&source=bl&ots=C9eRrH-zzJ&sig=ir8ZpS7Xc20YxAdhyxG1ZpAz3Y8&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0CCcQ6AEwATgKahUKEwiXtP2G1LrIAhVLoYAKHQ_TAXo#v=onepage&q=maurizio%20rava%20governor&f=false |title=Italian Jews from Emancipation to the Racial Laws |author=C. Bettin |page=179 |website=Books.google.it |date= |accessdate=2016-12-11}} and a general in the ''Fascist Militia''.{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/12/22/opinion/l-italian-fascism-didn-t-practice-anti-semitism-707193.html |title=Italian Fascism Didn't Practice Anti-Semitism |location=ITALY |website=NYTimes.com |date=1993-12-22 |accessdate=2016-12-11}}
From 1 July 1931 to 6 March 1935 Rava was the [[List of colonial heads of Italian Somaliland|Governor of Italian Somaliland]]. In his time as governor thousands of Italian colonists came to [[Mogadishu under Italian rule|Mogadishu]] and many Somalis joined the Italian colonial troops as a result of his policy to assimilate the [[Somalis]]. Rava promoted the creation of the first postal service stations in all Somalia.{{cite web|url=https://italiacoloniale.files.wordpress.com/2015/04/servizi-postali-ed-elettrici-in-somalia.jpg?w=547 |format=JPG |title=1937 Map of postal service & radio stations in Italian Somalia|website=Italiacoloniale.files.wordporess.com |accessdate=2016-12-11}}
Maurizio Rava had a famous son, Carlo Enrico Rava, who was an important Italian architect of the [[Gruppo 7]].
==Works==
Maurizio Rava was also a painter and a writer. When young he studied at Rome's "Accademia di Belle Arti" {{cite web|url=http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:giOeuFbr1ywJ:www.istitutomatteucci.it/dizionario-degli-artisti/rava-maurizio+&cd=1&hl=it&ct=clnk&gl=it |title=Rava Maurizio* |website=Webcache.googleusercontent.com |date=2016-11-22 |accessdate=2016-12-11}} and until 1903 he exposed his paintings with a relative success.
Rava wrote some literary works.{{cite web|url=https://www.maremagnum.com/ricerca-avanzata/risultati?utf8=%E2%9C%93&search%5Bauthor%5D=maurizio+rava&search%5Btitle%5D=&search%5Bkeyword%5D=&search%5Bean%5D=&search%5Bpublisher%5D=&search%5Bpublishing_year_from%5D=&search%5Bpublishing_year_to%5D=&search%5Bdescription%5D=&search%5Bsubject%5D=&search%5Bprice_eur%5D=&search%5Bbookshop_id%5D=&search%5Bitem_type%5D=&search%5Blanguage%5D=&search%5Bcreated_at%5D=&commit=Cerca |title=Libri antichi, moderni, introvabili e novità |website=Maremagnum.com |date= |accessdate=2016-12-11}} In the late 1930s he wrote a famous book about Somalia (titled "''Parole ai Coloniali''"), that had a preface written by [[Benito Mussolini]].{{cite web|author=Maurizio Rava |url=https://www.maremagnum.com/libri-antichi/parole-ai-coloniali-prefazione-di-s-e-benito-mussolini/150160246 |title=Parole ai coloniali prefazione di S. E. Benito Mussolini | 246 |website=Maremagnum.com |date= |accessdate=2016-12-11}}
==See also==
* [[Italian Somalia]]
* [[Guido Corni]]
* [[Cesare Maria De Vecchi]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Bibliography==
*Bettin, Cristina. ''Italian Jews from Emancipation to the Racial Laws''. Italian and Italian American Studies. Editore Palgrave Macmillan. New York, 2010 {{ISBN|0230114377}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Guido Corni]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Italian Governors of Somaliland|years=1 July 1931 – 6 March 1935}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Rodolfo Graziani]]}}
{{s-end}}
{{Italian Governors of Eritrea and Somaliland}}
{{Somalia italiana (Colonia)}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Maurizio, Rava}}
[[Category:20th-century Italian politicians]]
[[Category:1878 births]]
[[Category:1941 deaths]]
[[Category:Governors of Italian Somaliland]]
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OTTONE GABELLI
{{ Infobox officeholder
| name =Ottone Gabelli
| image=
| imagesize=
| caption=
|order1=[[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea|Italian Governor of Eritrea]]
| term_start1= January 15, 1935
|term_end1 = January 18, 1935
| predecessor1=[[Riccardo Di Lucchesi]]
| successor1=[[Emilio De Bono]]
|order2=
|term_start2 =
| term_end2=
| predecessor2=
| successor2=
| birth_date=
|birth_place =
| death_date=
| death_place=
| nationality=Italian
|party =
| footnotes=
}}
'''Ottone Gabelli''' (1880-1939) was an Italian diplomat and writer. http://www.bibliotecadibabele.com/upload... Image of the front cover of his famous book about Italian Tripolitania] He was [[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea|Italian colonial "acting governor"]] of [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]] in 1935, but only for a few days from January 15 to January 18.
==Life==
Ottone Gabelli was born in Friuli in 1880, near [[Udine]]. He started a bureaucratic career in the "Ministero della Colonie", becoming General Director in the early 1930s. He also was a member of the "Istituto per L'oriente", a magazine about colonial studies.
He moved to Italian Africa in 1934, becoming temporarily governor of Eritrea.
His role of "Regent Governor" in [[Italian language|Italian]] was ''Funzionario ruolo colonie (attribuzione: Reggente)'' in January 1935. http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/pca-gov.htm Governors (and their titles) of Italian Eritrea (in Italian)] In July 1938 he was one of those who signed the "Manifesto della Razza" http://www.alterhistory.altervista.org/D... Manifesto della Razza supporters]
Ottone Gabelli died in 1939.
==Literary works==
* ''LA TRIPOLITANIA DALLA FINE DELLA GUERRA MONDIALE ALL'AVVENTO DEL FASCISMO'' - 2 VOLUMI. Editore: A. AIROLDI. Verona, 1939
* ''Le vicende della colonizzazione italiana in Eritrea e Somalia'' in "L'Africa orientale italiana e il conflitto italo-etiopico"; p. 113-126. Roma, 1936
==Notes==
==See also==
* [[Italian Eritrea]]
* [[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea]]
{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Riccardo Di Lucchesi]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Italian Governor of Eritrea|years=January 1935}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Emilio De Bono]]}}
{{s-end}}
{{Italian Governors of Eritrea and Somaliland}}
{{Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Gabelli, Ottone}}
[[Category:Italian diplomats]]
[[Category:20th-century Italian writers]]
[[Category:20th-century male writers]]
[[Category:Italian Governors of Eritrea]]
[[Category:1880 births]]
[[Category:1939 deaths]]
====================================================
LUDOVICO P{OLLERA
{{ Infobox officeholder
| name =Ludovico Pollera
| image=
| imagesize=
| caption=
|order1=[[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea|Italian Governor of Eritrea]]
| term_start1= November 20, 1920
|term_end1 = April 13, 1921
| predecessor1=[[Camillo De Camillis]]
| successor1=[[Giovanni Cerrina Feroni]]
|order2=
|term_start2 =
| term_end2=
| predecessor2=
| successor2=
| birth_date=
|birth_place =
| death_date=
| death_place=
| nationality=Italian
|party =
| footnotes=
}}
'''Ludovico Pollera''' (1870–1953) was an [[Italians|Italian]] governor of [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]].
==Life==
Pollera was born in [[Lucca]] on July 4, 1870. He was a member of a [[Tuscany]] family with aristocracy roots.
Pollera was a colonial official like his brother Alberto, an ethnographist and writer. He arrived in Eritrea in 1895 and remained there until 1928. He participated in the [[battle of Adwa]] in March 1896. The next year he fought the [[Dervishi]] in Sudan.
In 1900 he left the military service and started to work as civilian for the Italian "Ministero Affari Esteri" (Foreign Policy Ministry).
Pollera started as a "Commissioner resident" of [[Agordat]] and then was regional commissioner of some areas of Eritrea. In 1912 he accompanied an aggregated [[Zaptie]] Mehariste company of the V Battalion [[Eritrean Ascari|Ascari]] in war operations in [[Italian Libya]]. Subsequently, he became the head of the "Civil and Political Affairs Department" in Eritrea (1918-1920).
From November 20, 1920 to April 13, 1921, he was [[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea|Governor of the Colony of Eritrea]] and successively he remained "General Secretary" of Eritrea until 1928. He wrote only one book, a "Report" in 1913: ''Relazione Commissariato generale del Barca (1883-1892)'' for the "Camera dei Deputati" of [[Rome|Roma]].
Ludovico Pollera returned from Africa in the mid-thirties of the last century to be elected -between 1938 and 1945- President of the ''Cassa di Lucca'', a regional bank of his hometown. http://www.assiter.org/file/2004-africus... Biography of Alberto and Ludovico Pollera]
He died in Lucca on January 21, 1953.
==See also==
* [[Italian Eritrea]]
* [[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea]]
==Notes==
==Bibliography==
* Bandini, Franco. ''Gli italiani in Africa, storia delle guerre coloniali 1882-1943''. Longanesi. Milano, 1971.
{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Camillo De Camillis]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Italian Governor of Eritrea|years=1920–1921}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Giovanni Cerrina Feroni]]}}
{{s-end}}
{{Italian Governors of Eritrea and Somaliland}}
{{Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Pollera, Ludovico}}
[[Category:Italian Governors of Eritrea]]
[[Category:1870 births]]
[[Category:1953 deaths]]
===============================================
CAMILLO DE CAMILLIS
{{ Infobox officeholder
| name =Camillo De Camillis
| image=
| imagesize=
| caption=
|order1=[[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea|Italian Governor of Eritrea]]
| term_start1= July 1, 1919
|term_end1 = November 16, 1920
| predecessor1=[[Giacomo De Martino (governor)|Giacomo De Martino]]
| successor1=[[Ludovico Pollera]]
|order2=
|term_start2 =
| term_end2=
| predecessor2=
| successor2=
| birth_date=
|birth_place =
| death_date=
| death_place=
| nationality=Italian
|party =
| footnotes=
}}
'''Camillo De Camillis''' was an Italian diplomat. He was an Italian colonial governor of [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]].
==Data==
His role of "Regent Governor" in [[Italian language|Italian]] was ''Funzionario ruolo colonie (attribuzione: Reggente)'' from July 1919 to November 1920.
The Regent Governor of Eritrea Camillo De Camillis instructed all colonial commissaries in Eritrea to attribute Italian citizenship automatically to the sons and daughters of unknown Italian paternal parenthood, even in the absence of paternal legal acknowledgement. So these "mulatto" Eritrean kids became Italian citizens by law. https://books.google.com/books?id=KQ0MAA...(governor+of+Eritrea)+biography&source=bl&ots=_wL0Rabaum&sig=DnLnWLvAThKmDkOhAd6iRJfvq1c&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjb4KPY-tPQAhWhq1QKHXiGC5sQ6AEIRDAH#v=onepage&q=Camillo%20De%20Camillis%20(governor%20of%20Eritrea)%20biography&f=false A Political History of National Citizenship and Identity in Italy, 1861–1950, by Sabina Donati]
This was a revolutionary law when created, opening the first steps toward racial integration in colonial [[Africa]].
==See also==
* [[Italian Eritrea]]
* [[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea]]
==Notes==
==Bibliography==
* Donati, Sabina. ''A Political History of National Citizenship and Identity in Italy, 1861–1950''. Publisher Stanford University Press. Stanford, 2013. {{ISBN|0804787336}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Giacomo De Martino (governor)|Giacomo De Martino]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Italian Governor of Eritrea|years=1919–1920}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Ludovico Pollera]]}}
{{s-end}}
{{Italian Governors of Eritrea and Somaliland}}
{{Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Camillis, Camillo De}}
[[Category:Italian diplomats]]
[[Category:Italian Governors of Eritrea]]
=============================================================
MASSAUA UNDER ITALIAN RULE (translation from it. wiki):
[[File:Banco dItalia (8527950453).jpg|thumb|right|450px|The former "Banco d'Italia" building in Italian Massaua, built in the 1920s http://tesfanews.net/photo-the-new-look-... Banco d'Italia in Massaua being rebuilt]]]
'''Massawa, Eritrea''' (or '''Massaua italiana''' in [[Italian language]]) was the name used during the Italian colonization of [[Eritrea]] for the port-city of [[Massawa]]. http://www.miol.it/stagniweb/mappe/tci29... Map of Italian Massaua (1929)]
==History==
On February 5, 1885 Massawa was occupied by 1500 Italian [[Bersaglieri]] under the command of colonel Tancredi. http://cronologia.leonardo.it/storia/a18... "Occupazione di Massaua" (in Italian)]
Massawa, at the beginning of the Italian civil administration, was the capital of [[Italian Eritrea]] and the only urban center of the colony. From February 1885 until 1897, Massawa served as the administrative center of the region, before Governor [[Ferdinando Martini]] moved his administration to [[Asmara, Eritrea|Italian Asmara]].{{cite book|last1=Belula Tecle-Misghina|title=Asmara - an urban history|publisher=Edizioni Nuova Cultura, 2015|isbn=8868123541}} Between 1887 and 1932, the Italians expanded the [[Eritrean Railway]], connecting Massawa with [[Asmara]] and then [[Bishia]] near the [[Sudan]] border, and completed the [[Asmara-Massawa Cableway]].{{cite book|last1=Belula Tecle-Misghina|title=Asmara - an urban history|publisher=Edizioni Nuova Cultura, 2015|isbn=8868123541}} At 75 km long, it was the longest ropeway conveyor in the world at the time.{{cite book|last1=Giovanni Gentile, Calogero Tumminelli|title=Enciclopedia italiana di scienze, lettere ed arti, Volume 1|publisher=Istituto Giovanni Treccani, 1929|page=66}}
[[File:City Administration Building (8527951359).jpg|thumb|left|300px|The old Italian City Hall of Massaua italiana]]
In 1890, Massaua had 5,000 inhabitants, of which almost 200 were [[Italian Eritreans|Italians]] residents, with nearly one thousand of Italian military personnel. In the early 20th century, an architectural plan similar to the one in Asmara was adopted for city. It included a commercial and industrial area. http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/1/Santoia... Italian Massaua Plan (in Italian). p. 65]
The plan to improve the city that was prepared was aimed at reordering distinct parts that made up the town and that bordered the inlet of the port, the islands of Massawa and Taulud, connected to each other and the mainland by dams, the peninsulas of Gerar and Abd-el-Kader and the hinterland Edaga Berai near the dam Taulud. The "master" plan was prepared by the Italian Central Office of Civil Engineers in 1914, but was approved only for the part about the island of Taulud. The zoning required by the building code of 1915 fixed a structure which was confirmed by subsequent plans of the twenties and thirties.
The island of Massawa, where the ancient [[Ottoman empire|Ottoman-Arab]] core, unlike other urban colonial areas, had a mixed use for a variety of reasons, including a major that was linked to the use of the port, being the platform that limited its northern flank of the island the only one for the docking of large ships. So, in this area were concentrated all commercial activities. The island of Taulud, on whose northern end stood the palace of the "[[Khedive]]" Turkish, was reused first as the headquarters of the Italian military command, and then as the Government Palace: later became the area where was focused the [[Italian-Eritreans]]-metropolitan population. The area reserved to the natives was across the plain of Edgarà Berai, where arose the new suburbs after the Italian occupation. The peninsula of Gerar was given to the industrial area, while that of Abd-el-Kader remained occupied by military installations.
The works for the relocation of the port was started in 1913 on the basis of a draft by architect Luigi Luiggi and the Central Office of Civil Engineers of Massawa. In 1921 the city was badly damaged by an earthquake, but the reconstruction was done quickly through the grant of loans and government subsidies to individuals and businesses. In the same year were approved with a new plan where the building were programmed with earthquake standards.
[[File:Hotel Savoyia (8529064448).jpg|thumb|300px|right|Hotel Savoia, built in the 1930s]]
From 1928, with [[fascism]] rule were carried out in the port further expansion works, even in relation to the newly created railway and cableway to the capital Asmara. During the 1935/1936 war with Ethiopia in Massawa was recorded a significant increase in traffic, since it had become the main base for the supplies of the military campaign; and in subsequent years, with the new role of "Port of the Italian Empire", the city saw a great development with the increase of the population.
Italian Massaua in 1938 touched 15,000 inhabitants. Italians favored the development of [[Catholicism]] in the city, and a new catholic cathedral was built in the late 1930s. http://www.kagnewstation.com/scrapbook/g... Massaua Cathedral] The urban plans for the various areas of the city were implemented: in the island of Massawa was traced a road ring, while in that of Taulud was to be built a residential neighborhood. A settlement with industrial plants was expected in the peninsula of Gerar, with new areas to the decentralized Archico-Gurgussum. In addition it was decided the reorganization of the nearby villages of Edaga Berai and Amatereh with the small nucleus Otumlo located inside.
In the port area was planned the construction of a huge "Stazione marittima" (Sea Station) for ocean liners, but the beginning of [[WWII]] blocked all this further improvements of Italian Massaua.
==The Port of Italian Massaua==
At the end of the 19th century, the [[Kingdom of Italy]] created a modern port in Massaua for their newly acquired colony of [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]]. http://digilander.libero.it/trombealvent... Images of Italian Massaua before WWI]
[[File:Massawa station - 2008-10-31.jpg|thumb|left|The Massaua Station on the [[Eritrean Railway]].]]
The Italian colony suffered repeated earthquakes. Most of the city was completely destroyed by the [[1921 Massawa Earthquake|1921 Earthquake]]: it took until 1928 to fully restore the port,{{cite book| last=Killion | first=Tom | title=Historical Dictionary of Eritrea |isbn= 0-8108-3437-5 | publisher=The Scarecrow Press | year=1998}} hampering initially the Italian colonial ambitions.
The Italian colonialists had nevertheless built Italian Massaua to become the largest and safest port on the east coast of Africa, and the largest [[deep-water port]] on the Red Sea. Between 1887 and 1932, they expanded the [[Eritrean Railway]], connecting the port of Massawa with the Eritrean capital [[Asmara]], and completed the 75 km long [[Asmara-Massawa Cableway]]. http://www.trainweb.org/italeritrea/tele... "La Teleferica Massaua-Asmara" cableway brochure, translated by Mike Metras, Dave Engstrom, and Renato Guadino] As a consequence the commercial activity of the port grew to nearly one million tons of merchandise, with more than 180000 passengers in 1939.GuglielmoEvangelista. "Porti dell'Eritrea" ( http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-porti.ht...])
In early 1941, Italian Massaua had nearly 20,000 inhabitants, of which almost 3,500 were [[Italian Eritreans|Italians]].
After the creation of the [[Italian East Africa|Africa Orientale Italiana]] the Italian government increased the international ship lines serving the port of Massaua: while in the late 1920s were needed 16 days from Massaua to [[Genova]] or [[Venice]] in [[Italy]], after 1939 were needed only 5 days.
List of main ship routes from Italian Massaua in early 1940, just before the start of war against the Allies:"Porti dell'Eritrea", by Guglielmo Evangelista
[[File:ConteBiancamano reconstructed.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ocean Liner "Conte Biancamano" connected Massaua with Italy and China/Japan]]
* Italia-Massaua-China/Japan ([[Italian Line]]), biweekly
* Genova-Massaua-Mogadiscio-Chisimaio ([[Lloyd Triestino]]), weekly
* Italia-Massaua-Australia (Lloyd Triestino), weekly
* Napoli-Massaua-Assab-Gibuti (LLoyd Triestino), weekly
* Italia-Massaua-Assab-South Africa (Lloyd Triestino), monthly
* Venezia-Massaua-India (Veneta di navigazione), weekly
* Genova-Massaua-Mogadiscio (RAMB), weekly
* Venezia-Massaua-Mogadiscio (RAMB), biweekly
* Genova-Massaua-Assab (I. Messina), biweekly
The service was done with modern [[Ocean liner]]s like the [[SS Conte Biancamano|Conte Biancamano]], "Victoria", "Esquilino" and "Viminale".
In those years there was even a local service (called "linea Circolare del Mar Rosso") that connected all the main ports in the Red Sea. Another (called "linea Intercoloniale") connected Massaua with Assab-Gibuti and the main ports of [[British Somaliland]] and [[Italian Somaliland]].
The port of Massaua was going to be enlarged in 1941, but [[WWII]] blocked it.
Italy was one of the [[Axis powers of World War II|Axis]] powers during [[World War II]] and Massawa was the homeport for the [[Red Sea Flotilla]] of the [[Regia Marina|Italian Royal Navy]]. On April 8, 1941 one motor-torpedo boat of the Flotilla, the ''MAS 213'', made a successful torpedo attack on the british cruiser [[HMS Capetown (D88)|HMS ''Capetown'']] partially sinking it just out of the Massaua port. http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-melecaar... MAS 213 attack on British cruiser (in Italian)] When the city fell during the [[East African Campaign (World War II)|East African Campaign]], a large number of Italian and German ships were sunk in an attempt to [[Scuttling#Blockade of Massawa (1941)|block use of Massawa's harbor]]. https://www.magnumphotos.com/image/LON15... Photo of sunken ships in Massaua port]
From 15 April 1942, later master diver and salvage specialist RNR Lieutenant Peter Keeble (then a complete rookie in both disciplines) was assigned to the clearing of the harbour.Keeble, Peter (1957). ''Ordeal by water.'' Longmans, Green & co. No ISBN number available. He succeeded only in the simple task of salvaging an ex-Italian tugboat. The same month, [[United States Navy]] [[Commander]] [[Edward Ellsberg]] and his handful of crew arrived to take over. The wrecks were salvaged in short order and the port was returned to service, as part of what had now become the British protectorate of Eritrea.
In 1945, following the end of [[World War II]], the port of Massawa suffered damage as the occupying British either dismantled or destroyed much of the facilities. These actions were protested by [[Sylvia Pankhurst]] in her book ''Eritrea on the Eve''.Also detailed in the chapter "The Feminist Fuzzy-Wuzzy" of Michela Wong's ''I didn't do it for you: how the world betrayed a small African nation'' (New York: Harper-Perennial, 2005), pp. 116-150.
[[File:ST-Massowa.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|Massaua in 1888, when just occupied by the Italian Bersaglieri]]
======================================================
TLAIL MEGALITHS
{{Infobox ancient site
|name = Tlail megaliths
|native_name =
|alternate_name =
|image =
|alt =
|caption =
|map_type = Lebanon
|map_alt =
|map_size = 200
|location = [[Lebanon]]
|region = [[Akkar District]]
|coordinates = {{coord|34.540278|36.088611|display=inline}}
|type =
|part_of =
|length =
|width =
|area =
|height =
|builder =
|material =
|built =
|abandoned =
|epochs = [[Heavy Neolithic]]
|cultures = [[Qaraoun culture]]
|dependency_of =
|occupants =
|event =
|excavations =
|archaeologists =
|condition =
|ownership =
|management =
|public_access = Yes
|website =
|notes =
}}
'''Tlail megaliths''' are megalith structures -probably [[dolmen]]- located in the [[Akkar District]] of northern [[Lebanon]].
==Data==
The area were are located the Tlail megaliths is one of the first region in the world that saw the [[Neolithic Revolution]] of agriculture. It is not far from the [[Hermel]] dolmens of the northern [[Bekaa valley]]. Indeed the 'Akkar plain foothills' are the location of several surface [[archaeological]] sites found near [[Halba, Lebanon|Halba]].
[[Lorraine Copeland]] classified the structures as a [[Heavy Neolithic]] [[assemblage (archaeology)|assemblage]] of the [[Qaraoun culture]] in light of more modern research.Copeland-Wescombe; p.20
Like [[Wadi Boura]] Tlail has the remains of some megalithic monuments -described as [[dolmen]] by archeologist [[Maurice Tallon]]- scattered on a semi-deserted plain, that used to be wooded in classical times https://books.google.com/books?id=-FFHDw... Dolmens in the Levant: the Bekaa valley (figure 4.15)].
In the area around the Tlail megaliths have been found some remains of [[Roman Phoenicia|Roman tombs]]Wescombe-Copeland; p.50.
==Notes==
==Bibliography==
*{{cite book|author1=L. Copeland|author2=P. Wescombe|title=Inventory of Stone-Age Sites in Lebanon: North, South and East-Central Lebanon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qhPRQwAACAAJ|year=1966|publisher=Impr. Catholique}}
{{Portal|Lebanon|Archaeology|Ancient Near East}}
* Tallon, Maurice. ''Tumulus et mégalithes du Hermel et de la Beqāʹ Nord'' Imprim. Catholique. Beyrouth, 1959 ( https://books.google.com/books?id=yAtbHA...])
==See also==
*[[Hermel]]
*[[Wadi Boura]]
{{Archaeological sites in Lebanon}}
{{Middle Eastern megaliths}}
[[Category:Akkar District]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Lebanon]]
[[Category:Megalithic monuments in the Middle East]]
=========================================
WADI BOURA
{{Infobox ancient site
|name = Wadi Boura
|native_name =
|alternate_name =
|image =
|alt =
|caption =
|map_type = Lebanon
|map_alt =
|map_size = 200
|location = [[Lebanon]]
|region = [[Bekaa valley]]
|coordinates = {{coord|34.15|36.39|display=inline}}
|type =
|part_of =
|length =
|width =
|area =
|height =
|builder =
|material =
|built =
|abandoned =
|epochs =
|cultures = [[Shepherd Neolithic]]
|dependency_of =
|occupants =
|event =
|excavations =
|archaeologists =
|condition =
|ownership =
|management =
|public_access = Yes
|website =
|notes =
}}
'''Wadi Boura''' is a [[wadi]] in the [[Bekaa valley]] area of [[Lebanon]] http://www.getamap.net/maps/lebanon/beqa... Wadi Boura map]. Some flints of the [[Shepherd Neolithic]] culture have been discovered in it. Wadi Boura has also the remains of some megalithic monuments (possibly [[dolmens]]) https://books.google.com/books?id=-FFHDw... Dolmens in the Levant: the Bekaa valley (figure 4.17)].
{{
Infobox archaeological culture
|name = Shepherd Neolithic
|map = Shepherd Neolithic flint tools.jpg
|mapalt =
|altnames =
|horizon =
|region = [[Lebanon]]
|period = [[Epipaleolithic]]
|dates = ''circa'' 10,200 B.C.E. — ''circa'' 8,800 B.C.E.
|typesite = [[Qaa]], [[Maqne]]
|majorsites = [[Hermel]], [[Kamouh el Hermel]], [[Douris (Baalbek)|Douris]], [[Hermel]], [[Kamouh el Hermel]], [[Qalaat Tannour]], [[Rayak North]], [[Riha Station]], [[Wadi Boura]]
|extra =
|precededby =
|followedby =
}}
==Data==
The Wadi Boura is located at more than 2000 meters of altitude (at 34°7'60" N ; 36°28'0" E). This Wadi is a ravine, bounded by relatively steep banks, which in the rainy season becomes a watercourse.
A [[Heavy Neolithic]] archaeological site of the [[Qaraoun culture]] is located near the Wadi Boura{{cite book|author1=L. Copeland|author2=P. Wescombe|title=Inventory of Stone-Age Sites in Lebanon: North, South and East-Central Lebanon, p. 51 & 52|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qhPRQwAACAAJ|year=1966|publisher=Impr. Catholique}}.
Successively, type sites (like Wadi Boura) of the [[Shepherd Neolithic]] have been discovered at [[Qaa]] and [[Maqne I]]. Other sites with Shepherd Neolithic finds in the area include [[Douris (Baalbek)|Douris]], [[Hermel II]], [[Hermel III]], [[Kamouh el Hermel]], [[Qalaat Tannour]] and possibly [[Rayak North]] and [[Riha Station]].
Indeed Shepherd Neolithic material can be found dispersed over a wide area of the north Beqaa Valley in low concentrations. Furthermore, archeologist [[Maurice Tallon|Tallon]] wondered whether the Wadi Boura [[Cairn|cairns]] represented covered examples of "Dolmens" known in [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]]Fraser; chapter 5
At the wadi Boura have been found some remains of [[Roman Phoenicia|Roman tombs]]Wescombe-Copeland; p.50.
==Notes==
==Bibliography==
* Fraser, James. ''Dolmens in the Levant''. Publisher Routledge. Sydney, 2018 {{ISBN|1351375423}}
* Krebs, Robert E. & Carolyn A. (2003). ''Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions & Discoveries of the Ancient World''. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. {{ISBN|0-313-31342-3}}.
* Moore, A.M. ''The Neolithic of the Levant''. Oxford University. Oxford, 1978 ( http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/206.ht...])
* Tallon, Maurice. ''Tumulus et mégalithes du Hermel et de la Beqāʹ Nord'' Imprim. Catholique. Beyrouth, 1959 ( https://books.google.com/books?id=yAtbHA...])
* Wescombe-Copeland. ''Inventory of Stone-Age Sites in Lebanon: North, South and East-Central Lebanon'' Université Saint-Joseph. Impr. Catholique. Beirut, 1966
==See also==
* [[Wadi Koura]]
* [[Rayak North]]
* [[Hermel]]
* [[Duris, Lebanon|Douris]]
{{Heavy Neolithic sites}}
{{Shepherd Neolithic sites}}
{{Archaeological sites in Lebanon}}
[[Category:Wadis of Lebanon|Boura]]
[[Category:Neolithic sites of Asia]]
[[Category:Shepherd Neolithic sites]]
[[Category:Neolithic settlements]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Lebanon]]
============================================
Nile exploration by Roman emperor Nero (copia cache)
Nile exploration by Roman emperor Nero was a Roman expedition undertaken around 61 AD that aimed to reach the sources of the Nile.
Contents [hide]
1
History
2
See also
3
Notes
4
Bibliography
History[edit]
Emperor Nero sent a small group of Praetorian guards to explore the sources of the Nile in Africa around 61 AD. He did this in order to obtain information for a possible conquest of Ethiopia, as equatorial Africa was called by the Romans.[2]
The Roman legionaries navigating the Nile from southern Egypt reached the city of Meroe and, later, the Sudd, where they found it difficult to go further.
From Meroe the Roman party travelled 600 miles up the White Nile, until they reached the swamp-like Sudd in what is now southern Sudan, a fetid wetland filled with ferns, papyrus reeds and thick mats of rotting vegetation. In the rainy season, it covers an area larger than England, with a vast humid swamp teeming with mosquitoes and other insects. The only large animals in the Sudd were the crocodiles and hippos that occupied the muddy pools within its vast expanse. Those who entered this region had to endure severe heat and risk disease and starvation. The Sudd was discovered to be too deep to be crossed safely on foot, but its waters were also too shallow to be explored any further by boat. The Romans ‘reached an area where the swamp could only bear a small boat containing one person’. At this point the party despaired of ever finding a definite source for the Nile and turned back reluctantly to report their findings to the emperor in Rome. They had probably reached a position nearly 1,500 miles south of the Roman-Egyptian border.
— Raoul McLaughlin, Desert Legions: The Romans in Africa, History Today, Volume 64, Issue 6, June 2014
Seneca the Younger's De Nubibus in Naturales Quaestiones documents the expedition to "explore the top of the world" (caput mundi investigandum). In this book he recounts what two legionaries told him about their discovery of the source of the Nile:
"There we saw two huge rocks, from which the power of the river went out in a powerful way.....[The Nile] comes from a very large lake of the [African] lands."[3]
Furthermore, Seneca wrote that the legionaries told him that the water of the Nile river, that jumped through two huge rocks, was coming from a very big lake inside the African lands. This lake - according to Vannini and others - could only be Lake Victoria, the biggest African lake. And the only river that goes out from this huge lake is the White Nile (named "Victoria Nile" when exits the lake), that in Jinja (Uganda) goes north toward the "Murchison Falls".
Historian Giovanni Vannini argues that this place is Murchison Falls in northern Uganda, meaning that the Romans reached Equatorial Africa. Vannini wrote in the magazine Nigrizia in 1996 that the legionaries made an exploratory journey of more than 5,000 km from Meroe to Uganda, a remarkable feat undertaken with small boats in order to bypass the Sudd, a vast swamp full of dangerous Nile crocodiles. According to Vannini, the Nero expedition from Roman Egypt reached the area of Jinja in present-day Uganda; he believes that the legionaries were able to reach Lake Victoria, based on the description of waterfall.
Murchison Falls, with the huge gap in the rocks
Vannini noted that the falls described in Seneca's interview with the legionaries cannot be found in the "Sudd" area, but are very similar to Murchison Falls, where the Nile forces its way through a gap in the rocks, only 7 metres (23 ft) wide and falls 43 metres (141 ft) before flowing west into Lake Albert. Furthermore, according to Vannini, the lake described by the legionaries could only be Lake Victoria, the largest lake in Africa and the source of the White Nile (known as the "Victoria Nile" when exits the lake), which only flows north from Jinja toward Murchison Falls and the Sudd.
However it is noteworthy to pinpoint that the legionaries, according to Seneca (who is the only to have written in full detail about this expedition/exploration discovery), saw the Nile water coming with enormous power from a big lake behind the huge rocks that are described as the Murchison Falls, but they never declared failure in finding the Nile sources (as was mistakenly stated by McLaughlin): the same Nero declared to have "found" the 'Caput mundi' from where the Nile river comes.
Subsequently, historian David Braund wrote in 2015 that Nero's expedition to the Nile's sources probably opened a new route toward the Indian Ocean, bypassing the dangers of piracy in the Red Sea area while allowing future Roman trade with India and Azania:[4]
What begins to emerge is an on-going process under the early emperors, whereby Roman imperium was indeed stretching towards the rubrum mare in every sense of the term, embracing the Red Sea, Indian Ocean... No provincia Aethiopia was ever established or seriously attempted, but Roman imperium could be said to have reached across Nubia to the Red Sea. David Braun[5]
However, the death of Nero prevented further exploration of the Nile as well as Roman conquest south of Egypt.[6]
See also[edit]
Nero
Sudd
Murchison Falls
Romans in Sub-Saharan Africa
Notes[edit]
Jump up
^ Romans in Azania-Raphta
Jump up
^ Accounts are found in Seneca the Younger (VI.8.3) and Pliny (Natural History, VI.XXXV, p. 181-187)
Jump up
^ Ibi Vidimus duas Petras, ex quibus ingens vis fluminis excidebat...ex magno terrarum lacu ascendere.
Jump up
^ David Braund: Nero’s Nubian Nile, India and the rubrum mare (Tacitus, Annals 2.61)
Jump up
^ David Braun; p.155
Jump up
^ Buckley & Dinter: A Companion to the Neronian Age
Bibliography[edit]
Braund, David. Kings beyond the claustra. Nero’s Nubian Nile, India and the rubrum mare (Tacitus, Annals2.61) University of Exeter (UK), 2015 ([1])
Buckley, Emma & Martin Dinter. A Companion to the Neronian Age. Publisher John Wiley & Sons. London, 2013 ISBN 1118316533
Emberling, Geoff. Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa. Institute for the Study of the Ancient World. New York, 2011 ISBN 978-0-615-48102-9.
Vantini, Giovanni. Nigrizia (it) (article of 1996 edition); Comboniani editions. Roma, 1996 ([2])
===============================================
GS Asm ara (copia cache)
GS Asmara
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
GS Asmara
Full name
Gruppo Sportivo Asmara
Ground
Cicero Stadium
Asmara, Eritrea
Capacity
20,000
League
Main Eritrean Championship
GS Asmara (officially called Gruppo Sportivo Asmara) was an Eritrean football club based in Asmara and founded in 1936.[1]
Contents [hide]
1
History
2
Achievements & Honours
3
Performance in CAF competitions
4
See also
5
References
History[edit]
The GS Asmara (usually called Asmara calcio) was in the Eritrean football championships since the colonial times of Eritrea. The team was initially founded in 1936 with the name Gruppo Sportivo Cicero [2] and soon was the favorite football team of the Italian "Asmarini" (as were called the Italians residents in Asmara). In 1938 the (still existing now) Cicero Stadium of Asmara was inaugurated by the GS Asmara[3].
So, in the first Eritrean championships the GS Cicero was one of the top teams[4]. In the championship 1939/1940 the "GS Cicero" changed name in "GS Asmara". In the years 1944/45, 1946/47, 1949 the GS Asmara won the Eritrea championship under the coaching of famous Enzo Artioli[5]
In 1958-1960 the GS Asmara won the local championship of Ethiopian Eritrea (because in those years Eritrea was partially annexed to Ethiopia), with the performance of the Italian Eritrean football star Luciano Vassalo.
By then in his mid-twenties, Luciano Vassalo came of age as a player while wearing the colours of GS Asmara. His left the defensive line to become an astute advanced playmaker. He wove patterns of play masterfully, but he had also become an insidious shooter. A successful team, during the run-up to the 1959 Africa Cup of Nations GS Asmara had managed to humiliate the Ethiopia national team in a friendly match. A picture of the 1960 GS Asmara squad is featured on the Mai Taclì: among 10 white faces wearing the team’s vertical-striped black and red jersey, Luciano Vassallo’s light brown skin stands out. Damiano Benzoni [6]
When Eritrea was officially a part of Ethiopia the GS Asmara won in 1962/63 and in 1963/64 the Ethiopian Championship in the region Eritrea[7]. When united to the Tele S.C. the team (called with the new name "Tele SC Asmara") won also in 1972 and 1973 the "Ethiopian championship" under the leadership of the famous "Eritrean Herrera" (the coach Massimo Fenili) [8].
The team as "Tele SC Asmara" participated in two editions of the "African Cup of Champions Clubs" in the early 1970s. Since the late 1970s the team has disappeared from the championships of Eritrea and Ethiopia, also as a consequence of the nearly complete disappearance of the Italian community in those countries with the Mengistu dictatorship.
Achievements & Honours[edit]
Eritrean Championship: 1944/45, 1946/47 and 1949
Local Eritrean Championship (as part of Ethiopia): 1958/59 and 1959/1960
Ethiopian Premier League's Champion as "Tele SC Asmara": 1972 and 1973
Performance in CAF competitions[edit]
CAF Champions League: 2 appearances
1973 African Cup of Champions Clubs
1974 African Cup of Champions Clubs
See also[edit]
Football in Eritrea
Tele S.C.
Luciano Vassalo
References[edit]
Jump up
^ Photo of the 1960 "GS Asmara", showing the Italo-eritrean champion Luciano Vassalo standing second to the right
Jump up
^ 1936-1941 first football championships in Eritrea (in Italian)
Jump up
^ Inauguration of Cicero Stadium in 1938
Jump up
^ [ http://www.rsssf.com/tablese/erit36.html First Eritrea Championship in 1936 ]
Jump up
^ Eritrean list of Champions
Jump up
^ "Citizen of Nowhere" ([1])]
Jump up
^ List of Eritrea football Champions
Jump up
^ Massimo Fenili and Tele SC Asmara
[show]
vte
Football in Eritrea
[show]
vte
Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)
Categories: Football clubs in EritreaAsmara
========================================
MASSAuA UNDERITALIAN RULE (copioa cache)
Massaua under Italian rule
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Massaua in 1887
Massaua or Massaua under Italian rule (called Massaua italiana in Italian language) was the main port of Eritrea during the Italian colonization of the region. It is now called Massawa.[1]
Contents [hide]
1
History
2
Notes
3
Bibliography
4
See also
History[edit]
Massawa was originally a small seaside village, lying in lands coextensive with the Kingdom of Axum in antiquity and overshadowed by the nearby port of Adulis about 50 kilometres (31 mi) to the south[2].
O. G. S. Crawford believed that the medieval city of Massawa (like Suakin to the north) remained a center of Christianity into the 13th century.Venetian merchants were said to have lived in Massawa in the 15th century.
The "Hotel Torino" (built in 1938), an example of Venetian influenced architecture in the old Ottoman section of the city
Following the Ottoman controlled Khedivate of Egypt's defeat at the Battle of Gura, Egyptian control of the port withered. With the help of the British, the city eventually came under Italian control: the Italians occupied the city at the end of the XIX century. It was initially the capital of their newly created colony of Eritrea, before Asmara. In the 1920s (after the 1921 earthquake that destroyed 70% of the buildings) their started a huge urbanization of the city, with enlargement of its port facilities[3].
The construction of buildings during the Italian administration in Massawa can be categorized into two main periods. The first period (1923-1930s) is a result of the destruction from major disasters of fire-burning and the two earth quakes, in 1884 and July14, 1921. Italian colonial architects and construction engineers repaired and rebuilt the damaged houses by maintaining and improving on features of the traditional Turkish and Egyptian styles. In the second period (1930s- 1940s), the construction continued in a modern architectural style. Hotels, open-air cinemas, bathing pools, officers´ clubs, administrative buildings and villas were constructed. It was a period of considerable urban development and infrastructure. Most of the buildings were constructed in Tawalud, and some near the port area like Hotel Torino, Hotel Savoia, Banca d’Italia, etc. Hotel Torino in Re´esi Midri (Wishti Batsie), which was built during the 1930s, was one of the fascinating buildings that were constructed following the modernist architectural style, popular during that time. Most of the Italian buildings were constructed on the island of Tawalud in response to the growing population density in the island. The Italians implemented the discrimination policy to divide the city racially and apparently had chosen Tawlud to be a district for the Italian citizens. During the Italian period, coral block was retained as a building material in most of these buildings, though other key additions have been made to include stone, brick and reinforced concrete.Eritrea Ministry of Information: Massaua, Pearl of the Red Sea
An airport was built in the 1930s to the west of the city, near Fort Otumlo: it was called Aerodromo Otumlo. Also were inaugurated in the same decade a huge Hospital (then named "Umberto 1"), a modern radio-telegraph station (linked to Rome), the state-of-the-art Asmara-Massawa Cableway and a railway station of the Eritrean Railway (that connected the city with Asmara).
Ocean liner "Conte Biancamano" docked at the Massaua port in 1939
Massaua under the Italian rule increased from a village of nearly 1,000 native persons in February 5, 1985 (when the Italians occupied the place for the first time[4]) to a modern (and cosmopolitan) city with a population of nearly 16,000 inhabitants in 1938/39. The Italians in the city were more than 2,000 before the start of WW2 and promoted the development of Catholicism in the city: they built the new Cathedral in the late 1930s[5].
A cable/rope linked Asmara to the port of Massawa during the Italian colonial period. This transportation system is said to have had a capacity of transporting about 200 tons one way. The whole system was dismantled during the British rule in the 1940s.GH Tesfagiorgis[6]
In the port of Italian Massaua was based the Red Sea Flotilla of the Italian Royal Navy. This Red Sea Italian Flotilla in 1940 had seven destroyers in two squadrons, a squadron of five Motor Torpedo Boats (MAS, Motoscafo Armato Silurante) and eight submarines in two squadrons.
Italian Massaua suffered huge damage when was conquered by the British in April 1941.[7]
Notes[edit]
Jump up
^ Map of Italian Massaua (1929)
Jump up
^ Adulis excavation videos
Jump up
^ Historical photos of Italian Massaua in the early 1900s: [1]
Jump up
^ Treccani: History of Massaua (in Italian)
Jump up
^ Massaua Cathedral
Jump up
^ G. Tesfagiorgis. "Emergent Eritrea"; p. 255]
Jump up
^ Map of the conquest of Massaua in 1941
Bibliography[edit]
Negash, Tekeste. Italian colonialism in Eritrea 1882-1941 (Politics, Praxis and Impact). Uppsala University. Uppsala, 1987.
Tesfagiorgis. Emergent Eritrea: Challenges of Economic Development. The Red Sea Press. Trenton/NJ, 1993 ISBN 0932415911
See also[edit]
Asmara under Italian rule
[hide]
vte
Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)
Main authorities
King & Emperor Vittorio Emanuele IIIPrime Minister Benito MussoliniList of viceroys of Italian East Africa
Eritrea Italiana. Red points are the new borders of Eritrea, enlarged in 1936 in the Governorate of Eritrea
Governors
Italian Governors of EritreaGovernorate of Eritrea: Pietro Badoglio, Alfredo Guzzoni, Vincenzo De Feo, Luigi Frusci
General History
Italian EritreaEritrea GovernorateBattle of KassalaBattle of DogaliFirst Italo-Ethiopian WarSecond Italo-Ethiopian WarEast African CampaignBattle of KerenRed Sea FlotillaEritrea (colonial ship)
Infrastructures
Eritrean RailwayAsmara-Massawa CablewayRailway stations in EritreaLinea dell'ImperoAsmara International AirportMassaua International AirportGovernor's Palace (Asmara)Asmara Presidential Palace (Asmara)Church of Our Lady of the Rosary, AsmaraCinema ImperoCicero StadiumFiat Tagliero BuildingAsmara's Opera
Related articles
Italian EritreansImperial ItalyItalian East AfricaAsmara under Italian ruleMassaua under Italian ruleItalian language in EritreaLiceo Marconi di AsmaraEritrean talleroItalian East African liraPostage stamps and postal history of Italian East AfricaEritrean Catholic ChurchItalian Eritrean cuisineFootball in Italian EritreaAsmara calcioAsmara circuitAsmara Brewery
Colonial troops
Eritrean AscariRoyal Corps of Colonial TroopsItalian 1st Eritrean DivisionItalian 2nd Eritrean DivisionItalian guerrilla units (A.O.I.)Italian African PoliceBandsZaptiéSpahis
Categories: Italian EritreaItalian colonisation in Africa
==========================================
ASMARA UNDER ITAWLIAN RULE (copia c ache)
Asmara under Italian rule
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Map of Asmara in 1929
Asmara under Italian rule was a colonial period when Eritrea's capital was ruled by the Italians. The city of Asmara came under Italian control in the 1880s after they conquered the territory of Italian Eritrea. In 1897, it was made the capital of the territory. The Italians subsequently referred to the city as Piccola Roma.[1]
Contents [hide]
1
History
2
Italian architecture
2.1
Features
3
See also
4
Notes
5
References
History[edit]
Asmara acquired some importance as a result of Alula's choice for the capital of his province, but started to grow in a huge way when it was occupied by Italy in 1889 and was made the capital city of Italian Eritrea in preference to Massawa by Governor Martini in 1897.
In the early 20th century, a railway line was built to the coast, passing through the town of Ghinda, under the direction of Carlo Cavanna. In both 1913 and 1915 the city suffered only slight damage in large earthquakes.[2] In the late 1930s the Italians changed the face of the town, with a new structure and new buildings: Asmara was called Piccola Roma (Little Rome).[3]
Asmara was populated by a large Italian community and consequently the city acquired an Italian architectural look. The city of Asmara had a population of 98,000, of which 53,000 were Italian according to the Italian census of 1939. This fact made Asmara the main "Italian town" of the Italian empire in Africa. In all of Eritrea the population of Italians was only 75,000 in total in that year, making Asmara by far their largest centre.[4] Italia Asmara enjoyed a huge development in the 1930s, not only economically but even socially and culturally: Italians even created the theater Asmara's Opera and the car race "Circuito Asmara".
Many industrial investments were made by Italy in Asmara (and surrounding areas of Eritrea),[5] but the beginning of World War II stopped the blossoming industrialization of the area.
Italian architecture[edit]
Italian Asmara represents one of the most concentrated and intact assemblage of "Modernist architecture" anywhere in the world. The urban design within the "Historic Perimeter" of modern Asmara has remained untouched since its original implementation and subsequent evolution in the 1930s, and the architectural elements exemplifies a superlative example of Modernist architecture in a complete urban setting.
The city's architecture is heavily influenced by Italian architecture, even since 1914, the Italians created urban plans for Asmara. The best plan was done in 1937 by Cafiero:
Vittorio Cafiero in 1937 did a new "Urban Plan" for Asmara ... maintaining the old street plans -done by the "Cavagnari Plan" in 1914- that divided Asmara in four sections: the Italian, the native Eritrean, the governmental and the industrial. He added a new section for future development with a "circular circle avenue". The improvement of the axis around "Rome square", "Mussolini boulevard", "Cadorna boulevard" and the "railways station", moved to the south the administrative/economic center of the planned city ...to the southeast there was the green quarter with rich villas around the Gamma Band "hill ... and to the north of the 'Milano boulevard' there was the indigenous quarter. Santoianni; Progettazione_Architettonica
In 1885, the Italians invaded Eritrea and by 1900 Asmara had become the capital city: the site was chosen mainly for its salubrious highland climate, reliable water supply and ideal geographic location in the center of Eritrea.
The "President's Office" in Asmara, built in 1897
In the early twentieth century, Asmara was a small city/village that grew to become a well-established town by the 1920s.
However, by the 1930s, it was clear that Italy, under the rule of Benito Mussolini, was intent on invading Ethiopia and would use Eritrea as the launch pad for this long-held ambition. In preparation for this substantial military attack, an unprecedented quantity of materials and labor flowed into Eritrea throughout the 1930s. In a matter of months, Asmara became a vast building site, as over 70,000 Italians arrived to established new lives for themselves.
The rapid transformation of Asmara, from a small town into Africa's most modern and sophisticated city, involved the global proliferation of "Modernism" and its various forms, including "Futurism", "Rationalism,"Novecento Italiano", and "Art Deco": the spirit of this new world of ideas and of the new forms of architecture was present in Asmara transformation and evolution to become a typical Italian city.
From 1935-1941, thousands of buildings were constructed in the city, most of which reflect various Modernist styles and some of which represent inimitable architectural forms, such as petroleum stations mimicking aeroplanes and boats, commercial buildings designed as trains, cavernous cinemas with fine period plasterwork and Art Deco interiors, fine ultra-modern hotels and offices, and government buildings with highly politicized monumental designs.
Features[edit]
The Cinema Impero was constructed in Asmara in 1937. It is a famous example of the Art Deco style
"Governor's Palace", now City Hall of Asmara
Fiat Tagliero Building
The city is known for its early 20th century buildings, including the Art Deco "Cinema Impero" (opened in 1937 and considered by the experts one of the world's finest examples of Art Déco style building), the Cubist "Africa Pension", the rationalist "Governor's Palace", the eclectic Eritrean Orthodox "Tewahdo" Church, the former "Asmara Opera House", the futurist architecture "Fiat Tagliero Building", the neo-Romanesque architecture "Roman Catholic Cathedral", and the neoclassical architecture "Presicent's Palace". The city is adorned by Italian colonial villas and mansions, one prominent example being the "Asmara's World Bank Building".
Most of central Asmara was built between 1935 and 1941, so effectively the Italians managed to build almost an entire city in just six short years [6].
At this time, the dictator Benito Mussolini had great plans for a second Roman Empire in Africa. War cut this short, but his injection of funds created the Asmara of today, which supposedly was to be a symbol that his "Fascism" worked and that it was an ideal system of government.
The city shows off most early 20th century architectural styles. Some buildings are "neo-Romanesque architecture", such as the Roman Catholic Cathedral, some villas are built in a late "Victorian Architecture" style. Art Deco influences are found throughout the city; essentially Asmara was then what Dubai is now.
Architects were restricted by nothing more than the bounds of their imaginations and were given the funds to create masterpieces which we can see today. Essences of "Cubism" can be found on the "Africa Pension Building", and on a small collection of buildings. The "Fiat Tagliero Building" shows almost the height of futurism, just as it was coming into big fashion in Italy. In recent times, some buildings have been functionally built which sometimes can spoil the atmosphere of some cities, but they fit into Asmara as it is such a modern city.
Italian Asmara was known in 1940 to be an exceptionally modern city, not only because of its architecture, but even because had more "traffic lights" than Rome had when the city was being built. The city incorporates many features of a planned city. Indeed, Asmara was an early example of an ideal modern city created by architects, an idea which was introduced into many cities across the world, such as Brasilia, but which was not altogether popular. Features include designated city zoning and planning, wide treed boulevards, political areas and districts and space and scope for development.
The city has been regarded as "New Rome" or "Italy's African City" due to its quintessential Italian touch, not only for the architecture, but also for the wide streets, piazzas and coffee bars. While the boulevards are lined with palms and indigenous shiba'kha trees, there are numerable pizzerias and coffee bars, serving "cappuccinos" and "lattes", as well as "ice cream" parlours.
Indeed the first brewery in Asmara (and Eritrea) was the Melotti Brewery, that was founded in 1939 by Luigi Melotti: even now it exists but with the new name "Asmara Brewery" and supports one of the best football teams in Eritrea (the "Asmara Brewery F.C.").
Asmara has been proposed as a possible new addition to the UNESCO's World Heritage Sites, under the direction of the "Cultural Assets Rehabilitation Project", for its outstanding examples of 20th century architecture and town planning when was called Asmara italiana.
Asmara, a village that became the capital in 1891, still conserves an almost intact urban structure and architectural features from its half century of colonialism. The first expansion of Asmara was regulated by a scheme plan, approved in 1902, which included the area to the East of the original military outpost on the Mai Belà river. The grid pattern was marked by two major arteries, parallel to each other: the King’s Way (il Corso del Re) and the Queen’s Avenue (il Viale della Regina). After the space of a decade, Cavagnari’s plan was the first to separate the European settlement from the indigenous zone. The advent of Fascism did not have an immediate impact in Eritrea; by then the capital had developed a well-integrated population. One is continuously surprised by testimonies of the residents in Asmara in the Thirties, which express a state of mind shared by both colonizers and colonized, describing the city as: ‘beautiful [...] inhabited by a mixed race, Italians and Africans ... a lot of traffic, shops, cinemas and restaurants...’ . It is commonplace to refer to ‘good Italian people’ (italiani brava gente), which is a most difficult viewpoint to abandon, and is also a most relevant perspective when considering the architectural patrimony of Asmara as a shared heritage.M. Casciato, University of Bologna[7]
See also[edit]
Asmara history and timeline
Italian Eritrea
Massaua under Italian rule
Mogadishu under Italian rule
Notes[edit]
Jump up
^ Italian Asmara
Jump up
^ Ambraseys, Nicolas; Melville, C.P.; Adams, R.D. (1994). The Seismicity of Egypt, Arabia and the Red Sea: A Historical Review. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-39120-2.
Jump up
^ Italian architectural planification of Asmara (in Italian) p. 64-66
Jump up
^ "Benvenuto sul sito del Maitacli" (in Italian). Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 8 July 2011.
Jump up
^ Italian Eritrea industries
Jump up
^ BBC: Reviving Asmara; [1]
Jump up
^ "Da campo militare a capitale: Asmara colonia italiana e oltre"
References[edit]
Boness, Stephan. Asmara - Africa´s Jewel of Modernity. Jovis Verlag, Berlin 2016, ISBN 978-3-86859-435-5
Gresleri et al. Architettura italiana d'oltremare (1870-1940)Ed. Marsilio. Roma, 1993 ISBN 8831759183
[hide]
vte
Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)
Main authorities
King & Emperor Vittorio Emanuele IIIPrime Minister Benito MussoliniList of viceroys of Italian East Africa
Eritrea Italiana. Red points are the new borders of Eritrea, enlarged in 1936 in the Governorate of Eritrea
Governors
Italian Governors of EritreaGovernorate of Eritrea: Pietro Badoglio, Alfredo Guzzoni, Vincenzo De Feo, Luigi Frusci
General History
Italian EritreaEritrea GovernorateBattle of KassalaBattle of DogaliFirst Italo-Ethiopian WarSecond Italo-Ethiopian WarEast African CampaignBattle of KerenRed Sea FlotillaEritrea (colonial ship)
Infrastructures
Eritrean RailwayAsmara-Massawa CablewayRailway stations in EritreaLinea dell'ImperoAsmara International AirportMassaua International AirportGovernor's Palace (Asmara)Asmara Presidential Palace (Asmara)Church of Our Lady of the Rosary, AsmaraCinema ImperoCicero StadiumFiat Tagliero BuildingAsmara's Opera
Related articles
Italian EritreansImperial ItalyItalian East AfricaAsmara under Italian ruleMassaua under Italian ruleItalian language in EritreaLiceo Marconi di AsmaraEritrean talleroItalian East African liraPostage stamps and postal history of Italian East AfricaEritrean Catholic ChurchItalian Eritrean cuisineFootball in Italian EritreaAsmara calcioAsmara circuitAsmara Brewery
Colonial troops
Eritrean AscariRoyal Corps of Colonial TroopsItalian 1st Eritrean DivisionItalian 2nd Eritrean DivisionItalian guerrilla units (A.O.I.)Italian African PoliceBandsZaptiéSpahis
Categories: Asmara19th century in Eritrea20th century in Eritrea
============================================
Carla MAWRIA PUCCINI (copia cache)
Carla Maria Puccini
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Carla Puccini on the right of the photo
Carla Maria Puccini (born in Gondar -Italian Ethiopia- in February 1941) is a former Italian actress and TV star.[1]
Contents [hide]
1
Life
2
Filmography
3
Notes
4
See also
Life[edit]
She was born in Gondar when the city was part of the Italian Ethiopia. After a few years living between the Italians of Ethiopia, since late childhood she moved back to Italy, where she started a career of actress while still being a teenager. She was the second wife of Romano Mussolini, son of the Italian head of Fascism, from whom she had a daughter (Rachele).
After being in 1965 in the cast of Italian television miniseries "The woman of flowers"[2] with Ubaldo Lay (and successively in the cast of another TV miniseries called "These our sons" in 1967), she presented in 1966 the Sanremo Festival. The show was presented by Mike Bongiorno, assisted by Paola Penni e Carla Maria Puccini. Gianni Ravera served as artistic director.[3]
In 1968 Carla Puccini did her most famous film: Red roses for the Führer.[4]
After her marriage, she retired to private life and in 1974 had her daughter Rachele (named as grandmother Rachele Mussolini). When her husband Romano died, she filed in 2009 a suit in order to get back a Mussolini property: the "Rocca delle Caminate".[5]
Filmography[edit]
The woman of flowers (1965), TV miniseries directed by Anton Giulio Majano
Questi nostri figli (1967), TV miniseries directed by Mario Landi
Red roses for the Führer (1968), Film directed by Fernando Di Leo
Notes[edit]
Jump up
^ "FOTOGRAFIA CARLA MARIA PUCCINI - eBay". www.ebay.it. Retrieved 16 February 2018.
Jump up
^ "La donna di fiori". Retrieved 16 February 2018 – via www.imdb.com.
Jump up
^ Eddy Anselmi. Festival di Sanremo: almanacco illustrato della canzone italiana. Panini Comics, 2009. ISBN 8863462291.
Jump up
^ "Code Name, Red Roses". 24 April 1968. Retrieved 16 February 2018 – via www.imdb.com.
Jump up
^ MonrifNet. "Il Resto Del Carlino - Forlì - I Mussolini all'attacco: "Ridateci la Rocca"". www.ilrestodelcarlino.it. Retrieved 16 February 2018.
See also[edit]
Romano Mussolini
Sanremo Music Festival 1966
Italians of Ethiopia
Categories: Italian film actressesItalian television actressesPeople from Gondar20th-century Italian actresses1941 birthsLiving peopleMussolini family
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This page was last edited on 17 February 2018, at 00:03.
========================================
New roads in Italian Ethiopia (copia cache)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Map showing in red the new roads (like the "Imperial road" between Asmara and Addis Abeba, and those in construction in 1941) created by the Italians in Ethiopia
New roads in Italian Ethiopia are the State roads of Ethiopia created as infrastructures for great communication, which from 1936 to 1941 were realized by the Kingdom of Italy in the territories of Italian East Africa (called in Italian: Africa Orientale Italiana, AOI).
Contents [hide]
1
Characteristics
1.1
Bus services
2
The New Roads
3
Notes
4
Bibliography
5
See also
Characteristics[edit]
No paved roads existed in Ethiopia before the Italian conquest.
At the outset of the Italian-Ethiopian war, few roads were completed and none had modern asphalt surface. Only two major unpaved tracks for lorries existed in 1935, the Jimma-Addis Ababa and the Addis Ababa-Dessié. M.Bertazzini[1]
The total development of the new roads in all AOI was almost 5,000 km, of which 400 km were already built in Italian Eritrea during the preparation phase of the war for the Italian conquest of Ethiopia. [2]
With the main roads of this AOI road plan, all asphalted and served by important infrastructural works, at the same time it was created a widespread secondary connection network (up to 4,000 km of development) that guaranteed the links of the smaller centers to the primary roads. [3]
According to historian Stefano Cecini in December 1937 there were 63.530 Italians and 52.742 Ethiopians/Eritreans working on the roads construction (with additionally 46.000 Sudanese & Yemenis at work on the Assab-Dessie under "very hot" temperatures)[4]. The work conditions were often very difficult (for example to make the Massaua-Decamerè in seven months died 247 Italians and more than 500 natives, mainly because of a cholera epidemy)[5]. Additionally in the first years there was the problem of the guerrilla attacks from the Ethiopian resistance fighters, that only in 1939 petered out.
However the construction of the AOI road system was carried out urgently on Mussolini's orders, but there were considerable increases in the cost of the works (that reached nearly 3/4 of the total Italian budget for the colonies)[6]. His fascist propaganda in 1940 pinpointed that Italy has given to Ethiopia two big "improvements" in just a few years: the abolition of slavery and the creation of an efficient paved roads system.
Indeed at the beginning of spring 1940, all the roads of the first "AOI road plan" of 1936 were realized, with the exception of some sections of the Addis Ababa-Gondar (a road that was also included in the next multi-year plan) and of the Gondar-Dessie.
But of the second road project of 1937, only the Addis Ababa-Harar was completed before summer 1940. There was also huge works on two of the three transoceanic roads that had to connect Italian Mogadiscio to the center of the Empire (that was the Governorate of Scioa, with the capital Addis Abeba).
Moreover, at the beginning of the World War 2 it was nearly completed the work on the roads Gimma - Sirè, Lechemti - Ghimbi and Gimma - Scioa Ghimira.
Bus services[edit]
The road systems was complemented with the 1938 creation of the Compagnia Italiana Trasporti Africa Orientale (CITAO), that served with Fiat buses[7] eight routes and related hotels/lodgings to rest[8]:
1. Massaua-Asmara-Gondar (hotel in Asmara & Adi Arcai);
2. Massaua-Dessiè-Addis Abeba (hotel in Quiha & Dessiè);
3. Assab-Dessiè-Addis Abeba (hotel in Dessiè);
4. Addis Abeba-Gimma;
5. Addis Abeba-Ambò (hotel in Lechemti);
6. Mogadiscio-Chisimaio (hotel in Modum);
7. Mogadiscio-Dolo (hotel in Baidoa);
8. Mogadiscio-Bulo Burti-Rocca Littorio (hotel in El Mos)
The New Roads[edit]
The simple list of the projected roads gives an idea of the magnitude of the investments undertaken. The vast majority of the works were managed by the AASS(Azienda Autonoma Statale della Strada), a public company purposely created by the Minister of the public works. The AASS obtained an incredibly large budget from Rome: not only did the six-year development plan destine more than 7.7bn Italian Lire (out of the total 12bn!) for road construction, but the AASS even received additional 3.1bn Lire, for the financial year 1936-7. In 1939, the newly built colonial transportation network totaled roughly 4,625 km of paved roads and 4,877 km of unpaved tracks.M. Bertazzini [9]
The following table shows the AOI new roads (in spring 1941) according to their number assigned, highlighting the urban centers connected to them (there are included also those in Eritrea [10]):
Number
Official Name
Length
Main connected cities
Note
1
Strada di Dogali
km 116
Massaua – Nefasit – Asmara
Fully asphalted
2
Strada della Vittoria
km 1,077
Asmara – Dessiè – Addis Abeba
Fully asphalted
3
Strada statale 3 Strada per Decamerè
km 40
Nefasit – Decamerè
4
Strada statale 4 Strada della Dancalia
km 485
Assab – Sardò – Dessiè
Fully asphalted
5
Strada statale 5 Strada dell'Eritrea Occidentale
km 379
Asmara – Agordat – Tessenei – Sabderat
Fully asphalted
6
Strada statale 6 Strada del Lago Tana
km 1,262
Asmara – Adua – Debarec – Gondar – Dangila – Debra Marcos – Ficcè – Addis Abeba
7
Strada statale 7 Strada del Gimma
km 340
Addis Abeba – Gimma – Gore – Gambèla
In construction
8
Strada statale 8 Strada di Lechemti
km 330
Addis Abeba – Lechemti – Ghimbi – Border near Kurmuk
In construction
9
Strada statale 9 Strada di Debra Tabor
km 360
Gondar – Debra Tabor – Dessiè
10
Strada statale 10 Addis Abeba-Deuallè
km 600
Addis Abeba – Dire Daua – Deuallè – Border near Ali Sabieh
11
Strada statale 11 Addis Abeba-Méga
km 400
Addis Abeba – Wondo – Méga
12
Strada statale 12 Addis Abeba-Mogadiscio
km 1,500
Addis Abeba – Sciasciamanna – Ginir – Imi – Ferfer – Mogadiscio
13
Strada statale 13 Wondo-Mogadiscio
km 1,350
Wondo – Neghelli – Dolo – Mogadiscio
14
Strada statale 14 Dire Daua-Garbaillè
km 300
Dire Daua – Harar – Giggiga – Garbaillec – Border near Aubarre
15
Strada statale 15 Giggiga-Mogadiscio
km 900
Giggiga – Ferfer – Mogadiscio
16
Strada statale 16 Giggiga-Buràmo
km 50
Giggiga – Buràmo – Border near Zeila
17
Strada statale 17 Mega-Neghelli
km 300
Mega – Neghelli
18
Strada statale 18 Sciasciamanna-Gimma
km 200
Sciasciamanna – Soddu – Gimma
In construction
Notes[edit]
Jump up
^ Road construction in Ethiopia before 1935; p.10
Jump up
^ Stefano Cecini: "La realizzazione della rete stradale in Africa orientale italiana (1936-41)", Dipartimento di Storia Moderna e Contemporanea – Università di Roma La Sapienza, 2007 (in Italian)
Jump up
^ Nicky Di Paolo: Le strade italiane in Africa Orientale" (in Italian)
Jump up
^ Stefano Cecini. "La realizzazione della rete stradale in Africa orientale italiana (1936-41)
Jump up
^ Stefano Cecini; p.3
Jump up
^ Alessio Gagliardi: "La mancata «valorizzazione» dell’Impero" (in Italian)
Jump up
^ 1938 Photo of Dire Dawa bus service to Harrar
Jump up
^ Stefano Cecini; p.4
Jump up
^ Bertazzini."The long-term impact of Italian colonial roads in the Horn of Africa. 1935-2000"; p.13
Jump up
^ Video of the 1937 works in the Gondar-Asmara
Bibliography[edit]
Attillo, Arcangelo. La camionale Mar Rosso – Altipiano Eritreo, Istituto Grafico Tibertino 1914
Cecini, Stefano. La realizzazione della rete stradale in Africa orientale italiana (1936-41), Dipartimento Storia Moderna e Contemporanea – Università La Sapienza. Roma, 2007
Fiore, Giacinto. Duecento pagine sull'Eritrea, Stab. Tipografico Percotto, 1950
Larebo H.M. The Building o fan Empire: Italian Land Policy and Practice in Ethiopia. 1935-1941 Clarendon P. Oxford, 1994
Bertazzini, Mattia. The long-term impact of Italian colonial roads in the Horn of Africa. 1935-2000. Department of Economic History; London School of Economics. London, 2016
Autori Vari, Annali dell'Africa Italiana (Le Opere Pubbliche), Mondadori 1939
Autori Vari, Strade Romane in Dancalia, Giuseppe Cobolli Gigli 1941
Guida dell' Africa Orientale Italiana. Editore CTI. Milano, 1938
See also[edit]
Italian Ethiopia
Italian Empire
[hide]
vte
Etiopia italiana
Main authorities
King & Emperor Vittorio Emanuele IIIPrime Minister Benito MussoliniList of viceroys of Italian East Africa
Governors
List of Italian Governors of Addis AbabaList of Italian Governors of AmharaList of Italian Governors of Galla-SidamoList of Italian Governors of HararList of Italian Governors of Scioa
Main Colonial governors: Agenore Frangipani; Guglielmo Nasi; Enrico Cerulli; Pietro Gazzera; Luigi Frusci; Alessandro Pirzio Biroli
General History
Italian EthiopiaAmhara GovernorateHarrar GovernorateGalla-Sidamo GovernorateScioa GovernorateFirst Italo-Ethiopian WarAbyssinia CrisisSecond Italo-Ethiopian WarItalian conquest of British SomalilandItalian attacks in KenyaItalian tentative to occupy French SomalilandEast African CampaignLast stand at Amba AlagiBattle of GondarBattle of CulqualberItalian guerrilla war in A.O.I. (1941-1943)
Infrastructures
New roads in Italian EthiopiaLinea aerea dell'ImperoItalian colonial railwaysEthio-Djibouti RailwaysAddis Ababa Stadium
Related articles
Italian EthiopiansAddis Abeba under Italian ruleImperial ItalyItalian East Africa40th Infantry Division Cacciatori d'AfricaItalian East African liraPostage stamps and postal history of Italian East AfricaRoman Catholicism in Ethiopia
Related personalities
Prince Amedeo d'AostaRodolfo GrazianiTito MinnitiLuciano ViolanteElisa Angela MeneguzziCarla Maria PucciniRosa DainelliAmedeo Guillet
Colonial troops
Royal Corps of Colonial TroopsItalian African PoliceBands
Categories: Italian East AfricaHistory of EthiopiaRoad transport in Ethiopia
================================================
PANNONIAN ROMANCE
{{Infobox language
|name=Pannonian Romance
|region=[[Pannonia]]
|era=ca. 500–700 CE
|ref=linglist
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2 = [[Italic languages|Italic]]
|fam3 = [[Romance languages|Romance]]
|linglist=lat-pan
|glotto=none
}}
'''Pannonian Romance''' was a Romance language that developed in [[Pannonia]] after the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]]. It seems to have lasted until the 10th century. The development of Pannonian Romance shows some similarities with that of [[British Latin|British Romance]], lasting only a few centuries.
==History==
{{Quote|In the north, a Roman population probably still lived in the former province of Pannonia at least in all the 6th century and the question whether the "dialect" spoken there belonged to East Latin or to the Occidental dialects has been discussed by scholars without a definite conclusion.André du Nay. ''The Origins of the Rumanians. The early history of the Rumanian language''}}
The Romanized population of Pannonia (for which the historian [[Theodor Mommsen]] calculated a population of about 200,000 around the 4th century) survived Barbarian invasions (by the [[Huns]], [[Goths]], [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]] and others), although they were reduced to a few thousands by the 6th century, living mainly in fortified villages like [[Keszthely]] and Fenékpuszta.
There were other places in [[Pannonia]] where the local population continued to speak forms of [[Vulgar Latin]] after the 5th century: Pécs, Sopron, Szombathely, Dunaújváros. Many Christian relics with inscriptions in Latin have been found in these towns.
[[File:RomanPannoniagirl.jpg|thumb|Image of Roman Pannonia girl (6th century), wearing ornaments of the [[Keszthely culture]]]]
But it was on the western shore of [[Lake Balaton]] where a peculiar society of craftsmen formed, called the [[Keszthely culture]], of which more than 6,000 artisan tombs and many products (including in gold) are left.
Romance dialects disappeared due to assimilation with German and Slavic invaders in borders areas of the Roman [[limes]] near the [[Danube]] river in Pannonia, [[Raetia]] (today Bavaria and Switzerland) and [[Noricum]] (today Austria), http://books.google.com/books?id=lULWOT1... Romance disappearance in "Romania submersa"] but in the area of Lake Balaton survived because the Avars needed a population of skilled artisans and craftsmen for their own needs.
After the Avars were defeated by [[Charlemagne]] and disappeared at the beginning of the 9th century, the Romanized craftsmen of the "Keszthely culture" were no longer needed and so quickly were assimilated: their language, Pannonian Romance, soon disappeared with them in the 10th century.Sós, Árthur/Salamon Á. ''Cemeteries of the Early Middle Ages (6th-9th c.) at Pókaszepetk''
==Geography==
Pannonian Romance was spoken around Lake Balaton in western [[Hungary]], mainly in the fortified villages of Keszthely and Fenékpuszta.{{dubious||reason=strange statement considering the size of Pannonia, the Roman province|date=March 2014}}{{Citation needed|date=March 2014}}
Other places where Romanized tombs of Pannonians of the 6th century were found include Pécs (the Roman Sopianae), Sopron (Scarbantia), Szombathely (Savaria), Tokod and Dunaújváros.
The area around Lake Balaton has an almost [[Mediterranean]] climate, similar to the one of the subalpine lakes in the north of [[Italy]].
According to Alexandru Magdearu, this special mild climate is one of the reasons of why the Pannonians remained in Keszthely and did not flee during the Barbarian incursions towards the relatively near coasts of the [[Adriatic Sea]].
==Language==
[[File:Hungary Pecs 2005 June 085.jpg|thumb|Remains of a Christian church of the 5th century in [[Sopianae]] (Pécs), Pannonia (Hungary)]]
{{Quote|At Fenekpuszta (Keszthely) [...] excavations have brought to light a unique group of finds that suggest not only Christians but Romans too [...] There are finds such as a gold pin with the name BONOSA proving that some ethnic group of Roman complexion remained at Fenekpuszta (after the barbarian invasions) [...] http://books.google.com/books?id=6L49AAA... Romans in Kezsthely (Fenekpuszta) in the fifth and sixth century (Google book)]
}}
Some words in Pannonian Romance were of [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] or [[Illyrian languages|Illyrian]] origin.{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}} According to the linguist Roxana Curc,{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}} the main source of evidence on this extinct language are the numerous toponyms in the area of [[Lake Balaton]] and some anthroponyms, hydronyms and ethnonyms that come from the [[Keszthely culture]].
The name ''Keszthely'' ([[IPA]] ['kεst.hεj]) could be related to the [[Istriot language|Istriot]]–[[Venetian language|Venetian]] ''castei'', which means "castle", and is probably an original word of the Pannonian Romance language, according to the Austrian linguist [[Julius Pokorny]].''[[Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch]]'' He also posits that the word ''Pannonia'' is derived via Illyrian from a [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] root ''*pen-'' "swamp, water, wet". If true, that would suggest that the pre-Roman language of Pannonia was an Illyrian language.
According to Romanian linguist Alexandru Rossetti,Istoria limbii române'' Pannonian Romance probably contributed to the creation of the 300 basic words of the "Latin substratum" of the Balkan Romance languages.
Some scholars argue that the Pannonian Romance lacks clear evidences of existence, because no written sources exist. However, according to Árthur Sós,''Cemeteries of the Early Middle Ages (6th-9th c.) at Pókaszepetkin'' in some of the 6000 tombs of the Keszthely culture, there are words in [[vernacular Latin]]. This is the case, for example, of a gold pin with the inscription ''BONOSA''.Mócsy, András. ''Pannonia and Upper Moesia: a history of the middle Danube provinces of the Roman Empire'' p.353 In the opinion of Árthur Sós, the Pannonian Romance has probably links with the [[Rhaeto-Romance languages|Rhaeto Romance]] of the Alps.
==See also==
* [[African Romance]]
* [[Moselle Romance]]
* [[British Latin]]
* [[Keszthely culture]]
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
==Bibliography==
* Du Nay, Andre. ''The Origins of the Rumanians—The early history of the Rumanian language''. Matthias Corvinus Publishing. Toronto,1996
* Magdearu, Alexandru. ''Românii în opera Notarului Anonym''. Centrul de Studii Transilvane, Bibliotheca Rerum Transsylvaniae, XXVII. Cluj-Napoca 2001.
* Mócsy, András. ''Pannonia and Upper Moesia: a history of the middle Danube provinces of the Roman Empire''. Publisher Routledge. London, 1974 ISBN 0-7100-7714-9
* Mommsen, Theodore. ''The Provinces of the Roman empire''. Barnes & Noble Books. New York 2003
* Remondon, Roger. ''La crise de l’Empire romain''. Collection Nouvelle Clio – l’histoire et ses problèmes. Paris 1970
* Rosetti, Alexandru. "History of the Romanian language" (''Istoria limbii române''), 2 vols., Bucharest, 1965-1969.
* Sós, Árthur/Salamon Á. ''Cemeteries of the Early Middle Ages (6th-9 th c.) at Pókaszepetk''. Ed by. B. M. Szőke. Budapest 1995.
* Szemerényi, Oswald. ''Studies in the Kinship Terminology of the Indo-European Languages''. Leiden 1977
* Tagliavini, Carlo. ''Le origini delle lingue neolatine''. Patron Ed. Bologna 1982
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2010}}
{{Romance languages}}
[[Category:Extinct Romance languages]]
============================
https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-L8UNyPKWwoQ/V... FOTO IN LIBIA DI MAURIZIO RAVA, governatore Somalia 1931-1935 (il primo in alto a sinistra a fianco della bandierra italiana)
=========================================
https://books.google.com/books?id=ti6GDA... The Colonial Legacy in Somalia , Paolo Tripodi (OTTIMO sui 1948 riots contro italiani a Mogadiscio)
============================
http://afriques.revues.org/1145?lang=en Roman commerce in sub-Saharan west Africa Sonja Magnavita (Initial Encounters: Seeking traces of ancient trade connections between West Africa and the wider world)
(see also map to Jenne-jeno in my computer files)
=============================
ROMANS IN SUBSAHARAN AFRICA
[[File:RomanexplorationsinSubSaharanWesternAfrica.png|thumb|right|350px|Map showing the main Roman expeditions in Sub-Saharan western Africa]]
'''Romans in Sub-Saharan Africa''' were a group of expeditions & explorations to [[Lake Chad]] and [[West Africa|western Africa]]. These expeditions were done by a group of military and commercial units of [[Roman Empire|Romans]] who moved across the [[Sahara Desert]] and into the interior of Africa and its coast. They were made by the [[Roman Empire]] between the first and the fourth century [[AD]]. The primary motivation for the expeditions was to secure sources of gold and spices.Roman objects are, indeed, found in the Sahara, and, significantly, along the western caravan route. Numerous Roman artifacts have been found at the Garamantes’ capital of Germa in the [[Fezzan]]. There is evidence of Roman style irrigation being introduced and for at least some Garamantes adopting a sedentary and a town, if not urban, lifestyle. Most striking is the large Roman-syle mausoleum found there, evidence either of Roman presence or of Romanization of the elite. Between Germa and Ghat in the Hoggar have been found Roman ceramics, glass, jewelry and coins dating from the 1st to the 4th centuries. Farther down the route, at the oasis of Abelessa, is the site known locally as the Palace of Tin Hinan. There is a charming local legend about it, but it seems to have been a fortress, in one room of which was found the skeletal remains of a woman, along with a number of Late Roman objects, including a lamp, a golden bracelet and a 4th century coin. Finally, there was a cache of Roman coins found at Timissao only 600 kilometers from the Niger. Heinemann-University of California-UNESCO ( https://books.google.com/books?id=gB6DcM... p.514 Map])
==Characteristics==
The Romans organized expeditions to cross the [[Sahara]] desert with five different routes:
*through the western Sahara, toward the [[Niger]] river and actual [[Timbuktu]].
*through the Tibesti mountains, toward Lake Chad and actual [[Nigeria]].
*through the [[Nile]] river, toward actual [[Uganda]] (and [[Ethiopia]]).
*through the western coast of Africa, toward the [[Canary Islands]] and the [[Cape Verde]] islands.
*through the [[Red Sea]], toward actual [[Somalia]] and perhaps [[Tanzania]]. http://researchomnia.blogspot.com/2015/1... Romans in Azania/Raphta]
All these expeditions were supported by legionaries and had mainly a commercial purpose. Only the one done by emperor [[Nero]] seemed to be a preparative for the conquest of [[Ethiopia]] or [[Nubia]]: in 62 AD two [[Nile exploration by Roman emperor Nero|legionaries explored the sources of the Nile river]].
One of the main reasons of the explorations was to get gold using the camel to transport it.Roth, Jonathan 2002. ''The Roman Army in Tripolitana and Gold Trade with Sub-Saharan Africa''. APA Annual Convention. New Orleans.
The explorations near the African western and eastern coasts were supported by Roman ships and deeply related to the naval commerce (mainly toward the [[Indian Ocean]]).
==Main explorations==
The main explorations were four (two in western Sahara and two in central Sahara) plus one (done by Festus) in the lake Chad/Niger river area.
===Western Sahara expeditions===
In western Sahara there were two Roman expeditions, just south of the [[Atlas Mountains|Atlas mountains]]:
* ''Cornelius Balbus expedition'': https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTNTz3... Balbus expedition and successive expeditions, with map]
The first expedition done by Romans in the Sahara—according to Plinius—was the one of [[Lucius Cornelius Balbus the Younger|Cornelius Balbus]], who in 19 BC probably reached the river Niger near Timbouctou. He moved from Libyan [[Sabratha]] and conquered with ten thousand legionaries the [[Garamantes]] capital in [[Fezzan]] and sent a small group of his legionaries further south across the [[Ahaggar]] mountains in order to explore the "land of the lions": they found a huge river (the [[Niger river|Niger]]) that in their opinion was going toward the Nile river. Indeed in 1955, many Roman coins and some Latin ceramics were found in the area of actual [[Mali]].
{{Quote|''According to Plinius this (Balbus) expedition started with the conquest of [[Gadames]] and later of Rapsa, actual [[Ghat]]. After the conquest of [[Garama]] and surrounding area, Plinius wrote that the Roman legionaries went further south to the [[Tassili]] mountains: the [[Legio III Augusta]] of Cornelius Balbus reached the oasis of Bistra in southern [[Algeria]], and then reached Alasi ([[Abalessa]] in the [[Ahaggar]]) and Balsa (actual Ilezy), until some rivers then existing (but now disappeared) like the Dasibari river. According to the scholar [[Henri Lhote]], Balbus probably used the old "road of carts", an old caravan route on the east side of the Bahr Attla, the "Atlantis sea", named even in the [[Bible]]. Along this road there are some stone inscription showing the Garamantes charriots. The Romans then crossed the Tamanrasset area on the actual border between Algeria and [[Niger]], and reached the [[river Niger]] near actual [[Gao]] after crossing the caravan center of [[Tadmekka|Tabemekka]] (in [[Mali]]).''Jonathan Roth. San Jose State University}}
According to Jonathan Roth, some Roman coins have been recently discovered in the Mali northern region, confirming this expedition. Roman objects are, indeed, found in the Sahara, and, significantly, along the western caravan route: many Roman artifacts have been found at the [[Garamantes]] capital of Germa in the [[Fezzan]]. There is evidence of Roman style irrigation being introduced and for at least some Garamantes adopting a sedentary and a town, if not urban, lifestyle. Most striking is the large Roman-syle mausoleum found there, evidence either of Roman presence or of Romanization of the elite. Between Germa and Ghat in the Hoggar have been found Roman ceramics, glass, jewelry and coins dating from the 1st to the 4th centuries. Farther down the route, at the oasis of [[Abelessa]], is the site known locally as the Palace of [[Tin Hinan tomb|Tin Hinan]]. There is a charming local legend about it, but it seems to have been a fortress, in one room of which was found the skeletal remains of a woman, along with a number of Late Roman objects, including a lamp, a golden bracelet and a 4th century coin. Finally, there was a cache of Roman coins found recently at Timissao, only 600 kilometers from the Niger river.
* ''Suetonius Paulinus expedition'':
The second was done in the year 41 AD by [[Gaius Suetonius Paulinus|Suetonius Paulinus]], a Roman Consul, who was the first of the Romans who led an army across the Atlas range. At the end of ten days' march he reached the mountains summit covered by snow and later he arrived at a river called Gerj. He then penetrated into the semi deserted country south of [[Morocco]] and some of his legionaries probably went near the river Daras (modern [[Senegal river]]).
{{Quote|''In the year 41 AD Suetonius Paulinus, afterwards Consul, was the first of the Romans who led an army across Mount Atlas. At the end of a ten days' march he reached the summit,—which even in summer was covered with snow,—and from thence, after passing a desert of black sand and burnt rocks, he arrived at a river called Gerj...he then penetrated into the country of the Canarii and Perorsi, the former of whom inhabited a woody region abounding in elephants and serpents, and the latter were Ethiopians, not far distant from the Pharusii and the river Daras (modern river Senegal)''.The journal of the Royal Geographical Society of LondonRoyal Geographical Society (Great Britain). Journal Vol. 1-10; page 7}}
From the first century after Christ there is evidence (coins, fibulas) of Roman commerce and contacts in [[Akjoujt]] and Tamkartkart near Tichit in [[Mauritania]].
===Central Sahara expeditions===
The two main explorations/expeditions in the central Sahara were:
*''Flaccus expedition'':
During [[Augustus]] times [[lake Chad]] was a huge lake and two Roman expeditions were done in order to reach it: Septimius Flaccus and Julius Maternus reached the "lake of ippopotamus" (as was called the lake Chad by Claudius Ptolomeus). They moved from coastal Tripolitania and passed near the Tibesti mountains. Both did their expeditions through the [[Garamantes]] territories, and were able to leave a small garrison on the "lake of ippopotamus and rhinoceros" after 3 months of travel in desert lands.
Ptolemy wrote that in 50 AD Septimius Flaccus did his expedition in order to retaliate against nomad raiders who attacked [[Leptis Magna]], and reached Sebha and the territory of Aozou https://books.google.com/books?id=LY5Lmc... John Coleman De Graft-Johnson." African Glory: The Story of Vanished Negro Civilizations"; p.26]. He then reached the rivers Bahr Ergig, Chari and Logone in the lake Chad area, described as the "land of Ethiopes" (or black men) and called ''[[Agisymba]]''.
*''Matiernus expedition'':
Ptolomeus even wrote that around 90 AD Julius Maternus (or Matiernus) did a mainly commercial expedition. From the Sirte gulf he reached the Oasis of Cufra and the Oasis of Archei, then arrived -after 4 months travelling with the king of the Garamantes- to the river Bahr Salamat and Bahr Aouk, near the actual Central African Republic in a region then called Agisymba. He went back to [[Rome]] with a rhinoceros with two horns, that was shown in the [[Colosseum]]. http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/en... Agisymba and Maternus]
According to Raffael Joorde, Maternus was a diplomat who explored with the king of Garamantes the territory south of the [[Tibesti mountains]], while this king did a military campaign against rebellious subjects or as a "razzia". Raffael Joorde."
Römische Vorstöße ins Innere Afrikas südlich der Sahara: die geheimnisvolle
Landschaft Agisymba", Dortmund, 2015 ( https://www.academia.edu/16951827/R%C3%B...])
===Niger river area===
However some historians (like Susan Raven Raven, Susan. Rome in Africa. 3rd ed. London, 1993 ( https://books.google.com/books?id=WEd8Ne...])) believe that there was even another Roman expedition to sub-saharan central Africa: the one of Valerius Festus, that could have reached the equatorial Africa thanks to the Niger river.
[[File:Sub-Saharan Roman expeditions-explorations.png|thumb|right|250px|Map showing the Festus expedition, during Roman explorations of Sub-Saharan Africa]]
*''Festus expedition'':
Plinius wrote Plinius the Elder. "Naturalis Historia", V, 5.36 that in 70 AD a legatus of the [[Legio III Augusta]] named Festus repeated the Balbus expedition toward the Niger river. He went to the eastern [[Hoggar Mountains]] and the entered the [[Air Mountains]] until the [[Gadoufaoua]] plain (full of dinosaur fossils). Gadoufaoua (Touareg for “the place where camels fear to go”) is a site in the [[Tenere]] desert of [[Niger]] known for its extensive fossil graveyard, where remains of [[Sarcosuchus imperator]], popularly known as SuperCroc, have been found. Festus finally arrived to the area were now there it is [[Timbouctou]] and [[Gao]].
But a few academics -like Fage https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTNTz3... Cambridge History of Africa; p.286]- think that he only reached the [[Ghat]] region in southern [[Libya]], near the border with southern Algeria and Niger (however it is possible that a few "explorers" of his legionaries reached the Niger river and went down to the equatorial forests navigating the river toward the delta in actual [[Nigeria]], like happened in the [[Nile exploration by Roman emperor Nero|Nile river exploration done under Nero emperor]] when Roman centurions reached the [[lake Victoria]] region).
However it is noteworthy to pinpoint that in actual [[Burkina Faso]] there it is a place -near the border with Niger (and Gao)- where in 1975 has been discovered the so called [[Bura culture]]. This culture existed since the late first century (when the Festus expedition was done) and produced a variety of distinctive [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]] made of [[clay]], [[iron]] and stone.Note the exhibits of Bura culture artifacts (someone a bit similar to the Roman Africa artifacts ) at the Hamill Gallery at {{cite web|url=http://www.hamillgallery.com/BURA |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2009-10-16 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807214209/http://www.hamillgallery.com/BURA/ |archivedate=2011-08-07 |df= }} and the Barakat Gallery at http://www.barakatgallery.com]. Christopher Kelly claims that analysis of copper-based objects found at Kissih in northen Burkina Faso (and belonging to the Bura culture) suggests that material of them is derived from ores in the north Africa Mediterranean area under Roman control: this fact shows highly probable Roman merchants presence in Burkina FasoKelly Christopher. Burkina Faso ("Italy invades" section)
==Maritime explorations==
The western coast of Africa was explored by the Romans after the conquest of northern Morocco (then called ''[[Mauretania Tingitana]]''): the Roman vassal king Juba II organized a successful trade from the area of [[Volubilis]]. Pliny the Elder, a 1st century Roman author and military officer, drawing upon the accounts of Juba II, king of Mauretania, stated that a Roman expedition from Mauritania visited the islands of the archipelago of the Canaries and [[Madeira]] around 10 AD and found great ruins but no population, only dogs (from those animals he called the islands, using the latin word "canarius" or "canis" for dog).
According to Pliny the Elder, an expedition of Mauretanians sent by Juba II to the archipelago visited the islands: when King Juba II dispatched a contingent to re-open the dye production facility at [[Mogador]] (historical name of Essaouira, [[Morocco]]) in the early 1st century CE Juba's naval force was subsequently sent on an exploration of the [[Canary Islands]], [[Madeira]] and probably the Cape Verde islands, using Mogador as their mission base.
We have even recorded historically that, according to Pliny the Elder, the Greek Xenophon of Lampsacus stated that the "Gorgades" ([[Cape Verde islands]]) were situated two days from "Hesperu Ceras" (today called Cap-Vert), the westernmost part of the African continent, showing a knowledge of the area by the Romans.
Furthermore, according to Pliny the Elder and his citation by Gaius Julius Solinus, the sea voyage time crossing the Gorgades (Cape Verde islands) to the islands of the Ladies of the West ("Hesperides"Some historians argue that the "Hesperides" of Solinus could have been the eastern Antilles, actual São Tomé and Príncipe and Fernando Po) was around 40 days: this fact has created academic discussions about the possibility of further Roman travels toward Guinea and even the Gulf of Guinea. A Roman coin of the emperor [[Trajan]] has been found in [[Congo]]Kelly Christopher. Republic of Congo ("Italy invades" section). Other Roman coins have been found in [[Nigeria]] and [[Niger]], but also in [[Guinea]], [[Togo]] and [[Ghana]].
Additionally must be remembered that emperor [[Augustus]] decided that the circumnavigation of Africa should also be attempted (in 1 BC). Romans had two naval ouposts in the Atlantic coast of Africa: Sala colonia near present [[Rabat]] and [[Essaouira|Mogador]] in southern Morocco (north of [[Agadir]]). The [[Mogador island|island of Mogador]] prospered for the local exploitation of purple (highly esteemed in imperial Rome) from Augustus until Septimius Severus times. Augustus, based even in the discovery of a sunken merchant ship from southern Roman Hispania (Spain) in the [[Djibuti]] area (done by his adoptive son Gaius Caesar when he sailed toward [[Aden]]), wanted to organize an expedition from [[Egypt]] to Mogador and Sala around Africa. But it was never done.
==See also==
* [[Roman Empire]]
* [[Exploration of Africa]]
==Notes==
==Bibliography==
*Coleman De Graft-Johnson, John. ''African glory: the story of vanished Negro civilizations''. Black Classic Press. New York, 1986 {{ISBN|0933121032}}
*Fage, JD. ''The Cambridge History of Africa'' Volume 2. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, 1979 {{ISBN|0521215927}}
*Kelly, Christopher & Stuart Laycock. ''Italy invades''. Publisher Greenleaf Book Group. Washington, 2015 ISBN 0996882502 ( https://books.google.com/books?id=3rqACw... ])
*Mattern, Susan. ''Rome and the enemy: imperial strategy in the principate''. University of California Press. San Francisco, 2002 {{ISBN|0520236831}}
*Miller, J. Innes. ''The Cinnamon Route in the Spice Trade of the Roman Empire''. University Press. Oxford, 1996 {{ISBN|0-19-814264-1}}
*Raven, Susan. ''Rome in Africa''. Publisher Routledge. London, 2012 {{ISBN|113489239X}}
*Roth, Jonathan. ''The logistics of the Roman Army at war (264 B.C. - A.D. 235)''. Köln : Brill, 1998 (Columbia studies in the classical tradition ; Vol. 23) ISBN 90–04–11271–5
*The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2 (from CA. 500 B.C. to A.D. 1050). Michael Crowder (& J. Fage). Cambridge University Press, 1975 ISBN {{ISBN|052122215X}}
{{Territories with limited Roman Empire occupation & presence}}
[[Category:Exploration]]
[[Category:Roman Empire]]
============================
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqZMCS7c... LIRATV simonacataldo 29-09-2015
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L"ITALIA IN GUERRA (OTTIMISSIMO E PERFETTO!!!!!!)
http://www.difesa.it/Area_Storica_HTML/e... Isole Ionie pag 371
PERFETTISSIMOOOOOO!!!!!!:
http://www.difesa.it/Area_Storica_HTML/e... STATO MAGGIOE$ DIFESA - UFFICIO STORICO (TERZO ANNO DI GUERRA:1942)
http://www.difesa.it/Area_Storica_HTML/e... IL SECONDO ANNO DI GUERRA - 1941
http://www.difesa.it/Area_Storica_HTML/e... IL PRIMO ANNO DI GUERRA - 1940
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LA CARLOTA - Rincon italiano di Caracas
http://www.eluniversal.com/noticias/cara...
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https://www.viqueria.com/occupazione-fas... Isole Ionie italiane nel 1941
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MAPPA GERMANIA ROMANA
GERMANIA (Roman province)
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?tit...(Roman_province)&oldid=794601194 (da wikipedia "reverted")
MAPPA OLANDA ROMANA
https://i.pinimg.com/736x/63/14/ec/6314e...
MAPPA E STORIA TUNISIA/ALGERIA ROMANA (Roman colonies in Berber Africa)
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?tit...
================
Oberaden (Roman Fort)
Actual area of the Oberaden castrum
The Oberaden (Roman Fort) was a big castrum of 56 hectares at Oberaden, a district of Bergkamen in Westphalia (actual Germany).[1] The castrum -for 15000 legionaries- was built during the Drusus campaign against the Germanic population of Catti in the Wetterau region, probably around 11 BC.
Contents [hide]
1
History
2
Data
3
Discovery
4
Notes
5
Bibliography
6
See also
History[edit]
Drusus had begun construction of large camps on the right of the Rhine. Some of these places were abandoned a few years later, perhaps in the 8 BC, such as Oberaden or Rödgen, important only for military purposes. Werner Eck; University of Bologna [2]
In the late summer of 11 BC, in the course of the planned expansion of the Roman Empire from the Rhine to the Elbe by Roman legions under the orders of Drusus, a stepson of the Emperor Augustus, the Roman camp Oberaden was built on a hill in today's district Bergkamen-Oberaden: it was a legion castrum for two legions and auxiliary troops, that was used also and in order to create the Roman province of Germania.
Indeed, Drusus in 11 BC set crossed the Rhine river and entered inside Magna Germania with a force consisting of five legions in addition to auxiliaries. Setting out from Vetera castra on the Rhine, he ascended the River Lippe. Here he encountered the Tencteri and Usipetes, whom he defeated in two separate engagements.[3] He reached the Werra Valley before deciding to turn back for the season, as winter was starting and supplies were dwindling. While his forces were making their way back through the territory of the Cherusci, the latter tribe laid an ambush for them at Arbalo. The Cherusci failed to capitalize on their initial advantage, whereupon the Romans broke through their lines and defeated the Germanic attackers. To show his continued mastery of the area, Drusus garrisoned a number of positions within western Germania during the winter of 11–10 BC, including one in Cheruscan territory: Oberaden.
Map of the short-lived "Germania provincia", showing the location of Oberaden castrum
Oberaden castrum remained active from 11 BC until 8 BC, when was substituted by the Aliso/Haltern castrum.[4] In that year it seems the Romans withdrew to the west of the Rhine river and burned the castrum: it was abandoned after the subjugation of the Germanic tribes of the Sicambri and the Bructeri. But recent excavations indicate that some sections were not destroyed and were used until the Varus disaster in 9 AD.
However, probably was used again by Germanicus in his campaigns from 14 AD to 16 AD. Since then the castrum has disappeared from History, even because there was no civilian Canabae near the military fortifications after Germanicus withdrawal to the west of the Rhine river.
Data[edit]
The castrum of 56 hectares lies on a hill south of the Lippe river. It has a seven-corner shape and has an area of 571200 m² with its sides of about 840 x 680 meters. The Oberaden fort was surrounded by a 2.7 kilometer-long encirclement, consisting of a four to five-meter wide trench, which was two to three meters deep. Then there was a three-meter-wide wooden wall, with every 25 yards defensive towers. Four Gate structures were found in the north, east, south and west of the fortification.
The inner area of the castrum was built according to a rectangular pattern. The buildings consisted of a half-timbered structure with a clay roof. Near the wooden wall there were the houses of the centurions and the legionaries barracks. A complex building structure was discovered in the area between the "Praetorium" (commander's house) located north of the camp and the southern gate. The Praetorium was about 41 × 59 meters in size. To the south, separated by the 42-meter-wide "Via principalis" (main road of the castrum), there was the 94 x 103 meters staff building, called "Principia". Between the staff building and the southern gate stood five small "villas" with annexed peristyle farms. The largest of these houses covered an area of 39 x 29 meters and also had a perimeter garden of 36 x 17.5 meters. These houses were reserved for the military leadership (military tribunes, centurions and legates).[5]
The Oberaden castrum was supported by a small fortlet, located not far away on the Lippe river: Beckinghausen.
The fortlet at Beckinghausen lies ca. 2 km W of the fortress on gently rising ground immediately S of the Lippe. It is 1.6 ha in extent, oval in plan, and surrounded by three V-shaped ditches, except on the river side. One is inclined to think of harbor installations and to imagine that goods brought by ship up the Lippe for the great fortress at Oberaden were unloaded here. H. Schonberger [6]
Inside the area of the castrum there were 40 wells to get water for the legionaries. Because of the enormous storage space, an occupancy of three legions with auxilia troops is not excluded.
Oberaden castrum is the largest Roman military camp north of the Alps and the oldest known castrum in Westphalia. Some finds [7] and reconstructions can be found in the town museum of Bergkamen.[8]
Discovery[edit]
This Roman military camp was discovered in 1905 by the priest Otto Prein, who had already indicated to the archaeologists the remains of the much smaller Roman camp in Beckinghausen that was used by "auxiliaria".
The first excavations began in 1906 under the leadership of Gerhard Kropachek, and they continued until 1914. Further excavations were carried out in 1937 and 1938 under the direction of Christoph Albrecht, in the years 1962/1963 and since 1976 in continuous succession under the direction of the Münsteran archaeologist Johann Sebastian Coolborn.
Notes[edit]
Jump up
^ Imaginary reconstruction of the castrum in the actual city of Bergkamen
Jump up
^ Germania of Augustus
Jump up
^ The legions in question this time were the I Germanica, the V Alaudae, the XVII, the XVIII, and the XIX.
Jump up
^ D.B.Campbell, Roman legionary fortresses 27 BC - AD 378, Oxford 2006, p.8
Jump up
^ Treccani: Oberaden (in Italian)
Jump up
^ Princeton: "Oberaden"
Jump up
^ Gladiator "sica" found inside Oberaden castrum
Jump up
^ Stadtmuseum-Bergkamen
Bibliography[edit]
Albrecht, Christoph. Das Römerlager in Oberaden. Veröffentlichung des Städtischen Museums für Vor - und Frühgeschichte, Dortmund II, l (Dortmund, 1938)
Campbell, D.B. Roman Legionary Fortresses 27 BC-AD 378 Oxford-N.Y. 2006
Kühlborn, Johann-Sebastian. Oberaden in: Bendix Trier (Hrsg.): 2000 Jahre Römer in Westfalen (Ausstellungskatalog, Zabern). Mainz 1989, ISBN 3-8053-1100-1.
Wells, C.M. The german policy of Augustus 1972.
See also[edit]
Germania (Roman province)
Anreppen
Rodgen (Roman Fort)
Hedemunden (Roman Fort)
[hide]
vte
Roman Forts in "Germania Provincia"
Roman Civilian Vicus & Fort
AlisoMarktbreitWaldgirmes
Main Legionary Castrum
AnreppenOberadenRodgenHedemunden
Camp (small & marching)
FlevumErmeloBentumersielTeceliaHolsterhausenOlfenNidaBeckinghausenKneblinghausenPorta WestfalicaLimburgOberbrechenLahnau-DorlarHachelbichWilkenburgTreva (possible marching camp)
Civis/Fort in actual Germany
Colonia Ulpia TraianaColoniaAugusta TreverorumAugusta VindelicorumCastra Regina
Categories: Roman sites in GermanyGermania (Roman province)Roman Germany
===============
Beckinghausen
Aereal photo of the Lippe river in the area of Benckinghausen-Lünen
Beckinhause was a Roman fortification of 1.6 hectares on the Lippe river.[1] Actually the camp is located inside the city of Lünen in northwestern Germany.
Contents [hide]
1
Discovery
2
History
3
Notes
4
Bibliography
5
See also
Discovery[edit]
The discovery of the Roman camp near Beckinghausen (now a district of Lünen), known as a river bank, is based on the assumptions of the priest Otto Prein.[2]
As he found out, Roman finds were supposedly discovered in the area of the Beckinghaus cemetery in the river Lippe in the 19th century. Even a ford through the lip should have existed at that time. Prein therefore presumed that the Romans could have built a fortified lip junction in this area.
In 1906 there were actually found pottery pieces, which were dated by Constantin Koenen from Neuss in the first half of the 1st century AD. In 1911, the excavators of the nearby Oberaden castrum (Albert Baum and Gerhard Kropatschek) were able to confirm Prein's guessing in a search excavation. Further excavations took place in the years 1912 to 1914. The size and shape of the fixture could be determined by means of individual search sections; Larger areas were not explored.
Also in 1937 and 1938 the area was dug. The last excavation took place in 1995–1998. An extensive finding was not obtained because the area is considerably affected by floods. Only a safe building in the inner part of the camp was discovererd, that is a 12.9 m wide and 13.20 m long storage building (horreum).
History[edit]
In the late summer of 11 BC, in the course of the planned expansion of the Roman Empire from the Rhine to the Elbe rivers by Roman legions under the orders of Drusus, a stepson of the Emperor Augustus, the Roman small camp Beckinghausen was built on the river Lippe. Romans in order to create the Roman province of Germania invaded Magna Germania and to show their continued mastery of the area, they garrisoned a number of positions within western Germania during the winter of 11–10 BC, including two in Cherusci territory: Beckinghausen and the big castrum Oberaden.
The fortlet at Beckinghausen lies ca. 2 km W of the fortress on gently rising ground immediately S of the Lippe. It is 1.6 ha in extent, oval in plan, and surrounded by three V-shaped ditches, except on the river side. One is inclined to think of harbor installations and to imagine that goods brought by ship up the Lippe for the great fortress at Oberaden were unloaded here. That is possible, but it is also conceivable that Beckinghausen was a largely independent supply base that played a role in military activities farther up the Lippe. At any rate, both Oberaden and Beckinghausen were occupied for more than just a summer. At Beckinghausen a long period of occupation is proved by the fact that pottery kilns were constructed here to supply the needs of the garrison.H. Schonberger[3]
The military camp lies on a high bank sloping down to the lip; It is of oval shape. With a maximum length of 185 meters and a width of 88 meters, its area measures around 1.6 hectares.
Map of the short-lived "Germania provincia", showing the location of the Beckinghausen fortification
Three parallel trenches surrounded the plant in the west, south and east, the inner up to 3.7 meters wide and more than two meters deep. Towards the north the eleven meters of the steep bank of the Lippe river protected the camp.
Behind the trenches lay a three-meter wide wooden-earth wall, possibly reinforced every 30 meters by towers. A gateway was found only in the west of the facility. The two inner peaks were interrupted by an earth bridge.
Within the camp were found four road trenches. At the gate in the west were discovered -in addition to two unclear building grounds- some pits. Two of them were pottery furnaces in which Roman pottery was made. Several brick-like stones were found in one of the stoves.[4]
A few coins and ceramics -that were discovered in the excavations- are also classified as contemporary with the finds from the nearby Oberaden castrum.
The end of its use could have occurred with the defeat of Varus in 9 AD. The fortification could have been also re-used during the Germanicus campaigns of 14-16 AD. No canabae evidences have been found around the small castrum, meaning that the area remained depopulated since then and until the Middle Ages.
Notes[edit]
Jump up
^ Map of Beckinghausen Roman fortlet near the Lippe river
Jump up
^ Kuhlborn: Das romische uferkastell Beckinghausen (in German)
Jump up
^ "The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, OAKWOOD, Selkirkshire, Scotland – OBERADEN Kr.Unna, Land Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany". perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2017-08-03.
Jump up
^ Beckinghausen excavation results
Bibliography[edit]
Albrecht, Christoph. Das Römerlager in Oberaden und das Uferkastell in Beckinghausen an der Lippe. Veröffentlichung aus dem Städtischen Museum für Vor- und Frühgeschichte. Dortmund II,1. 1938, S. 21–24.
Campbell, D.B. Roman Legionary Fortresses 27 BC-AD 378 Oxford-N.Y. 2006
Berke, Stephan. Beckinghausen. In: Bendix Trier (Hrsg.): 2000 Jahre Römer in Westfalen. 1989, ISBN 3-8053-1100-1 oder ISBN 3-8053-1115-X (Museumsausgabe), S. 52–54.
Kühlborn, Johann-Sebastian. Das Uferkastell in Beckinghausen. In: Johann Sebastian Kühlborn (Hrsg.): Germaniam pacavi – Germanien habe ich befriedet. Münster 1995, S. 125
Kühlborn, Johann-Sebastian. Das römische Uferkastell Beckinghausen (Museum der Stadt Lünen. Informationen aus dem Museum der Stadt Lünen, 4). Lünen 1996, S. 1–4.
Kühlborn, Johann-Sebastian. Beckinghausen, Stadt Lünen, Kreis Unna. In: Johann-Sebastian Kühlborn: Oberaden, Stadt Bergkamen, Kreis Unna und Beckinghausen, Stadt Lünen, Kreis Unna (Römerlager in Westfalen 3). Münster: Altertumskommission für Westfalen 2008, S. 28–32.
Wells, C.M. The german policy of Augustus 1972.
See also[edit]
Germania (Roman province)
Oberaden (Roman Fort)
Anreppen
Rodgen (Roman Fort)
Hedemunden (Roman Fort)
[hide]
vte
Roman Forts in "Germania Provincia"
Roman Civilian Vicus & Fort
AlisoMarktbreitWaldgirmes
Main Legionary Castrum
AnreppenOberadenRodgenHedemunden
Camp (small & marching)
FlevumErmeloBentumersielTeceliaHolsterhausenOlfenNidaBeckinghausenKneblinghausenPorta WestfalicaLimburgOberbrechenLahnau-DorlarHachelbichWilkenburgTreva (possible marching camp)
Civis/Fort in actual Germany
Colonia Ulpia TraianaColoniaAugusta TreverorumAugusta VindelicorumCastra Regina
Categories: Roman sites in GermanyGermania (Roman province)Roman Germany
==============
http://www.altwege.de/roemer-und-kelten/... OTTIMO SU FORTI IN GERMANIA ROMANA (Hogenkamp in Elsfleth)
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http://nihk.de/index.php?id=460&L=1 Elsfleth roman navy base in Weser river estuary (north Germany) OTTIMISSIMO!
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http://www.wandern-bad-nauheim.de/images... Immagine di RODGEN castrum
====================
ITALIAN MOGADISCIO (cache)
http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se...
Mogadishu, or Mogadiscio, was the capital of Italian Somalia in the first half of the 20th century. In Italian language, the city was called Mogadiscio italiana and the inhabitants were called Mogadiscini. Italian Mogadiscio [1] was under direct Italian control from 1885 until February 1941, but formal control was only officially ended with the recognition of the independence of Ethiopia in the 1947 Treaty of Peace with Italy following the end of World War II.
History
Mogadishu (or Mukdishu) is mentioned by Marco Polo and described by Ibn Batuta as an “immense” city. This was in the early part of the 14th century.....In 1892 it was transferred to Italy. The name of the town is spelt in a great variety of ways, including Madeigascar, whence the name of the island of Madagascar. Alfred Grandidier points out that the Portuguese, misled by Marco Polo's description of Mukdishu as an island, fancied they had discovered the land of which he wrote when they touched at Madagascar 1911 E. Britannica
The first Italian to write about Mogadiscio was Marco Polo, who knew of the city during his merchant travels in Asia. But the Italians showed up in Mogadishu's history only in the late 19th century, when the commerce company "Filonardi" from Italy took control of facilities in the port of Mogadishu.
By 1882, Mogadishu was under the joint control of the Somali Geledi Sultanate (which was also holding sway over the Shebelle Valley region in the interior called Benadir) and the Omani Sultan of Zanzibar.[2] In 1885, Ali bin Said leased the city to an Italian chartered company owned by Vincenzo Filonardi. This "Compagnia Filonardi" (1893–96) -and later the "Società Anonima Commerciale Italiana del Benadir" (1899-1905)- was finally taken by the Italian government, that obtained the control of the entire region of Benadir with the port of Mogadishu through an agreement with the British government in 1892. From 3 August 1889 to 15 May 1893 Filonardi was the first Governor of the "Somalia italiana" (he was governor again from 1896 to 1897).
"Banca d'Italia" building
The Kingdom of Italy purchased the city in 1905 and made Mogadishu the capital of the newly established Somalia italiana. The Italians subsequently referred to the city as Mogadiscio.
The city was soon modernized in the early 1910s with the creation of the first sewage system, the first hospital, the first paved roads and the new electricity facilities. In the 1910s and 1920s the Italians enlarged the Port of Mogadishu and created the first airport (initially only for military airplanes). In the 1910s was created the first radio-telegraph station in eastern Africa, under the supervision of Guglielmo Marconi, that was able to connect Mogadishu directly with Italian Eritrea and Rome: it was celebrated worldwide.
From 5 April 1908 to 5 May 1936, the Royal Corps of Somali Colonial Troops (Regio corpo truppe coloniali della Somalia Italiana), originally called the "Guard Corps of Benadir", served as the territory's formal military corps with headquarters in Mogadiscio. At the start of its establishment, the force had 2,600 Italian officers.[3] Between 1911 and 1912, over 1,000 Somalis from Mogadishu served as combat units along with Eritrean and Italian soldiers in the Italo-Turkish War.[4] Most of the troops stationed never returned home until they were transferred back to Italian Somaliland in preparation for the invasion of Ethiopia in 1935.[5]
In November 1920, the Banca d'Italia, the first modern bank in Italian Somaliland, was established in Mogadishu.[6] [7] Later were founded in the city the branches of other Italian banks: in 1936 Banco di Roma and in 1938 Banco di Napoli established their offices in the Somalia's capital (Banco di Napoli replaced Cassa di Risparmio di Torino, which had opened an office in Mogadishu in 1932). After WWII, from the Banca d'Italia was developed the Central Bank of Somalia: on July 1960, the newly independent Republic of Somalia established in Mogadishu the Banca Nazionale Somala (National Bank of Somalia) to take over the activities of the Cassa per la Circolazione Monetaria della Somalia and the Mogadishu branch of "Banca d'Italia" (the new bank combined central banking activities with commercial banking activities); and on February 1975, the Somalian government renamed the "Banca Nazionale Somala" with the name "Central Bank of Somalia" (Bankiga Dhexe ee Soomaaliya).
On December 5, 1923, Cesare Maria De Vecchi di Val Cismon was named Governor in charge of the new colonial administration and promoted the process of complete pacification of the Somalia italiana, with the initial integration of the native population. Italian colonial policy followed two principles in Italian Somaliland: preservation of the dominant clan and ethnic configurations and respect for Islam as the territory's religion.[8]
In 1928, the Italian authorities built the Mogadishu Cathedral (Cattedrale di Mogadiscio). It was constructed in a Norman Gothic style, based on the Cefalù Cathedral in Cefalù, Sicily.[9] Following its establishment, Crown Prince Umberto II made his first publicized visit to Mogadishu.[10] [11] To commemorate the visit, the Arch of Umberto was constructed.[11] The arch was built at the center of Mogadishu Garden.[12] The Mogadishu International Airport was constructed that same year. The facility was regarded as one of the finest in the region.
In the early 1930s, the new Italian Governors, Guido Corni and Maurizio Rava, started a policy of full assimilation of the Somalis. Many Somalis were enrolled in the Italian colonial troops, and thousands of Italian colonists moved to live in Mogadishu. The city grew in size and some small manufacturing companies opened up. The Italians also settled in agricultural areas around the capital, such as Villabruzzi (actual Jowhar) and Genale (actual Janaale).[13]
year
Italians
Mogadishu population
%
1905
100
5,000
2%
1914
900
18,000
5%
1930
17,000
50,000
30%
1940
30,000
90,000
33%
1945
40,000
100,000
40%
1960
9,000
118,000
10%
1970
1,962
230,000
1%
1989
500
800,000
0,1%
The Italian population in Mogadishu, from 1905 to 1989
In 1930, there were 22,000 Italians living in Italian Somaliland, representing 2% of the territory's population. The majority resided in the capital Mogadishu, with other Italian communities concentrated in Jowhar (Villabruzzi), Adale (Itala), Janale (Genale), Barawa (Brava), Marka (Merca), Hafun (Dante) and Kismayo (Chisimaio).[14] [15]
By 1935, Mogadishu began to serve as a major naval base and port for the Italians.[16] Then Prime Minister of Italy Benito Mussolini regarded Greater Somalia (La Grande Somalia) with capital Mogadiscio as the crown jewel in Italy's colonial empire in eastern Africa. Consequently, from 1936 to 1940, new roads were constructed in the region around Mogadiscio, such as the "Imperial Road" from Mogadishu to Addis Abeba. New railways (114 km from Mogadishu to Jowhar) and many schools, hospitals, ports and bridges were also built.[17]
Mogadishu airport was established in 1928 with the name Petrella-Mogadiscio aeroporto, the first such facility to be opened in the Horn of Africa. It served as the main military airport for Italian Somaliland. In the mid-1930s, the airport began offering civilian and commercial flights. A regular Asmara-Assab-Mogadishu commercial route was started in 1935, with an Ala Littoria Caproni 133 providing 13-hour flights from the Mogadishu airport to Italian Eritrea. The aircraft had a maximal capacity of 18 passengers, which at the time was a record. In 1936, Ala Littoria launched an intercontinental connection between Mogadishu-Asmara-Khartoum-Tripoli and Rome. The voyage lasted four days and was one of the first long range flights in the world.[18]
The port of Italian Mogadiscio had an exportation in 1934 of 43.467 tons of agricultural products (mainly bananas) toward Italy and Europe. For this commercial transport were used the service of special container-ships called "RAMB" (that were built with the possibility to be converted to be an auxiliary cruiser). The Ramb II was a banana boat based even in Mogadishu. Ramb II was the second of four sister ships all built to the same design: the other ships were the Ramb I, the Ramb III, and the Ramb IV. The four ships were built for the Royal Banana Monopoly Business ("Regia Azienda Monopolio Banane") to transport refrigerated bananas from Italian Somalia to Italy.
The Italian ocean liner Vulcania was the biggest ship to serve the port of Mogadishu
From 1936 the port started to have a weekly international ship line for passengers, connecting Mogadishu with Massaua in Eritrea and Genova in Italy with the Italian Lloyd Triestino and Italian Line.[19] The MS Vulcania was a transatlantic ship that served the port of Mogadiscio. Later, in 1941 the port was damaged by British bombings during WWII.
In the 1930s, Italian authorities began to organize professional sport in Somalia. These sports were initially concentrated only in the capital Mogadishu.[20] In 1931 governor Maurizio Rava created the Federazione Sportiva della Somalia, which organized competences of athletics, tennis and football for the Italian community and promoted the first sport activities among the young native population. In 1933 the first Somalian football championship was created in Mogadishu, called Coppa Federazione Sportiva, with three teams ("Societa' Mogadiscio", "Marina" and "Milizia"). In 1938 the football championship was won by the "Amaruini" team, made up mainly of local Somalians; in 1939 the winning team was the "Araba". In 1938 competitions of other sports, like swimming and cycling, were held.
In summer 1938 was created the Circuito Mogadiscio (called even "Circuito di Mogadiscio" and in English: "Mogadishu Circuit"), a car race done in the main streets of Mogadishu that was one of the firsts in Africa.[21] The main Italian newspaper of Mogadiscio and the Italian colonies, "Il Littoriale",[22] reported that on mid-August 1938 was done the first car race circuit of Mogadiscio. Indeed, on August 15 the Governor Francesco Saveno flagged the start of a car race followed by many thousands in the "Corso Vittorio Emanuele" (actual "Somalia Boulevard") of Somalia's capital, where there were the main stands. On Mogadiscio streets many native Somalis enjoyed enthusiastically to the first car race in their country. It was followed even by a motorcycle race, done with 250 cc and 350 cc category. The "Circuito di Mogadiscio" was repeated in 1939, but the edition of 1940 was not done because of the beginning of the war.
Since 1925 the currency in Mogadiscio was the Lira Somala, that was in use (with the AOI lira) until 1941 and that after WWII -with the Cassa per la circolazione monetaria della Somalia in 1950- was to develop into the Somalo, the only currency of Somalia with a name -by orders of the Italian government- not related/associated to a foreign money (like rupia, lira or shilling).
The Somalo was the only currency in Mogadiscio & Somalia with no reference to foreign money
After the conquest of Ethiopia and the enlargement of Italian Somalia with the addition of the Ogaden, the Viceroy Amedeo d'Aosta wanted to create a manufacturing area in southern Mogadiscio. So, between the port and the new "Petrella" airport an area with mechanical facilities was developed: later there were assembled the first Fiat trucks to serve all Somalia.[23] In 1939 in this area was also established the headquarter of the biggest salt mine of the 1930s world: the Saline Dante.
Furthermore, Prince Amedeo d'Aosta promoted in early 1940 the construction of a Somalian coastal road (similar to the Via Balbia in coastal Libya) from Kismayo up to Dante, but WWII blocked his proposal. However he was able (together with Francesco Saveno Caroselli, governor of the Somalia Governorate) to get asphalted all the roads of Mogadiscio and its outskirsts for the first vehicles circulating in Somalia (3,026 in December 1939, using the tag Som [24] ).
In the first years of the 20th century there were only one hundred Italian civilians (mostly members of the colonial administration with their families) in Mogadishu, but soon started to arrive thousands of colonists (with some merchants and entrepreneurs) from Italy: by March 1940, over 30,000 Italians lived in Mogadishu, representing around 33% of the city's total 90,000 residents.[25] [26] They frequented local Italian schools that the colonial authorities had opened, such as a local "Liceum".[27] So, in early 1940 "Africa Orientale Italiana", Mogadiscio was second only to Asmara as a city used to live an Italian way-of-life with plenty of café-bars, shops and restaurants for people strolling in the afternoon.[28]
During WWII Italian Mogadiscio was conquered by the British in February 1941: nearly all the Italians in Somalia took refuge in the city -for security reasons- during those war years until 1945. Because of these refugees Mogadishu in those years had a population that was nearly half Italian, when added the nearly 7,000 descendants of Italian soldiers who had illegitimate offsprings with Somalian girls.[29]
Since then the Italian population of Mogadiscio started to diminish, mainly after 1948 when there was the killing of Italians by the Somali Youth League,[30] and practically disappeared a few decades later. Indeed, Somali nationalist agitation against the possibility of renewed Italian rule reached the level of violent confrontation in 1948, when on 11 January, large riots broke out that left fifty-two Italians dead in the streets of Mogadishu and other coastal cities in which many more were injured.[31]
Even if there was an important community of nearly 10,000 Italians in Mogadishu in the 1950s, when Italy administrated the country with a ONU mandate, in the late 1990s practically there were no more Italians in Mogadishu.
Legacy
The legacy of the Italian presence in Mogadishu is mainly related to the decision to develop this city as the capital of actual Somalia: in 1885 the Italians found a small city/village with 3,000 inhabitants living in ruined medieval buildings[32] and in just half a century the city was transformed in a modern capital (of one of the biggest countries in eastern Africa) with 100,000 inhabitants, that was nicknamed the White Pearl of the Indian Ocean.
However some other legacies of the Italian presence in Mogadishu still remain: from the diffused use of pasta (baasto) such as spaghetti and of polenta (mishaari),[33] that comes from the Italian Somalis families, to the latin script in the Somalian language and to the architecture of the city.
Architecture
The story of Mogadishu’s Modernist buildings begins during the time of Italian colonial rule. Unlike Asmara in Eritrea and Tripoli in Libya, where the Italians built their colonial city alongside the native walled town, in Mogadishu the walls of the old medina were torn down and the occupiers’ buildings imposed in the city centre.Rakesh Ramchum [34]
In 1905 was started a plan to develop the city, that the Italians found divided in two medieval areas: Amaruini and Scingani. In the middle was built the new "Corso Vittorio Emanuele III" (the main avenue) and governmental buildings with a garden area (that in 1934 was beautified with the "Arch of Umberto"). In 1928 was created the "Piano regolatore di Mogadiscio", the first urban planification for the city, when the medioeval Scingani was demolished and was created a modern area with new buildings and tree lined roads.
Villa Somalia in 1938
Since then in Mogadishu were made many architectural improvements before WWII.[35] The most important are:
1) Villa Somalia. It is the official residential palace and principal workplace of the President of Somalia, Hassan Sheikh Mohamud. It sits on high ground that overlooks the city on the Indian Ocean, with access to both the harbour and airport.[36]
The edifice was built -in partially modern art deco style[37] - by the colonial authorities in Italian Somaliland, serving as a residence for the Italian Governors.[38]
Villa Somalia (originally called Villa Vicereale when inaugurated in October 1936 [39] ) sits on high ground that overlooks Mogadishu on the Indian Ocean, with nearby the first athletic structure for sport in Somalia. It was originally a large, squarish stucco building with a modern tiled roof.[36]
Villa Somalia was built in the new section of the city created by the Italians in the late 1930s: it was a worldwide famous symbol of modernist "Art Deco" architecture.
2) Palazzo degli Uffici del Governo.[40] In the late 1920s was built a huge building for the offices of the Italian colonial government in Somalia, located in front of the Catholic Cathedral. Later it was used as headquarters for the Amministrazione Fiduciaria della Somalia italiana (1950-1960). In front of the Palazzo's central balcony there was located a beautiful water fountain,[41] still existing.[42]
Actually it has been restructured -after the civil war damages- and reopened in 2015:[43] now it is the City Hall of Mogadishu[44]
Image of the Governor Palace
3) Governor's Palace of Mogadishu. In the 1930s it was the seat of the governor of Italian Somaliland, and then the administrator of the Trust Territory of Somalia.It was built during the colonial period (in the late 1920s) in the capital city of Mogadishu: in those decades the city was improved with Italian architecture and urbanism: this palace was one of the most representatives of the colonial fascist architecture.[45]
It was located on the "Corso Umberto", the main street of Italian Mogadiscio, and overlooked the ocean & the port. The architecture was a mixture of Italian and Arab styles, with the second floor decorated with Italian Renaissance furniture. A huge garden was created in front of the main entrance.
In the Palace, among other things, there were the following halls in the lower floor:
Arab hall with decorations, which were derived from the Islamic architecture of the old Mogadishu.
Rooms of "Queen Elena of Italy" with tapestries.
"Sala della Giustizia" with furniture in the Gothic style of the Aosta Valley.
Hall of deliberations, with the wall-scenes taken from the classical style of the Italian architecture and with a huge panel showing "San Giorgio".
The second floor was for private use, with rooms for royal guest.
It was inaugurated by Italian governor Cesare Maria De Vecchi, who ruled from 1923 to 1929. He ordered excavations in the gardens in front of the Palace that proved to be the ancient Arab palace of "El Muzaffar".[46]
In 1975 the Palace was completely razed to the ground (for political reasons) and the site was dedicated to the new construction of the luxurious "Al Uruba" (Curuuba) Hotel.[47]
The main avenue of Mogadishu in 1936, the "Corso Vittorio Emanuele III", with the "Arch of Umberto" and the "Mogadiscio Catholic Cathedral" in the background
4) Mogadishu Cathedral. Known as the "Cattedrale di Mogadiscio" (when inaugurated on March first, 1928), the Mogadishu Cathedral was constructed in a Norman Gothic style, based on the Cefalù Cathedral in Cefalù, Sicily. It was built in nearly six years by the Italian authorities in their former Italian Somaliland, in a central area of the capital not far from the Governor's Palace[48]
Indeed, the Cathedral was built as the biggest in eastern Africa by order of Cesare Maria De Vecchi, a catholic governor of "Somalia italiana" who promoted the "Missionari della Consolata" Christianization of Somalian people.[49] It was built between 1923 and 1928 and was used as a model the "Cathedral of Cefalu" (in northern Sicily), created to commemorate the Christian reconquest of Sicily from the Arabs in the 10th century.
The Cathedral was done in "Norman" Gothic style, designed by architect Antonio Vandone. The facade, with an impressive appearance, was delimited to the sides by two towers, each 37.50 meters high. The plan of the building was a Latin cross; inside was divided into three naves separated by piers with pointed arches.[50]
The church was entrusted to the "Consolata" missionaries,[51] then replaced by the Franciscans (Friars Minor). The altar had a huge statue -done by sculptor Cesare Biscarra- of the Virgin Mary of Consolata,[52] that looked at the parishioners in an impressive way like a statue of Roman Gods inside an ancient imperial temple.[53]
5) Garesa Museum. In 1933, the building that used to be the "Garesa" residence of the Zanzibar Sultanate was totally reconstructed by the Italian governor Rava and adapted to the Somalia Museum (Museo della Somalia).[54] It was the most important cultural place in Italian Mogadiscio.[55]
The "Museo della Garesa" (as was called by the Italian colonists) was officially opened to the public the next year by Governor Maurizio Rava.[56] The museum suffered heavy damages during WWII. After WWII, the old Garesa Museum was turned into the National Museum of Somalia. The National Museum was later moved in 1985, renamed to the Garesa Museum, and converted to a regional museum.[57] [58] After shutting down, the National Museum later reopened. As of January 2014, it holds many culturally important artefacts, including old coins, bartering tools, traditional artwork, ancient weaponry and pottery items.[59]
6) Arch of Umberto. In 1934 Crown Prince Umberto II made his first publicized visit to Mogadishu.[10] [11] To commemorate the visit, the Arch of Umberto was constructed.[11] The arch was built at the center of Mogadishu Garden.[12]
Cinema Italia
7) Ginnasio De Bono. Originally was inaugurated in 1935 as the first Liceum of Mogadiscio with the name "Ginnasio Emilio De Bono",[60] then after WWII it was enlarged with a new floor and was renamed " Liceo scientifico Leonardo da Vinci". Following Somalia independence, in the 1960s it was called by Somalian authorities "Yusuf AlKowneyn Secondary School"[61]
Fiat's Boero Building. In 1939 Mogadishu was created a building that was judged as a masterpiece of Italian-Arab architecture. In the surrounding manufacturing area was created the "Inataree" Somali version of the famous Fiat 650 truck.[62]9) Other important architectures & buildings were: the Casa del Fascio [63] (later headquarter of Somalian Parliament in the 1960s); the Arco Trionfale [64] (made in 1928); the Albergo Croce del Sud[65] (a modern art deco hotel); the Scuola Regina Elena [66] (the first educational building in Mogadiscio); the Monumento ai Caduti (initially created in the 1930s to honor the unknown soldier of the Italian Army including the Somalian colonial troops[67] and rebuilt in the late 1970s as "Victory Monument"[68] of the Somalia republic); the Palazzo De Vincenzi [69] (one of the main social centers with its famous "Caffé Nazionale") and the Cinema Italia (the first cinema theater in Mogadishu).
See also
Italian Somaliland
Italians of Somalia
Mogadishu
History of Mogadishu
Villabruzzi
Genale
Notes
Map of Mogadiscio Somalia in 1930
I. M. Lewis, A modern history of Somalia: nation and state in the Horn of Africa, (Westview Press: 1988), p.38
Robert L. Hess. Italian colonialism in Somalia. p. 91.
W. Mitchell. Journal of the Royal United Service Institution, Whitehall Yard, Volume 57, Issue 2. p. 997.
William James Makin. War Over Ethiopia. p. 227.
Abdi Kusow. Putting the cart before the horse: contested nationalism and the crisis of the nation-state in Somalia. p. 179.
Salah Mohamed Ali. Huddur & the history of Southern Somalia. p. 68.
Ben-Ghiat, p. 311
Giovanni Tebaldi. Consolata Missionaries in the World (1901-2001). p. 127.
R. J. B. Bosworth. Mussolini's Italy: Life Under the Fascist Dictatorship, 1915-1945. p. 48.
Peter Bridges. Safirka: An American Envoy. p. 71.
Mohamed Osman Omar. The road to zero: Somalia's self-destruction. p. 35.
Bevilacqua, Piero. Storia dell'emigrazione italiana. p. 233
Article with photos on a 2005 visit to 'Villaggio Duca degli Abruzzi' and areas of former Italian Somaliland (in Italian)
Population of Somalia in 1939
Robert E. Harkavy. Strategic Basing and the Great Powers, 1200-2000. p. 87.
Paul S. Gilbert, Scott Winfield Street, Robert A. Blume. Beginning Somali History. p. 75.
Flavio Riccitelli (A.I.D.A.). "ALA LITTORIA S.A. (1934–1941)". Il Postalista. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
Ship lines of Mogadishu port (in Italian)
Sport e fascismo (in Italian); p. 248
Photo of the Circuit Stands
"Il Littorale" on the 1938 Auto Circuit on page 5 (in Italian)
in the 1950s in Mogadishu was assembled the "Inataree" Somali version of the famous Fiat 650 truck, exported even to Ethiopia and Kenya
Targhe colonie italiane: Somalia
Alexander Hopkins McDannald. Yearbook of the Encyclopedia Americana. Retrieved 2014-04-06.
Ferdinando Quaranta di San Severino (barone). Development of Italian East Africa. Retrieved 2014-06-22.
"Photo of a mixed Italian and Somali school in Mogadishu". 11 October 2008. Retrieved 2014-03-29.
One of the main "Caffe" & cinema in the city
According to historian Tripodi, in Somalia nearly 10,000 children were born from Italians (mainly soldiers) and Somalian native girls during the half a century of colonial presence in Italian Somalia. Most of them lived in the Mogadishu area
Video related to January 1948 massacre
Mogadishu massacre on January 1948
Map of 1890s Mogadishu, showing in an inlet small map the original medieval walls
Somalian recipes (in Italian)
Italian era modernist buildings in Mogadishu
Italian architecture -with images- in 1935 Mogadiscio (in Italian)
Reports Service: Northeast Africa series, Volume 13, Issue 1. American Universities Field Staff. 1966.
Photo of Ogaden authorities looking the art deco characteristics of Villa Vicereale
1938 photo, showing the athletic race track near the newly built Villa Somalia
Video showing (in the second section) the inauguration of Villa Somalia in October 1936 in front of Somalian leaders from the Ogaden just united to Italian Somalia
Photo of the "Palazzo degli Uffici"
The "Uffici" fountain in 1935
Actual "Italianate" Water Fountain
Historic Mogadishu Mayoral Seat reopened in 2015
Photo of reopened "City Hall"
Mogadiscio's colonial architecture
Photo taken 1935 showing the gardens around the Governor's Palace and the ruins of "El Muzaffar" (enlarge the photo center)
Photo of the "Al Uruba" Hotel
Giovanni Tebaldi. Consolata Missionaries in the World (1901-2001). p. 127. Retrieved 2014-04-06.
The catholic missionaries of "Consolata" promoted by governor De Vecchi (in Italian)
Religious ceremony inside the naves
Photo of "Missione della Consolata" in Mogadiscio
Statue & decorations inside the Mogadiscio Cathedral
Image of the Virgin Mary over the Altar
Postcard showing the works done to the "Garesa" in the early 1930s
Museo della Garesa: original detailed information when inaugurated in 1934 (in Italian)
Mohamed Haji Mukhtar. Historical Dictionary of Somalia. p. xxxi. Retrieved 2014-04-06.
Crespo-Toral, H. (1988). "Museum development and monuments conservation: Somalia" (PDF). UNESCO. Retrieved 23 January 2014.
Lengyel, Oguz Janos (1982). "National Museum of Somalia, Mogadiscio: Roof Restoration Project" (PDF). UNESCO. Retrieved 23 January 2014.
"Mogadishu Points of interest". Aden Adde International Airport. Retrieved 24 January 2014.
Photo of Ginnasio De Bono in 1938
Actual secondary school building in 2009
Photo of a "Inataree" Fiat in Somalia
Photo of "Casa del Fascio"
Photo of Arco trionfale
Photo of the Albergo Croce del Sud
Photo of Regina Elena
Photo of Monumento ai Caduti
Photo of "Victory Monument"
Photo of "Palazzo De Vincenzi", one example of private buildings with Italian-Arab architecture in the city
Bibliography
Antonicelli, Franco. Trent'anni di storia italiana 1915 - 1945. Mondadori Editore. Torino, 1961.
Bevilacqua, Piero. Storia dell'emigrazione italiana. Donzelli Editore. Roma, 2002 ISBN 88-7989-655-5
Fitzgerald, Nina J. Somalia. Nova Science, Inc. New York, 2002.
Hess, Robert L. Italian Colonialism in Somalia. University of Chicago P. Chicago, 1966.
Abdisalam Issa-Salwe. The Collapse of the Somali State: The Impact of the Colonial Legacy. Haan Associates Ed. London, 1996 ISBN 187420991X ([1])
Pedrini, Carlo. Regio Laboratorio Foto Cinematografico Mogadiscio."Rivista Aeronautica" of January 1929. Mogadiscio, 1932 ([2])
Tripodi, Paolo. The Colonial Legacy in Somalia: Rome and Mogadishu. Michigan State University Press. Chicago, 1999
External links
Italian architecture in Somalia (in Italian)
Video of 1936 Mogadiscio with governor Graziani
Video of 1939 Mogadiscio
1939 Map of roads in Mogadishu & Benadir area
Website with many postcards of Italian Somalia & Mogadiscio (click to enlarge)
Original photos of Italian Mogadiscio
==================================
CHULLU (Roman colonia)
This is the actual place Collo on the coast of Algeria near the cape Bougarouni
The town is mentioned by some classical authors:
Pseudo-Skylax (par.110-111) : “Thapsa is followed by Kaukakis, a city and harbour.” This should mean, that Chullu = Kaukakis. We will find out, this is not the case.
Itinerario Antoninus p.3
Tabulae Peutingeriana
Ptolemeus (IV,3,2) : Κολλο ψ Μέγαϛ ηχούλλον as a double name. In IV 2,2: Κανομκιϛ. This last name we see also in Chios in the Aegean area as Καύκασα en Καύκασν.
Chullu was probably a Punic settlement in a rather late period, because they have unearthed mostly Punic caves, where burials took place. There were cremations as well as burials. One of these caves of the Punic period was constructed according to a plan of a row of chambers after each-other. The same we encounter at Leptis-minus in Byzacium. In the graves they have found Punic ceramics, which could be associated with importations in the Hellenistic period: vases with black varnish, lamps of Greek character, ewers with trefoil mouth, hemispheric cups with moulded vegetal ornaments).
Furthermore they have found Carthaginian and Numidian coins. All this can be dated to the 3rd century BC to the beginning of the 1st century BC. Under Caesar and Augustus it was port colony that depended on what Plinius (V 22) calls “Cirta Sittianorum”, together with Rusicade, Milevum and Cuicul in what was an autonomous territory of the new province Africa Nova. In this period it seems that it was also a working place for purple painting, as Solinus tells us (in: Collectanea rerum memorabilium XXVI, 1: Chulli purpurario fuco Tyriis velleribus comparata). In Antonius Pius times (c.138 AD) Chullu was famous for leathers, timber and of course for its dyeing and purple fabrics. Then it was called by Ptolemy “Kollops Magnus”.
Before the 3rd century BC however Chullu was not an empty spot. We must take in account, that the Algerian coast was visited for centuries by Phoenician ships. Iberia Iberia and Phoenicia
This view came into the picture during the 1st colloquium of the CEFYP (1998) in the proceedings: Intercambio y commercio preclassico en el Mediterraneo. La citta fenicie del Nord-Africa: problemi di integrazione etnica e risorse. L.I.Manfredi made the following distinction in the occupation of North-Africa by the Phoenicians:
I.c.750-c.650 BC only some bigger towns as Carthage , Utica
II.c.650-c.600 BC some colonial expansion.
III.c.600-c.500 BC integration into the Carthaginian economy (Mercantilism)
In the last period a Liby-Phoenician class is formed.
Chullu may have been taken over by a Numidian ruler, trying to develop the economy of his country by calling Carthage Carthage Numidia
During the Donatist schism Chullu has even two bishops: Quillitanus and Fidentius.
In the Vandal period the city was partially razed by them and by an earthquake and when the Arabs came all glory came to an end, but in all the following centuries it kept her name: COLLO.
Chullu should not be confused with the Municipium Chul, which was near Menzel Bou Zelfa on Cape Bon (CRAI 1975, p.112-118) and also not with the municipium Chlulitanum or Chullitanum in Byzacium (CIL VI,1684). It is not identical with the town Acholla on the eastcoast of Tunesia. Nevertheless these name similarities gives food for thought, that there could have been a migration from Byzacium to Chullu in Numidia
Some literature:
F.Decret – M.Fantar. L’Afrique du Nord dans l’antiquité, Paris, 1981 p.154-158
E.Lipinski. Itineraria Phoenicia, OLA 127. St.Phoenicia XVIII, Leuven, 2004 blz.395.
Capitain Hélo, Notice sur la nécropole liby-phénicienne de Collo, BAC 1895, p.343-368.
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