AUGUSTUS PAGUS (Wikipedia)
[[File:Nihastatue.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Statue of Roman colonist/priest at Niha lower great temple, in the "Augustus Pagus" settlements (and showing a latin inscription)]]
'''Pagus Augustus''' was a "country district" (or "farm villages-association of settlers") in [[Roman Phoenicia]], created by Roman colonists under [[Augustus]] rule. It lasted a couple of centuries as a center of Roman [[paganism]] and disappeared when Christianity become the official religion of the [[Roman Empire|empire]].
==Historical background==
Romans created only four colonies for veterans in the actual [[Middle East]]: one was [[Berytus]]. But on the mountains ([[Mount Lebanon]] and others) east of this city they also settled in an area relatively depopulated where they created [[Temples of the Beqaa Valley|various temples]] and farm-villages (like [[Niha (Roman temples)|Niha]]Benjamin Isaac; p. 52 ( https://books.google.com/books?id=7fVsvz... Latin in cities of the Roman Near east]) ). This area (around actual [[Niha Bekaa|Nihaa]] and [[Qsarnaba]] and along the road between Berytus and Baalbeck) was fully [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanized]] in the first century of the Roman empire and was the only [[Latin language|latin-speaking]] in the region. This kind of farm & villages settlement in an extended area was similar to others in the Roman empire, like in [[Roman Iberia]]'s Colonia Tuccitana https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/s... Villas Romanas en colonia Tuccitana (in Spanish)].
{{Quote|''...Dea Suria Nihathe(na) / pro Aug(usto), Pagus / Augustus fecit / et dedica[vi]t (Dedication in Latin found at Nihaa about Augustus Pagus)''. Anne-Rose Hošek https://journals.openedition.org/mefra/3... Augustus Pagus (in French)]}}
The Roman settlements of Augustus Pagus were located at the shoulder of the Western Lebanese Mountain Range -just to the East of [[Mount Sannine]] specifically https://www.int-arch-photogramm-remote-s... Map with location of some temples in the Augustus Pagus area]- and at the border of the central parts of the [[Beqaa Valley]] with the famous pagan [[Heliopolis in Phoenicia]]. People in this area actually are mostly traditional farmers, famous for growing vineyards and wild rose flowers for rosewater extraction since Roman times.
Indeed a Latin inscription found in these mountains near the village of [[Niha (Roman temples)|Niha]], shows a 'Pagus Augustus' (a village, or association of settlers) making a dedication on behalf of the Emperor to the 'Dea Suria Nihathe(na)' https://books.google.com/books?id=IA-YlZ... Fergus Millar. "The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337"; p. 282].
{{Quote|''In Roman times, this town (now called Niha) located in the center of the "Augustus pagus", is inhabited by a community of pilgrims and Roman settlers (among whom are the Vesii). The inhabitants of Nihatha could pay homage to a divine triad similar to that of Baalbek, with the difference that the gods who compose it retain their Semitic denominations: alongside the couple formed of the supreme god Hadaranès and the goddess Atargatis (Dea Syria Nihathena) is perhaps a young minor consort whose name is unknown, but whose appearance would be similar to that of the Heliopolitan Mercury.''Julien Aliquot http://books.openedition.org/ifpo/1456 La vie religieuse au Liban sous l'empire roman: Niha & Hosn Niha] Niha & surroundings, with detailed images (in French)}}
Historian Kevin Butcher pinpointed that the territory of Roman [[Berytus]] under [[Claudius]] reached the [[Bekaa valley]] and included [[Heliopolis of Phoenicia|Heliopolis]]: it was the only area mostly [[latin language|latin-speaking]] in the Syria-Phoenicia region, because settled by Roman colonists who even promoted agriculture in the fertile lands around actual [[Yammoune]]. He also wrote that from the 1st century BC the Bekaa valley served as a source of grain for the [[Roman province]]s of the [[Levant]] and even for the same [[Rome]] (today the valley makes up to 40 percent of Lebanon's [[arable land]]): Roman colonists created there even the "country district" called ''Pagus Augustus'' where are located the Niha temples with latin inscriptions Butcher, 2003; p.230.
In his opinion the mountain area between Berytus and Baalbeck was chosen by the Roman colonists because of the climate similar to the one of the Italian peninsula mountains (from where they came) and because it was with no presence of huge Phoenician or local [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] speaking communities: for a couple of centuries it was the stronghhold of Rome in the Levant (as a fully Romanized area with Roman pagan religion), that only under emperor [[Constantine the great|Constantine]] started to be converted to Christianity and was assimilated by the surrounding majority of Aramaic-speaking population.
Indeed [[Eusebius]] records that the Emperor [[Constantine the Great|Constantine]] destroyed a pagan temple of Venus 'on the summit of Mount Lebanon.'Eusebius 'Life of Constantine' III.54 and, after the 5th century AD, Christian monks who were followers of a hermit named [[Maron]] settled in the mountains where lived the remaining descendants of the roman colonists of the Augustus Pagus.
It is noteworthy to pinpoint that the area of Augustus Pagus is the "original homeland" in actual [[Lebanon]] of the territories of the [[Maronites]], a Christian group that looks at the [[Pope]] leadership. Indeed the Maronite Church is an [[Eastern Catholic Churches|Eastern Catholic]] ''[[sui iuris]]'' [[particular church]] in [[full communion]] with the [[Pope]] and the [[Catholic Church]],{{Cite book|title=One Friday in Jerusalem|last=Moubarak|first=Andre|publisher=Twin Tours & Travel Ltd|year=2017|isbn=9780999249420|location=Jerusalem, Israel|pages=213}} with self-governance under the [[Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches]].
Some researchers -like D'Ambrosio- think that this link to [[Rome]] is the last legacy of the Roman colonists who settled in this Augustus Pagus area.
==Notes==
==Bibliography==
* Aliquot, Julien. ''La Vie religieuse au Liban sous l'Empire romain''. Publications de l’Institut français du Proche-Orient. Beyrut, 2012 {{ISBN|9782351591604}} ( http://books.openedition.org/ifpo/1411])
* Butcher, Kevin. ''Roman Syria and the Near East'' Getty Publications. Los Angeles, 2003 {{ISBN|0892367156}} ( https://books.google.com/books?id=YJPn3-...])
* Millar, Fergus. ''The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337''. ACLS Humanities. Harvard University Press. Harvard, 1993 {{ISBN|0674778863}}
* Price, Jonathan; David J. Wasserstein; Benjamin Isaac. ''From Hellenism to Islam: Cultural and Linguistic Change in the Roman Near East''. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, 2009 ISBN 0521875811
==See also==
{{Portal|Lebanon|Archaeology|Ancient Near East}}
* [[Niha (Roman temples)]]
* [[Temples of the Beqaa Valley]]
* [[Temples of Mount Hermon]]
* [[Heliopolis in Phoenicia]]
* [[Roman Phoenicia]]
* [[Mount Lebanon]]
{{Archaeological sites in Lebanon}}
{{Roman Archaeological sites in Beirut & Lebanon}}
{{Roman colonies in ancient Levant}}
[[Category:Roman sites in Lebanon]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Lebanon]]
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http://genealogiagenetica.it/storia-gene... STORIA GENETICA DEGLI ITALIANI (OTTIMO!!!)
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http://148.206.53.84/tesiuami/UAM1510.pd... TESI su Zentla - Colonia Manuel Gonzalez
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http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se... Emigrazione italiana in Messico (OTTIMA)
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http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?scri... Le sei colonie italiane in messico (Ottimo)
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http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-t0W8ds7Lau4/US... Fassano nel Dep. Italia 1957
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http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/cronache/m... Storia dell'UFo in Italia del 1933 (per Researchomnia)
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https://blackcampbell.files.wordpress.co... Storia dettagliata del Benadir occupato dagli italiani ( per Researchomnia) a fine Ottocento
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http://www.eluniversal.com/noticias/cult... Linda D'Ambrosio /El Universal su libro "Ramon de la plaza"
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http://www.academia.edu/11868779/The_Far... FARASAN ISLANDS (RED SEA, FACING SAUDI ARABIA ) CONTROLLED BY ROMANS
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LUDOVICO POLLERA (Governor Eritrea)
Ludovico Pollera, was a colonial official of some importance. He arrived in Eritrea in 1895 and remained there until 1928. In 1900 it passed by the military in civilian roles. Ludovico Pollera had a particularly brilliant career. He started as a resident of Agordat and then was regional commissioner of the boat. In 1912 he accompanied an aggregate meharists company in the V Battalion Ascari in operations in Libya. Subsequently he became the head of the Civil and Political Affairs Department (1918-1920). From 20 November 1920 to 13 April 1921 he was secretary general regent the Government of the Colony of Eritrea, and then stood to the General Secretary until 1928. In spite of its excellent state service and its participation, active and sustained, the political life of the colony, Ludovico Pollera has not published that one wrote.
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The following year, in 1895, arrived in Eritrea Pollera also Ludovico (1870-1953), older brother of Alberto, which would have had the opportunity, a little later, to participate in the battle of Adwa in March 1896.
Unlike Louis, who returned from Africa in the mid-thirties of the last century to then cover between 1938 and 1945, the post of president of the Cassa di Lucca, Alberto Pollera decided to Eritrea her second homeland and had spent his whole life
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http://www.assiter.org/file/2004-africus... Vita dettagliata in fondo articolo sul fratello Alberto
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CAMILLO DE CAMILLIS
{{ Infobox officeholder
| name =Camillo De Camillis
| image=
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|order1=[[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea|Italian Governor of Eritrea]]
| term_start1= July 1, 1919
|term_end1 = November 16, 1920
| predecessor1=[[Giacomo De Martino (governor)|Giacomo De Martino]]
| successor1=[[Ludovico Pollera]]
|order2=
|term_start2 =
| term_end2=
| predecessor2=
| successor2=
| birth_date=
|birth_place =
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| nationality=Italian
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| footnotes=
}}
'''Camillo De Camillis''' was an Italian diplomat. He was an Italian colonial governor of [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]].
==Data==
His role of "Regent Governor" in [[Italian language|Italian]] was ''Funzionario ruolo colonie (attribuzione: Reggente)'' from July 1919 to November 1920.
The Regent Governor of Eritrea Camillo De Camillis instructed all colonial commissaries in Eritrea to attribute Italian citizenship automatically to the sons and daughters of unknown Italian paternal parenthood, even in the absence of paternal legal acknowledgement. So these "mulatto" eritrean kids became Italian citizens by law. https://books.google.com/books?id=KQ0MAA...(governor+of+Eritrea)+biography&source=bl&ots=_wL0Rabaum&sig=DnLnWLvAThKmDkOhAd6iRJfvq1c&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjb4KPY-tPQAhWhq1QKHXiGC5sQ6AEIRDAH#v=onepage&q=Camillo%20De%20Camillis%20(governor%20of%20Eritrea)%20biography&f=false A Political History of National Citizenship and Identity in Italy, 1861–1950, by Sabina Donati]
This was a revolutionary law when created, opening the first steps toward racial integration in colonial [[Africa]].
==Notes==
==See also==
* [[Italian Eritrea]]
* [[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea]]
==Bibliography==
* Donati, Sabina. ''A Political History of National Citizenship and Identity in Italy, 1861–1950''. Publisher Stanford University Press. Stanford, 2013. ISBN 0804787336
{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Giacomo De Martino (governor)|Giacomo De Martino]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Italian Governor of Eritrea|years=1919-1920}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Ludovico Pollera]]}}
{{s-end}}
{{Italian Governors of Eritrea and Somaliland}}
{{Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)}}
[[Category:Italian diplomats]]
[[Category:Italian Governors of Eritrea]]
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http://www.petitesondes.net/Guida-AOI/Pa... GUIDA DELL'AFRICA ORENTALE ITALIANA (1938)
http://www.centrorsi.it/notizie/images/s... mappa (in verde) territori occupati in Kenia e Sudan nel 1940
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'''Pequeño MARACANAZO'''
[[File:Aerial view of the Maracanã Stadium.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The famous Maracanã where the "Deportivo Italia" of Caracas won 1-0 the "Fluminense FC", Brasil champion]]
'''Pequeño Maracanazo''' was a futbol match in [[Rio de Janeiro]] between the [[Venezuela]]n team [[Deportivo Italia (1948-2010)|Deportivo Italia]] and the [[Fluminense]], champion of Brasil in 1971. The Fluminense, managed by [[Mário Zagallo|Lobo Zagalo]] who had just won the [[1970 FIFA World Cup|1970 world Cup]], was defeated 1-0.
==History==
Deportivo Italia was Venezuela's Champion of the 1971 season. The Italo-Venezuelan team traveled to the [[Maracanã Stadium]] and took home a 1:0 victory against the [[Fluminense FC]]. The goal was scored by central defender Tenorio. The [[Fluminense]] of famous Lobo Zagalo, Champion of Brazil https://eliezerperez.files.wordpress.com... Some players of the team that made the ''Little Maracanazo'' in 1971 with goal of Tenorio] was defeated that year for the first time in its own Maracana. https://eliezerperez.wordpress.com/tag/d... Eliezer Perez: El Maracanazo de Venezuela]
==Media reactions==
The Caracas daily [[El Universal (Caracas)|El Universal]] wrote that:
{{Quote|''...the night of March 3, 1971 will never be forgotten by the fans of Fluminense, who followed the match against Deportivo Italia by radio and television. More than 26,000 people went to the Maracanã. The modest Venezuelan team, thrashed in their own field in the previous match, did what no none could do for over a year, not even the powerful Brazilian teams: defeat Fluminense in their Maracanã. That fateful night, Deportivo Italia achieved the most enjoyable victory in the Venezuelan national football history, beating the Brazilian champion in the largest stadium in the world...}}
Santander Laya-Garrido, who wrote the book ''Los Italianos forjadores de la nacionalidad y del desarrollo economico en Venezuela'', said that since then no other Venezuela football team has obtained a similar international result in official soccer matches.Javier Briceño. Universidad Catolica Andres Bello. "Años de ensueño: la Era D'Ambrosio" p.34
==Match data==
*[[File:Fluminense fc logo.svg|20px]] FLUMINENSE (0): Vitório; Oliveira, Galhardo, Assis, Maco, Antonio, Denilson, Didi (Sildes de Souza Povoas “Silveira”), Cafuringa, Flávio, Minuano, Samarone, Lula (Wilton César Xavier).DT: Mario Zagallo
*[[File:Deportivoitalia1968.png|20px]] DEPORTIVO ITALIA (1): Vito Fassano; Carlos Marín, Freddy Ellie, Manuel Tenorio, Vicente Arruda, Delman Useche, Rui da Costa, Alcyr Freitas (Waldir Pereira “Baiano”), Bendezú Negri, Roberto Arantes “Beto”, Nelson Militello.DT: Elmo Correa
*Stadium: Mario Filho “Maracaná”, Río de Janeiro
*Date: March 3, 1971
*Referee: Rodolfo Pérez Osorio (Paraguay)
*Goal: Manuel Tenorio (Dep. Italia) 66'
==Notes==
==Bibliography==
* Briceño, Javier. ''Años de ensueño: la Era D'Ambrosio'' (de "Un sueño llamado Deportivo Petare"). Universidad Católica Andres Bello (Publicaciones y tesis). Caracas, 2013 ( http://biblioteca2.ucab.edu.ve/anexos/bi...])
==See also==
* [[Fluminense FC]]
* [[Deportivo Petare|Deportivo Italia]]
[[Category:Fluminense Football Club]]
[[Category:Association football controversies]]
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http://icomosdevenezuela.blogspot.com/20... Patrimonio edificado de Venezuela (OTTIMO E COMPLETO!)
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DEPORTIVO DANUBIO
El '''Deportivo Danubio''' (usualmente llamado '''Danubio''') fue un [[Club de fútbol|club profesional de fútbol]] venezolano. Tenía como sede la ciudad de [[Caracas]] y disputaba sus partidos en el [[Estadio Olímpico de la UCV]]. https://eliezerperez.files.wordpress.com... Eliezer Perez: Foto del Deportivo Danubio]
==Historia==
El equipo fue creado principalmente por emigrantes de [[Hungria]], que llegaron a Venezuela en los años cincuenta del siglo XX.
{{Quote|''(El Danubio) Tuvo una vida efímera: 1958 y 1959. Su presidente era Tibor Pivko y el tren directivo se completó con José Molina (vicepresidente), George Kemes (tesorero), Eugenio Linder (secretario), Geza Barton (director de Relaciones Públicas), L. Epielberger (comisario), Eugene Wiener Frommer (delegado) y Gaby Mozer (director técnico). Todos eran venezolanos pero por naturalización, a excepción de José Molina''.Eliezer Perez}}
En la era profesional, solo disputó la [[Primera División Venezolana 1958|temporada de 1958]] y la [[Primera División Venezolana 1959|temporada de 1959]].
La temporada de futbol profesional de 1958 se llamó ''Copa Junta de Gobierno'', en donde el Danubio terminó de último http://www.rsssf.com/tablesv/venez58.htm... Campeonato 1958]. El primer partido del equipo de colonia fue el 17 de agosto de 1958 con el [[Deportivo Portugues]] y terminó 0 - 0. Su primera victoria fue el 28 de septiembre del mismo año con el La Salle y fue por 2 a 0.
En el campeonato profesional de 1959 el Danubio alcanzó el tercer lugar, consiguiendo 4 victorias en los 12 partidos disputados. El Danubio logró vencer por 3 a 2 el 8 de marzo de 1959 el [[Club Deportivo Español (Venezuela)|Deportivo Español]], que se titulo Campeón de Venezuela en ese año. http://www.rsssf.com/tablesv/venez59.htm... Campeonato 1959]
El Deportivo Danubio tambien jugó en contra de la seleccion de [[Curazao]] en partido amistoso.
Sucesivamente fue disuelto por problemas de presupuesto y falta de seguidores, ya que la [[Inmigración húngara en Venezuela|colonia hungara en Venezuela]] era muy pequeña.
==Notas==
==Vease tambien==
*[[Fútbol de colonias en Venezuela]]
==External links==
* https://eliezerperez.wordpress.com/categ... Danubio, el equipo exótico de los 50]
[[Categoría:Equipos de fútbol desaparecidos de Venezuela]]
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FUTBOL DE COLONIAS EN VENEZUELA
[[Imagen:1961DeportivoItalia.jpg|thumb|500px|"Deportivo Italia" en 1961, cuando fue "Campeón de Venezuela"]]
El '''Futbol de colonias en Venezuela''' fue el inicio de la era profesional del fútbol venezolano. En la segunda mitad del siglo XX los principales clubes eran de origen europeo, sostenidos por las colonias de españoles, italianos y portugueses que se habían radicado en Venezuela especialmenter en esos años. Es así como nacen por iniciativa de estas comunidades los principales ganadores de la [[Primera División de Venezuela|Primera Division de Futbol de Venezuela]] en esas decadas: el [[Deportivo Italia]], el [[Unión Deportiva Canarias]], el [[Club Deportivo Español (Venezuela)|Deportivo Español]], el [[Galicia de Aragua|Deportivo Galicia]] y el [[Deportivo Portugués]].
== Historia ==
A finales del siglo XX el [[fútbol]] llegó a [[Venezuela]] (como en muchos otros países del mundo) con los viajeros de Europa, quienes con el deseo de explotar la minería y el caucho por los altos del [[río Orinoco]] se entretenían jugando "gygy" con un balón, en los terrenos de los campamentos de la zona y en los pocos ratos libres de su dura existencia.
De acuerdo a la tradición oral, ''El Correo del Yuruari'', publicación semanal del estado Bolívar, habría publicado el 16 julio de 1876 una nota sobre una exhibición de "un sport llamado foot-ball" con motivo de la celebración del Día de la Virgen del Carmen, en el Caratal, ubicada muy cerca de la mina "Perú" en El Callao. Este primer encuentro de fútbol habría sido organizado por un maestro galés de nombre A.W. Simpson, quien trabajaba para las compañías explotadoras del oro en la región con la participación de trabajadores ingleses, franceses, alemanes e italianos. Sin embargo, no existe respaldo documentado de esta historia, y ''El Correo del Yuruari'' tuvo su primer número el año siguiente, es decir, en 1877{{cita noticia|apellidos1=Pérez|nombre1=Eliézer|título=El extraño origen del fútbol en Venezuela|url=http://www.ultimasnoticias.com.ve/noticias/deportes/futbol/video--el-extrano-origen-del-futbol-en-venezuela.aspx}}.
Posteriormente, el fútbol se radicó en la ciudad de [[Caracas]] donde comenzaron a formarse los primeros equipos en [[1902]]. Así en los primeros días de agosto de 1902, los hermanos [[Escocia|escoceses]] David y Jimmy Ballantyne fundaron el club “[[San Bernardino Sport Club|San Bernardino]]”, quedando constituido el primer equipo de fútbol de la capital. Sucesivamente, inmigrantes de diversas naciones europeas (principalmente de [[España]], [[Portugal]] e [[Italia]]) crearon el primer torneo profesional de fútbol venezolano con seis equipos: Universidad, La Salle, [[Banco Obrero]], [[Deportivo Español (Venezuela)|Deportivo Español]], Catalonia y [[Deportivo Vasco]].
Despues de la [[segunda guerra mundial]] llegaron [[Inmigración en Venezuela|muchos centenares de millares de europeos]] a Venezuela, especialmente durante la presidencia de [[Perez Jimenez]] y empezó el llamado ''Futbol Colonial'', que dio un enorme impulso a la asistencia de público en los estadios venezolanos.
{{Quote|''A partir de este momento, el fútbol con componente criollo fué "apartado" por los inversionistas que se formaron en las colonias de inmigrantes, ya que los criollos no podían competir económicamente con los equipos con nombres extranjeros. Inclusive algunos empresarios extranjeros, como el vasco Damián Gaubeka se costeaban amistosos contra grandes clubes del mundo como Real Madrid, Botafogo, River Plate, Barcelona, etc...Deportivo Portugués, Deportivo Español, Deportivo Vasco, Deportivo Italia, Catalonia, UD Canarias, Deportivo Celta, eran nombres de los equipos más consecuentes en esta época. Italia y Portugués marcarían una rivalidad que se extendería en varias décadas aunque, pasado el tiempo, se debilitaría ese antagonismo por la calidad del fútbol; uno a uno dejarian de aparecer en los rectángulos de juego...El Deportivo Portugués participó ininterrumpidamente desde 1958 hasta 1982, en esas 24 temporadas fueron campeones 4 veces. El Deportivo Galicia estaría desde 1963 hasta 1982 interrumpidamente, luego reapareció esporádicamente en 1987 y 1989, para finalmente desaparecer en el 2001. El Deportivo Italia fué el último en separarse. Desde 1959 el Italia participó en nuestro fútbol nacional hasta 1996, cambió de nombre para salvar el equipo aliándose con la Alcaldía de Chacao y pasó a llamarse Deportivo Italchacao desde 1999 hasta que descendió a Segunda División en el 2005, revivió como Deportivo Italia el 2008 y volvió a cambiar de nombre en el 2010 para llamarse Deportivo Petare.''Armando Garcia}}
En la segunda mitad del siglo XX este futbol de colonias europeas impulsó el juego del balompié en Venezuela, llegando a obtener resultados halagadores a nivel internacional. Por ejemplo el [[Era D'Ambrosio del Deportivo Italia|Deportivo Italia]] consiguió la hazaña de vencer el equipo campeon de [[Brasil]] en el mismo estadio [[Maracana]] en la [[Copa Libertadores 1971]], con el famoso [[Pequeño Maracanazo]].
El Deportivo Español -durante la era del futbol "amateur" en Venezuela- en 1946 fue el primero de los equipos de colonia en galardonarse del título de Campeon de Venezuela, seguido por el [[Deportivo Vasco]] en 1954. El Deportivo Español en 1955 se tituló de Vice-campeon http://www.rsssf.com/tablesv/venez55.htm... Campeonato "amateur" de 1956].
Ademas el Deportivo Italia fue subcampeón del "[[Torneo Internacional de Caracas de 1950]]" http://www.futboldevenezuela.com.ve/inde... Dep. Italia vicecampeon en el Torneo de Caracas 1950], considerado como el precursor o como la primera [[Pequeña Copa del Mundo de Clubes]].
El futbol "profesional" de Venezuela empezó en 1957 con la mitad de los seis equipos participantes que eran de colonia: Deportivo Español, Catalonia y Deportivo Vasco. http://www.rsssf.com/tablesv/venez57.htm... Campeonato 1957, el primero "profesional"]
==Los años sesenta y setenta==
Durante los años sesenta y parte de los setenta el futbol de colonias dominó el balompie venezolano.
Casi todos los años desde el inicio del Campeonato "profesional" de la [[Primera División de Venezuela]] en 1957 y hasta mediados de los setenta hubo un equipo de las colonias que se tituló ''Campeon de Venezuela'' http://www.rsssf.com/tablesv/venezchamp.... Tabla de Campeones de Venezuela]. Fueron cuatro los equipos que mas se distinguieron como Campeones: Deportivo Italia, Deportivo Portugues, Deportivo Galicia y UD Canarias.
En efecto en el campeonato de 1960 hubo solo 4 equipos, todos de colonia: Deportivo Italia, Deportivo Portugues, Deportivo Español y "Celta" http://www.rsssf.com/tablesv/venez60.htm... Campeonato 1960]
En esos años los principales equipos del futbol de colonia jugaban todos sus encuentros como locales en el [[Estadio Olímpico de la Universidad Central de Venezuela]] en Caracas. Sus aficionados eran casi todos europeos (españoles, italianos y portugueses o descendientes de estos) y era común la rivalidad entre los “amarillos” del Unión Deportiva Canarias, los “rojiverdes” del Club Deportivo Portugués, los “azules” del Deportivo Italia y los “rojos” del Deportivo Galicia. En efecto hubo bastante rivalidad entre las colonias italianas y las colonias portuguesas, que llegaron a llenar con 30000 expectadores el Olímpico de la UCV en lo que se denominó en su momento el "Clásico Europeo" entre Deportivo Italia y Deportivo Portugués; a este clásico se uniría el Deportivo Galicia quíen compartiría rivalidad deportiva con esas 2 franquicias en esas decadas.
El Deportivo Galicia ademas en 1971 ganó el Torneo internacional llamado [[Copa Simón Bolívar]], el primer galardón internacional del futbol venezolano http://www.rsssf.com/sacups/simonbolivar... Copa Simon Bolivar 1971] Sucesivamente ganó dos veces (1980 y 1982) el [[Copa Almirante Brion]], un torneo binacional entre los equipos campeones de [[Campeonato de las Antillas Neerlandesas|Curazao]] y Venezuela.
Ya a la mitad de los sesenta fueron desapareciendo pequeños equipos de colonia, como el "Deportivo Celta" (precursor del Deportivo Galicia) , el "Catalonia" y el "Banco Frances e italiano", mientras empezaron a tomar fuerza algunos equipos de provincia cuyos dueños eran europeos (como el "Tiquire Flores" del estado [[Aragua (estado)|Aragua]], que se convirtió en el "Tiquire-Canarias" en 1975). Algunos equipos menores, como el [[Sociedad Deportiva Centro Ítalo Fútbol Club|Centro Italo FC]] y la [[Hermandad Gallega Fútbol Club|Hermandad Gallega FC]] duraron varias décadas, pero al final desaparecieron principalmente por causas económicas y tambien por la desaparición de los hinchas europeos (envejecidos y en algunos casos vueltos a sus paises de origen).
[[Archivo:Caracas Fc 1-4 Deportivo Petare.jpg|250px|thumb|right|"[[Clásico caraqueño|Clásico Capitalino]]" entre [[Caracas Fútbol Club]] y [[Deportivo Petare Fútbol Club|Deportivo Italia]] en el [[Estadio Olímpico de la UCV]]]]
En la segunda mitad de los setenta la riqueza de los petrodolares -luego de la [[Crisis del petróleo de 1973]]- empezó a trasladarse a manos de empresarios venezolanos, que promovieron el desarrollo de equipos venezolanos (como el [[Caracas FC]] y el [[Portuguesa Fútbol Club|Portuguesa FC]]) y la asimilación de los de las colonias europeas. Por ejemplo, desaparecieron el Deportivo Portugues -que fue substituído en 1985 por el [[Club Sport Marítimo de Venezuela|Sport Marítimo]]- y el Deportivo Galicia, que fue substituído en 2002 por el Galicia de Aragua. Otros tuvieron vida corta, como el [[Italmaracaibo]], el [[Minervén Sport Club|Club Deportivo Iberoamericano]], el "Deportivo Danubio" y el [[Casa D'Italia Fútbol Club]] (Segunda División de Venezuela).
Solamente el Deportivo Italia -luego de convertirse en [[Deportivo Italchacao]], parcialmente de propriedad del municipio Chacao de Caracas- logró regresar a su nombre originario y representar la [[Italo-venezolanos|colonia italiana de Venezuela]] en el campeonato del 2007. El Deportivo Italia fue considerado como el mejor equipo venezolano del [[siglo XX]] junto al [[Estudiantes de Mérida]], según la [[Federación Internacional de Historia y Estadística de Fútbol]]{{cita web|url=http://www.iffhs.de/?32b0cfd380ff73117fe2c0bf23c17e23a09e33b17f7370eff3702bb0a35bb6e36e52c00f23808f02|título=Lista de los mejores equipos sudamericanos del siglo XX|editor=IFFHS}}: en esos años tambien se hizo famoso el [[Clásico caraqueño]] (iniciado en 1985) entre el Deportivo Italia y el Caracas FC.
En el [[Primera División Venezolana 2008-09|Campeonato 2008-2009]] el Deportivo Italia fue el Vice-Campeon de Venezuela, siendo esta la ultima presencia triunfadora del futbol de colonia en Venezuela. http://www.rsssf.com/tablesv/venez09.htm... Campeonato 2008-2009, con el Deportivo Italia Vice-Campeon]
En ese mismo 2008 lo que quedaba de la hinchada española y portuguesa fundó el "Real Esppor" (nombre compuesto por un acrónimo de las palabras España y Portugal, el cual se debe a que sus fundadores eran empresarios con ascendencia de dichos países), que fue asimilado sucesivamente en el [[Deportivo La Guaira Fútbol Club]].
Tambien el Deportivo Italia fue asimilado y en 2010 se convirtó en el [[Deportivo Petare]] (propriedad del municipio Petare de Caracas), terminando así toda presencia (con nombre oficial europeo) del futbol de colonias en Venezuela.
La presencia del futbol de colonias en el campeonato profesional de Venezuela es importante al punto de que el equipo con mas torneos ''sin interrupciones'' actualmente es el Petare FC (que es el Deportivo Italia, con nombre cambiado en el 2010 sin desaparecer por quiebra como el Galicia y el Portugues), seguido por el [[Estudiantes de Mérida Fútbol Club|Estudiantes de Merida]] y el [[Portuguesa Fútbol Club|Portuguesa FC]] en el campeonato 2016:
{| class="wikitable"
|-a
! width="280" |Club
! width="120" |Ciudad
! width="180" |Entrenador
! width="200" |Estadio
! width="65" |[[Anexo:Equipos participantes de la Primera División de Venezuela|Temp.]]
! width="65" |Campeón
|-
|[[Archivo:Flag of Miranda State.svg|20px]] [[Petare Fútbol Club]] (Deportivo Italia)|| [[Caracas]] || {{bandera|Siria}}{{bandera|VEN}} Louey Salah || [[Estadio Olímpico de la Universidad Central de Venezuela|Olímpico de la UCV]] || align="center" | 54 || align="center" | 5 Veces
|-
|[[Archivo:Flag of Mérida.svg|20px]] [[Estudiantes de Mérida Fútbol Club]] || [[Mérida (Venezuela)|Mérida]] ||Ruberth Moran || [[Estadio Metropolitano de Mérida|Metropolitano de Mérida]] || align="center" | 44 || align="center" | 2 veces
|-
|[[Archivo:Flag of Portuguesa.svg|20px]] [[Portuguesa Fútbol Club]] || [[Araure]] || {{bandera|ARG}}{{bandera|VEN}} [[Horacio Matuszyczk]] || [[Estadio Jose Antonio Paez|Jose Antonio Paez]] || align="center" | 43 || align="center" | 5 veces
|-
|[[Archivo:Flag of Táchira.svg|20px]] [[Deportivo Táchira Fútbol Club]] || [[San Cristóbal (Venezuela)|San Cristóbal]] || {{bandera|URU}}{{bandera|VEN}} [[Carlos Maldonado]] || [[Polideportivo de Pueblo Nuevo|Pueblo Nuevo]] || align="center" | 41 || align="center" | 8 veces
|-
|[[Archivo:Flag of Caracas.svg|20px]] [[Caracas Fútbol Club]] || [[Caracas]] || {{bandera|VEN}} [[Antonio Franco]] || [[Estadio Olímpico de la Universidad Central de Venezuela|Olímpico de la UCV]] || align="center" | 32 || align="center" | 11 veces
|-
|[[Archivo:Flag of Bolívar State.svg|20px]] [[Club Deportivo Mineros de Guayana]] || [[Ciudad Guayana]] || {{bandera|VEN}} [[José de Jesús Vera|José "Chuy" Vera]] || [[Estadio Cachamay|CTE Cachamay]] || align="center" | 33 || align="center" | 1 vez
|-
! colspan="6" align="centre" |'''''Datos actualizados el 31 de julio de 2016'''''
|}
== Total campeones del fútbol de colonias en el fútbol Venezolano 1957-2010 ==
* Un total de 7 clubes han obtenido al menos un título en el fútbol Venezolano profesional, como campeones o vice-campeones.
{| class="wikitable" style="width:85%; font-size:95%"
!width="160px"|Club
!width="60px"| Campeón
!width="60px"| 2°
!width="500px"| Años Campeón
|-
|'''[[Petare Fútbol Club|Deportivo Italia]] Ganó 4 campeonatos y 7 subcampeonatos con el nombre ''Deportivo Italia'', y 1 campeonato y 1 subcampeonato con el nombre ''Deportivo Italchacao''. Actualmente se llama "Petare FC"
| align=center | '''5
| align=center | 8
| [[Primera División Venezolana 1961|1961]], [[Primera División Venezolana 1963|1963]], [[Primera División Venezolana 1966|1966]], [[Primera División Venezolana 1972|1972]], [[Primera División Venezolana 1998/99|1998/99]] --- ([[Copa Venezuela]]: 1949, 1961, 1962, 1970)
|-
|'''[[Galicia de Aragua|Deportivo Galicia]] Ganó 4 campeonatos y 5 subcampeonatos con el nombre ''Deportivo Galicia''. Actualmente se llama "Aragua Fútbol Club", despues de haber sido "Galicia de Aragua"
| align=center | '''4
| align=center | 5
| [[Primera División Venezolana 1964|1964]], [[Primera División Venezolana 1969|1969]], [[Primera División Venezolana 1970|1970]] y [[Primera División Venezolana 1975|1975]] --- ([[Copa Venezuela]]: 1966, 1967, 1969, 1979, 1981)
|-
|'''[[Club Deportivo Portugués|Deportivo Portugués]]
| align=center | '''4
| align=center | 2
| [[Primera División Venezolana 1958|1958]], [[Primera División Venezolana 1960|1960]], [[Primera División Venezolana 1962|1962]] y [[Primera División Venezolana 1967|1967]] ---- ([[Copa Venezuela]]: 1959, 1972)
|-
|'''[[Club Sport Marítimo de Venezuela|Sport Marítimo]] El Marítimo fue el sucesor del desaparecido "Deportivo Portugues" en los años ochenta y noventa
| align=center | '''4
| align=center | 1
| [[Primera División Venezolana 1986/87|1986/87]], [[Primera División Venezolana 1987/88|1987/88]], [[Primera División Venezolana 1989/90|1989/90]] y [[Primera División Venezolana 1992/93|1992/93]] --- ([[Copa Venezuela]]: 1988, 1989)
|-
|'''[[Club Deportivo Español (Venezuela)|Deportivo Español]]
| align=center | '''1
| align=center | 2
| [[Primera División Venezolana 1959|1959]]
|-
|-
|'''[[Unión Deportiva Canarias]]
| align=center | '''1
| align=center | -
| [[Primera División Venezolana 1968|1968]] --- ([[Copa Venezuela]]: 1963, 1968)
|-
|-
|[[Tiquire Flores Fútbol Club|Tiquire Flores-Canarias]]
| align=center | -
| align=center | 1
| -----
|-
|}
{{listaref|grupo="nota"}}
En el contexto del fútbol venezolano, el ''doblete'' implica el ganar la liga [[Primera División de Venezuela]] y la [[Copa Venezuela]] en la misma temporada. El primer doblete fue obtenido por el Deportivo Italia en 1961, seguido por los del Canarias y Galicia pocos años despues. El ultimo doblete de los equipos de colonia fue obtenido por el sucesor del Deportivo Portugues, el Marítimo en 1988:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Año
!Ganador
!Trofeos
!Notas
|-
|[[1961]]
|[[Deportivo Italia]]
|[[Primera División de Venezuela|Primera División]], [[Copa Venezuela]]
|Primer equipo venezolano en completar un doblete en el siglo XX.
|-
|[[1968]]
|[[Unión Deportiva Canarias]]
|[[Primera División de Venezuela|Primera División]], [[Copa Venezuela]]
|
|-
|[[1969]]
|[[Deportivo Galicia]]
|[[Primera División de Venezuela|Primera División]], [[Copa Venezuela]]
|
|-
|[[1988]]
|[[Club Sport Marítimo de Venezuela|CS Marítimo]]
|[[Primera División de Venezuela|Primera División]], [[Copa Venezuela]]
|
|}
== Los equipos de colonia en la "Libertadores de América" (1964-1985)==
La siguiente es una reseña de las campañas de los equipos venezolanos de colonia en la [[Copa Libertadores de América]].
{| class="wikitable" width="100%"
|- align=center bgcolor=#006699 style="color:black;"
! width=6%|Año
! width=20%|Equipos participantes
! width=10%|Campaña
! width=6%|Partidos
! width=6%|Victorias
! width=6%|Empates
! width=6%|Derrotas
|-
|- align=center bgcolor=#F5FAFF
|[[Copa de Campeones de América 1964|1964]]
|[[Deportivo Petare|Deportivo Italia]]
|Primera fase
|6
|2
|1
|3
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF
|[[Copa Libertadores 1965|1965]]
|[[Galicia de Aragua|Deportivo Galicia]]
|Primera fase
|4
|0
|1
|3
|- align=center bgcolor=#F5FAFF
|rowspan=2|[[Copa Libertadores 1966|1966]]
|- align=center
|[[Deportivo Petare|Deportivo Italia]]
|Primera fase
|10
|4
|2
|4
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF
|rowspan=2|[[Copa Libertadores 1967|1967]]
|[[Deportivo Petare|Deportivo Italia]]
|Primera fase
|8
|2
|1
|5
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF
|[[Deportivo Galicia]]
|Primera fase
|8
|1
|2
|5
|- align=center bgcolor=#F5FAFF
|rowspan=2|[[Copa Libertadores 1968|1968]]
|[[Deportivo Galicia]]
|Primera fase
|6
|2
|0
|4
|- align=center
|[[Deportivo Portugués]]
|Segunda fase
|6
|2
|1
|3
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF
|rowspan=2|[[Copa Libertadores 1969|1969]]
|[[Deportivo Petare|Deportivo Italia]]
|Segunda fase
|6
|1
|2
|3
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF
|[[Union Deportiva Canarias|Deportivo Canarias]]
|Primera fase
|4
|1
|1
|2
|- align=center bgcolor=#F5FAFF
|rowspan=2|[[Copa Libertadores 1970|1970]]
|- align=center
|[[Deportivo Galicia]]
|Primera fase
|6
|0
|0
|6
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF
|rowspan=2|[[Copa Libertadores 1971|1971]]
|[[Deportivo Galicia]]
|Primera fase
|6
|0
|1
|5
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF
|[[Deportivo Petare|Deportivo Italia]]
|Primera fase
|6
|2
|1
|3
|- align=center bgcolor=#F5FAFF
|rowspan=2|[[Copa Libertadores 1972|1972]]
|- align=center
|[[Deportivo Petare|Deportivo Italia]]
|Primera fase
|4
|1
|1
|2
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF
|rowspan=2|[[Copa Libertadores 1975|1975]]
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF
|[[Deportivo Galicia]]
|Primera fase
|6
|1
|3
|2
|- align=center bgcolor=#F5FAFF
|rowspan=2|[[Copa Libertadores 1976|1976]]
|- align=center
|[[Deportivo Galicia]]
|Primera fase
|6
|0
|0
|6
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF
|rowspan=2|[[Copa Libertadores 1979|1979]]
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF
|[[Deportivo Galicia]]
|Primera fase
|6
|0
|3
|3
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF
|rowspan=2|[[Copa Libertadores 1985|1985]]
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF
|[[Deportivo Petare|Deportivo Italia]]
|Primera fase
|6
|0
|1
|5
|-
|}
==Notas==
==Bibliografía==
* Briceño, Javier. ''Años de ensueño: la Era D'Ambrosio'' (de "Un sueño llamado Deportivo Petare"). Universidad Católica Andres Bello (Publicaciones y tesis). Caracas, 2013 ( http://biblioteca2.ucab.edu.ve/anexos/bi...])
==Vease tambien==
[[File:PANTALLABI.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Foto de logo del Centro Italo FC en partido noctturno]]
* [[Galicia de Aragua|Deportivo Galicia]]
* [[Deportivo Petare|Deportivo Italia]]
* [[Club Deportivo Portugués]]
* [[Unión Deportiva Canarias]]
* [[Club Sport Marítimo de Venezuela]]
* [[Club Deportivo Español (Venezuela)|Deportivo Español]]
* [[Sociedad Deportiva Centro Ítalo Fútbol Club|Centro Italo FC]]
* [[Club Deportivo Italmaracaibo]]
* [[Casa D'Italia Fútbol Club]]
* [[Minervén Sport Club|Club Deportivo Iberoamericano]]
* [[Deportivo Vasco]]
* [[Tiquire Flores Fútbol Club|Tiquire-Canarias]]
* [[Deportivo La Guaira Fútbol Club|Real Esppor]]
[[Categoría:Fútbol en Venezuela]]
=================================================
================================================
http://www.miol.it/stagniweb/mappe/FS989... Ferrovie italiane MAPPA PRECISA (tipo quella che si trova sui treni)
http://cronologia.leonardo.it/ferrovie/f... Ferrovie italiane 1910 (con data inaugurazione)
=================================================
http://www.neresine.it/Storia%20Neresine... Storia di NERESINO e di LUSSINO (Ottima per "Storia di Lussino" di ottobre 2016)
================================
https://eliezerperez.wordpress.com/categ... tutti i club di colonia del Venezuela
=======================================
http://3harmfulfoods.com/video_160923.ph... 3 harmful foods OTTIMO PER DIMAGRIRE!
============================================
http://www.culturalatinoamericanaplaneta... Italia y el bloqueo de Venezuela
=========================================
CASA DE ITALIA
{{Borrar|No enciclopédico|RESPUESTA:El edificio llamado Casa de Italia es citado en la famosa "Colección Cisneros" de obras de arte en Caracas. O sea tiene fama mundial! Este magnífico edificio, diseñado en 1955 por el arquitecto Domenico Filippone, es uno de los pocos lugares públicos en Caracas que aún (en el 2015) conserva gran parte de su diseño interior original. En particular se destacan las lámparas de cristal extraordinarias diseñadas por Max Ingrand para la firma italiana "Fontana Arte", los paneles decorativos de la barra con los fondos de oro y los muebles de caoba elegante con detalles de bronce. Ademas fue por muchas décadas el principal lugar de reunión de la comunidad italiana de Caracas, una de las mas importantes en Venezuela. Sinceramente no entiendo la razón de un usuario que lo define "no enciclopédico".Hvalencia
}}
{{Ficha de teatro
|nombre = Salon - teatro y Auditorio de la "Casa de Italia"
|otros nom =
|imagen =
|imagen_tamaño =
|descripción =
|tipo = Gran Salón de eventos y conciertos
|ciudad = {{bandera2|Caracas}}
|país = {{bandera2|Venezuela}}
|arquitecto =
|construc =
|apertura = 1955
|reapertura =
|cierre =
|demolición =
|reconstrucción =
|estilo =
|capacidad =
|superficie =
|altura =
|admin =
|producción =
|dirección =
|coordenadas =
|web =
}}
La '''Casa de Italia''' en [[Caracas]] es un edificio construído en los años cincuenta. Sirve a la [[italo venezolanos|comunidad italiana]] de la capital de [[Venezuela]].
==Historia==
El edificio fue hecho en 1955 por el arquitecto italiano Domenico Filippone en la central [[Parroquia La Candelaria (Caracas)|La Candelaria]] https://construidoencaracas.wordpress.co... Fotos de la Casa de Italia].
La estructura es una moderna construcción de diez pisos con decoraciones y murales externos de calidad. Tiene lateralmente un amplio salón-teatro/auditorio donde se presentaron espectáculos de orquestras internacionales: fue famoso, por ejemplo, el concierto de [[Renato Carosone]] en 1957. En este espacio se hicieron y todavía se celebran (aunque en menor escala) todo tipo de actividades culturales, teatrales, folclóricas, charlas, ponencias, talleres, presentaciones artísticas, presentaciones de libros, foros, ruedas de prensa, conciertos, y una variada gama de actividades institucionales.
La Casa de Italia tiene un espacioso restaurante italiano, famoso en los años sesenta por celebrar reuniones y cerimonias de italianos locales. http://www.miropopic.com/l1587/CASA+DE+I... Restaurante de la Casa de Italia]
Actualmente la principal comunidad de Italianos en Venezuela es la de [[Caracas]], que cuenta como principales puntos de congregación la [[Iglesia de Pompei]] en la Alta Florida, la "Casa de Italia" con la [[Plaza Italia (Caracas)|Plaza Italia]] (especialmente en la segunda mitad del siglo XX) y ahora también el "Centro Italo-Venezolano" http://www.civ.com.ve/ C.I.V.]
==Características==
Este magnífico edificio, diseñado en 1955 por el arquitecto Domenico Filippone, es uno de los pocos lugares públicos que aún (en el 2015) conserva gran parte de su diseño interior original. El restaurante Casa de Italia (que se encuentra en el tercer piso), todavía deslumbra a sus clientes con su diseño, a pesar de algunas adiciones sucesivas.
En particular se destacan las lámparas de cristal extraordinarias diseñadas por Max Ingrand https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1912755 Max Ingrand] para la firma italiana "Fontana Arte", los paneles decorativos de la barra con los fondos de oro y los muebles de caoba elegante con detalles de bronce. http://www.coleccioncisneros.org/editori... Colección Cisneros: la Casa de Italia (con fotos)]
==Notas==
==Véase también==
*[[Italo venezolanos]]
[[Categoría: edificios de Caracas]]
===========================================
COLEGIO AGUSTIN CODAZZI
{{Borrar|Sin relevancia enciclopédica, solo es un colegio| RESPUESTA:Esta es una Voz traducida de la en.wikipedia:Acabo de hacer la versión en español de la voz omónima en la wikipedia inglesa. La he ensanchado con datos adicionales (y no es un simple colegio:es como el [[Colegio Humboldt (Caracas)|colegio Humboldt]] de Caracas). Sinceramente no entiendo por cual razon un usuario la califica de "no enciclopédica", ya que aparece en la wikipedia inglesia sin problemas.Hvalencia}}
{{Ficha de escuela
|nombre = Colegio Agustin Codazzi
|nombre_original = Scuola Agostino Codazzi
|acrónimo =
|sobrenombre = Codazzi
|lema =
|imagen =
|imagen_pie =
|tipo = Privado No Subvencionado
|afiliación_religiosa= Laico
|patrón =
|establecida =
|fundación = [[1951]]
|fundador = Colectividad italiana en Venezuela
|apertura =
|estatus = Abierto
|clausura =
|distrito =
|género = Mixto
|escuelas_hermanas =
|afiliaciones =
|ubicación = [[Caracas]], {{VEN}}
|dirección = Av.da Los Pinos, Quinta Elisa, La Florida - Caracas
|coordenadas =
|estudiantes = Sin definir
|profesores =
|sedes =
|jornada = Lunes a Viernes
|colores =
|mascota =
}}
'''Colegio Agustín Codazzi ''' es una escuela italiana de [[Venezuela]], ubicada en la capital [[Caracas]]." http://www.viaggiaresicuri.it/paesi/dett... Informazioni utili nel Paese]" ( http://www.webcitation.org/6dCKYPay7 Archive]). Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Italy (Farnesina). "A.C. AGUSTIN CODAZZI - SCUOLA ITALIANA (legalmente riconosciuta sia per le classi elementari che medie e liceali) Indirizzo: Escuela Agustín Codazzi, Av.da Los Pinos, Quinta Elisa, La Florida - Caracas".Su modalidad educativa es bicultural, es decir, que imparte una enseñanza basada en los sistemas educativos [[Italia|italiano]] y [[Venezuela|venezolano]], esto como parte de un convenio entre las entidades ministeriales en materia de Educación de ambas naciones.
==Datos==
La escuela fue fundada en 1951 en la [[Florida (Caracas)|urbanización La Florida]] para atender las necesidades escolares de la creciente comunidad italiana de Caracas. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.11... Pedro Grau: Italian Presence in Modern Venezuela: Socioeconomic Dimension and Geo-cultural Changes, 1926-1990]
Inicialmente se hacían solamente cursos de primaria en [[lengua italiana|italiano]], validados por el Ministerio de Educación de [[Roma]]. Es la principal institución educativa italiana de Caracas y toda Venezuela. http://www.edudatos.com/Data/Colegios/S0... Escudo della "Scuola Codazzi"]
Actualmente tiene cursos desde primaria (''Scuola elementare'' y ''Scuola Media'') hasta bachillerato (''Liceo scientifico italiano'') " http://www.esteri.it/mae/resource/doc/20... SCUOLE PARITARIE ITALIANE ALL'ESTERO]" ( http://webcitation.org/6cNIwThr6 Archive]). Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Italy), p. 5/6
Se le ha dado el nombre del famoso "Prócer de la independencia venezolana" y geógrafo [[Agustin Codazzi|Agostino Codazzi]]. Tiene desde 1986 un curso de bachillerato en lengua española reconocido por el gobierno venezolano Bafile, Mauro. " http://voce.com.ve/2011/04/17/4228/chiud... SCUOLA AGUSTÍN CODAZZI Chiude la scuola venezolana della nostra “Agustín Codazzi”]" ( http://www.webcitation.org/6dCJ8SDTW Archive]). ''[[La Voce d'Italia (Venezuela)|La Voce d'Italia]]''. 17 April 2011. http://www.faiv.com.ve/wp-content/upload... in print] ( http://www.webcitation.org/6dCJaaRdm Archive]): Monday April 18, 2011. p. 2. "Attualmente nel Collegio privato Codazzi, fondato nel 1951 da immigrati italiani, e funzionante solo come scuola italiana, dal 1986 funziona anche una “Unidad Educativa” che segue i programmi di studio locali. ".
Recientemente el colegio ha sufrido problemas economicos a causa de la reciente crisis venezolana, pero los ha superado gracias en parte a la ayuda de la embajada italiana de Caracas. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Asyit5b... Video de la Fiesta de Navidad 2013 en el Codazzi]
==See also==
* [[Italo-venezolanos]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
==Bibliografía==
* Favero L. e Sacchetti G. ''Un secolo di emigrazione italiana:1876 - 1976''. Centro Studi Emigrazioni. Roma, 1978
* Grau, Pedro. ''Italian presence in modern Venezuela''.Center for Migration Studies special issues (Volume 11, Issue 3).Universidad Central Venezuela. Caracas, 2012
[[Categoría:Escuelas de Caracas]]
[[Categoría:Inmigración italiana en Venezuela]]
==============================================
CARMELO B.PISANI (simple wiki)
[[File:Carmelo-borg-pisani-18.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Carmelo B. Pisani]]
'''Carmelo Borg Pisani''' ([[August 10]] [[1915]]–[[November 28]] [[1942]]) was a maltese who considered himself to be Italian. Politically he was a Pro-Italian [[Maltese people|Maltese]] and [[Italy|Italian]] [[nationalist]]. He was born in Senglea ([[Malta]]) and executed at ''Corradino'' prison in Malta for fighting for the [[Axis Powers]] as an Italian soldier.
The Italian government considers him an "Italian citizen", having received the highest Italian military medal (the "''Medaglia d'oro al Valor Militare alla memoria''") from the King of Italy [[Victor Emmanuel III]].
==The Gold Medal of Military Valour of Carmelo B. Pisani==
Carmelo Borg Pisani is the only maltese decorated with the Italian "Gold Medal of military honor". He is also the only man -not born inside the official territory of Italy- to have received this honor.
{{Quote|''Irredento maltese e, come tale, esente dagli obblighi militari, chiedeva ripetutamente ed otteneva di essere arruolato, nonostante una grave imperfezione fisica. Come camicia nera partecipava alla campagna di Grecia, durante la quale contraeva una infermità per cui avrebbe dovuto essere sotto posto ad atto operatorio, al quale si sottraeva per non allontanarsi anche solo per pochi giorni dal campo di battaglia. Conseguita la nomina ad ufficiale della milizia artiglieria marittima, chiedeva insistentemente di essere utilizzato in una rischiosissima impresa di guerra, alla quale si preparava in lunghi mesi di allenamento e di studio, in perfetta serenità di spirito e in piena consapevolezza della gravità del pericolo. Catturato dal nemico, riaffermava di fronte alla corte marziale britannica di Malta la sua nazionalità italiana e cadeva sotto il piombo del plotone di esecuzione al grido di: " Viva l'Italia a Malta. Fulgido esempio di eroismo, di fede, di abnegazione e di virtù militari, che si riallaccia alle più pure tradizioni dell'irredentismo. - Malta, 1942.''}}
Translation: "Maltese unredeemed and, as such, exempt from military service, repeatedly sought and was granted to be enlisted, despite a severe physical imperfections. As black shirt participated in the Greek campaign, during which contracted an illness that should have been under way for surgical procedure, which is subtracted for not even for a few days away from the battlefield. Awarded to the official appointment of the maritime militia artillery, insistently she asked to be used in a risky enterprise of war, to which he prepared in the long months of training and study, in perfect peace of mind and in full awareness of the severity of hazards. Captured by the enemy, reaffirmed in front of the British court martial of Malta his Italian nationality and came under the lead of the firing squad shouting "Long live Italy in Malta. The shining example of heroism, faith, sacrifice and virtue military, which is linked to the purest traditions of irredentism. Malta, 1942"
==His awarded action==
Born into a very well respected [[Catholic]] and Nationalist Maltese family, Pisani enrolled as a student at the ''Umberto Primo art lyceum'', where he won a scholarship to study in [[Rome]]. In Italy he showed support for fascism and Italian irredentism.
{{Quote|''Malta is not British but for usurpation and I am not a British subject were it not because of this usurpation. My real fatherland is Italy. And so it is for it that I must fight. (Malta non è inglese che per usurpazione ed io non sono suddito britannico che per effetto di questa usurpazione. La mia vera Patria è l’Italia. È dunque per lei che devo combattere''). Carmelo Borg Pisani}}
When [[World War II|war]] was declared on [[June 10]] [[1940]], Pisani (who had just requested the Italian citizenship) was still attending the ''Accademia di Belle Arti'' (the "National Academy of Arts" of Italy) in Rome.
Pisani believed that Malta's [[Italian|Latin]] soul was being destroyed by [[United Kingdom|British]] rule. He also believed that the best opportunity to restore Malta to its original state was to expel the British.
To this end, Pisani, along with many other Maltese students, joined the Fascist party of [[Italy]] and the "Black shirt" (Camicie Nere) movement. This led him to participate in the Italian occupation of [[Kefalonia]] in [[Greece]] with the ''Compagnia Speciale del Gruppo CC.NN. da sbarco della 50a Legione''. He decided to get the Italian citizenship in [[1940]]. In 1941 he was enrolled in the Italian Navy as a "Sottocapo Manipolo Milizia Artiglieria Marittima".
On [[May 18]] [[1942]], Pisani was sent on a secret mission to be the first Axis spy on the island of Malta. This was in line with [[Benito Mussolini]]'s ambitions to have the British turn the island over to [[Italy]] (he believed the Italian people were the rightful & original inhabitants of Malta because of cultural and linguistic reasons).
[[Image:Malta mapa2.jpg|thumb|right|380px|Map of Malta in the XVI century, when Italian was declared the official language by the Knights of Malta, showing ''Dingle'' (the landing place chosen by Carmelo Borg Pisani for his 1942 secret mission)]]
Pisani disembarked at the "Dingli Cliffs" in Ras id-Dawwara, and transferred all his rations to the cave, which he knew well from his youth. The unusually inclement weather and the rough sea, however, washed all his possessions away within 48 hours and he was forced to wave down a British patrol boat. Upon rescue, he was brought to the Military Hospital at Mtarfa.
There, Pisani was recognized by one of his childhood friends, Cpt. Tom Warrington. He was transferred to Corradino prison, questioned, and accused of [[treason]]. On [[November 12]] [[1942]], he stood trial. The public was excluded to avoid a possible hostile reaction from the Maltese Fascists; however, by this time, the fascists in Malta were either interned in [[Uganda]] or deported to Italy.
Since the "Maltese Legal Code" was suspended during the war, a jury was not convened. In addition, the judges did not consider his renouncement of British citizenship and passport, his acquisition of Italian citizenship, and his participation in combat with the Italian Army. In fact, the latter only weakened his position, since he fought against Greece, an ally of the United Kingdom. On [[November 19]] [[1942]], he was sentenced to death for conspiring against His Majesty's government and for treason. His execution followed quickly in just nine days.
The King of Italy, [[Victor Emmanuel III]], personally gave him a few days after his death the highest Italian military medal (the "Medaglia d'oro al Valor Militare alla memoria"), because he considered Carmelo Borg Pisani an Italian soldier with Italian citizenship.
His family still awaits approval to bury his body outside the garrison where was executed.
In Malta today some claim his trial was unfair and partial, while others also say he was a [[prisoner of war]] with Italian citizenship, and thus entitled to different treatment. Norman Lowell, the leader of a fringe Maltese radical right-wing political party, claims he was a national hero. http://www.borgpisani.it/Home/Pages/108 Website and 2 video about Carmelo Borg Pisani]
[[Mussolini]] called him a "Maltese Martyr" and created in his honor in [[Liguria]] the "Battaglione Borg Pisani" in November 1943, where other Maltese irredentists fought. Indeed Carmelo Borg Pisani is still considered [[Italians|Italian]] by the Italian government and his "Gold Medal for military valor" is still valid. His tomb is -even now- inside the "Corradino" jail where he was executed. Inside his own jail was found written by him: "I vili ed i servi non sono graditi al Signore" (''The cowards and the servants are not esteemed by the Lord'').
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
==Bibliography==
* L. Mizzi. ''Per il sogno della sua vita'' Volpe ed. Roma, 1981.
* G. Vignoli. ''Gli Italiani dimenticati. Minoranze italiane in Europa'' Giuffré ed. Milano, 2000.
* L. Mizzi. ''Il-Kaz Borg Pisani''. Sittin sena Wara, PEG publications. Valletta, 2003.
* S. Fabei. ''Carmelo Borg Pisani (1915-1942) - eroe o traditore?'' Lo Scarabeo ed. Bologna, 2007.
==See also==
*[[Maltese people]]
==External links==
* http://www.carmeloborgpisani.20m.com/ Site which claims Pisani as a hero. It quotes Dom Mintoff, who served several times as the Prime Minister of Maltese government during British and independent times. ([[English language|English]] and [[Maltese language|Maltese]])
* http://www.isses.it/borg.htm More Maltese irredentists are mentioned there.] {{It_icon}}
* http://www.marina.difesa.it/storia/movm/... "Medaglia d'oro al Valor Militare alla memoria" awarded to him after his death (with photo of Carmelo Borg Pisani).] {{It_icon}}
* http://www.maltamigration.com Website with information about Carmelo Borg Pisani]
[[Category:Maltese people]]
[[Category:History of Italy]]
==================================================================
GENALE DAM
Genale Dam is a dam on the river Shabelle which, together with an extensive network of canals, was built in the south of Somalia in the 1920s.[1] The dam was strongly promoted by Cesare Maria De Vecchi -Italian governor of Italian Somalia from 1924 to 1928- in order to provide water for irrigation of a vast territory between Genale, Merca and Vittorio d'Africa, to be given in concession to colonists.
Contents [hide]
1 The Dam
2 Data
3 See also
4 Notes
5 Bibliography
The Dam[edit]
The Genale Dam should be remembered not so much for the intrinsic importance (though fairly innovative by the 1920s, being built with reinforced concrete) but especially for the difficulties in the realization and for the great improvements for the social and economic life of the area. The dam also improved the image of colonial Italy in the world.
Regarding the construction difficulties, the following are only the most significant among those who had to overcome the Italian builders according to Gaetano De Angelis:[2]
The weather was inclement with frequent floods of the river, which naturally slowed the process and forced to work often 24 hours a day and with artificial light rather poor.
The foundation ground was muddy and forced to work with the nearly continuous use of pumps.
There were no cranes, excavators etc.: the work was done with shovels, buckets and especially "man strength".[3] At certain times to remove 40,000 cubic meters of soil worked together more than 1,000 indigenous workers.[4]
The indigenous training -to enable them to perform the most delicate tasks (indeed in order to do the concrete mixes and the containment of carpentry works, you have to bend and tie the reinforcing steel, making it properly or lose it)- was really hard, because the Somalian men (mostly Bantu Somali) were used to do only subsistence farming.
The material necessary to the work came from Mogadiscio, mainly for the iron and timber needed. The bulk (crushed stone, cement, sand, etc.) came from Merca (about 14 kms away) and because to reach this small town there was the need to bypass interposed moving sand dunes (in the 1920s there were no roads there), transportation was done with "caravans" of camels because the trucks could not be used. So, were required 120,000 transports by camel (or a caravan of 350-400 camels per day for the duration of the work).
Construction began in January 1926 and despite the difficulties mentioned, ended in October of the same year. The inauguration took place on October 28, 1926 (anniversary of Fascism in Italy) and was christened by the countess Rina De Vecchi of Val Cismon, to whom the workers made homage of the model of the dam.[5]
Actually for some experts (like Tripodi [6]) the question arises how it all could get to the end in such a short time and without major incidents: no loss of life happened. Fascist propaganda pinpointed that the dam was done without enhancing the distinction of class or color - although the work was done in very difficult conditions.
Data[edit]
The Shebelle ("river of leopards" in Somalian language), in the area of Genale where the dam was built, flows in a vast plain between 65–70 meters above sea level and is 13.5 km from the Indian Ocean (point of minimum distance, near Merca). Between the plain and the sea, however, there are sand dunes that are partly movable and rise in height up to 100–130 meters above sea level by preventing the river flowing into the Indian Ocean and forcing it to get to the Jubba river: there the Shebelle river flows only in the rainy periods because normally the water disperses before reaching the Jubba, forming swampy areas.
Until a few years before the intervention in this stretch of plain, although composed of fertile land, there were mainly shrubs and bushes of various tree species. Furthermore, mainly along the banks of the river, there were small groups of huts and little land cultivated by the natives.
In periods of peak demand of water for irrigation, the flow of the river was over 100 m³ per second; therefore -if the dam subtracted from that amount the flow rate of 40 m³/s necessary to irrigate 25-30,000 hectares of land, that were supposed to be the area of agricultural concessions- this fact did not let dry the Shebelle river.
The water flow of the river went down below 40 m³/s only during periods when irrigation did not appear necessary (from January to March). For this reason, the dam was not built with the task of accumulation of water but was to serve as a weir or "intake structure" -to sent water toward the distribution channels- to a level quota to allow the water to reach the whole area.
The water channeling -for an initial length of 45 kms, that later reached 80 kms- is separated upstream of the dam, redistributing into two basic channels:
A first, called "main" channel, with a capacity of 25 m³/s (and a trapezoid section) with an average width of 13.5 m and 3 m deep.
A second, called "1st secondary", with a capacity of 15 m³/s (and a trapezoid section) with an average width of 8 m and 3 m deep.
See also[edit]
Italian Somalia
Genale
Notes[edit]
1.Jump up ^ Photo of the Genale Dam
2.Jump up ^ Ingegnere Gaetano De Angelis. "Le opere italiane nelle Colonie. La diga di Genale per la derivazione dell'Uebi Scebeli" First Section/Volume
3.Jump up ^ Photo of workers at the dam
4.Jump up ^ Photo of workers building the Genale Dam
5.Jump up ^ Photo of the Genale Dam when inaugurated
6.Jump up ^ Tripodi Paolo. "The Colonial Legacy in Somalia". Introduction
Location of Buundada Janaale (Janaale Bridge) on Wikimapia Coordinates 1°48'28"N 44°41'19"E
Bibliography[edit]
De Angelis, Gaetano. Le opere italiane nelle Colonie. La diga di Genale per la derivazione dell'Uebi Scebeli da L'Ingegnere – Rivista tecnica – Volume I N° 5 Novembre 1927 pag. 248-254.
De Vecchi di Val Cismon, Cesare. Relazione sul progetto di Bilancio della Somalia Italiana per l'esercizio finanziario 1927-1928.
Tripodi, Paolo. The Colonial Legacy in Somalia. St. Martin's P Inc. New York, 1999.
La diga di Genale da L'Italia coloniale - Anno IV N° 1 Gennaio 1927 pag. 9.
La diga sull'Uebi Scebeli da Esotica mensile di letteratura e valorizzazione coloniale - Anno II N° 3 15 marzo 1927.
Guida d'Italia-possedimenti e colonie - Touring Club Italiano (TCI) del 1929
===================================================
COLONIA AGRICOLA DE TUREN
el gobierno venezolano decidió dar nuevo impulso a la inmigración europea en las región andina. En enero de 1947, el director del Instituto Técnico de Inmigración y Colonización, Manuel P . Graterol, escribió al IAAI la carta de presentación a un proyecto de colonización en el distrito de Turén, elaborado por un grupo de técnicos italianos82. Este contenía un anexo con cinco plantas de casa y un esquema de la zona donde hubiera surgido, en 1949, la Unidad Agrícola de Turén, la más ambiciosa experiencia de este tipo jamás realizada en un país caribeño. Ubicado, así como la colonia Tovar, en una zona de montañas, el futuro “Granero de Venezuela” abrigó, junto a una minoría de agricultores locales, una babel de inmigrantes de varios países. Inicialmente fueron sobretodo Europeos orientales, llegados por medio de la International Refugee Organization, pero ya en el comienzo de los años ’50 los italianos pasaron a constituir la mayoría relativa de la población. Esto se debió al hecho que el presidente
Pérez Jiménez, sabiendo que Mussolini, para bonificar los pantanos pontinos, había hecho llegar del pobre Véneto centenas de familias de agricultores, envió en Latina su emisario, que a través de diapositivas, películas cortas y promesas, convenciera algunas familias para que tentaran la experiencia en Venezuela. […] Para estimular aquellos que deseasen trasladarse en esas tierras, el gobierno había hecho construir casas, una iglesia, un ambulatorio, una secadora de grano y algunos silos. Adhirieran al proyecto 54 familias que se embarcaron en el “Amerigo Vespucci” y llegaron a Puerto Cabello el 19 febrero de 195283. Cuatro años después, relata la ya citada relación de la UNESCO,
de las 582 familias establecidas en Turén, 313 son de origen extranjera. Entre estas, el 30% son
G. F . Benedini:Las Misiones de Asistencia Técnica y la emigración rural italiana en Latinoamérica (1950-1952)
Journal of Agriculture and Environment for International Development - JAEID - 2013, 107 (1)
132
81 Petróleo de Venezuela Sociedad Anónima (PDVSA), S.D. Pioneros en Venezuela. URL: http://www.pdvsa.com/lexico/pioneros/cod... 2 IAO, f. 341. 83 Morassut E., 2002. Veneti dell’Agro Pontino a Colónia Turén. Servizio Migranti, Roma. URL: http://www.chiesacattolica.it/pls/cci_ne....
italianas, el 17% españolas, el 16% yugoslavas y el 14% rumanas; el otro 23% incluye representantes de 20 nacionalidades diferentes84.
La colonia de Turen – donde, en los años de 1952-53, funcionaba una estación experimental para la cría bovina, con aplicación de la practica de la fecundación artificial y servicio veterinario, y habían vastas plantaciones de sisal, sésamo y bananas – no fue, sin embargo, la única destinación para los emigrantes italianos que se dirigían a los campos venezolanos.
http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se... INMIGRANTES, CAMBIOS TECNOLÓGICOS Y DIVERSIFICACIÓN AGRÍCOLA EN LOS ANDES VENEZOLANOS di Nelly Velázquez
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http://gspi.unipr.it/it/brunopierri OTTOMI SCRITTI DELL'UNIVERSITA DI PARMA SU POLITICA ESTERA ITALIANA DURANTE IL FASCISMO
http://gspi.unipr.it/it/brunopierri OTTOMI SCRITTI DELL'UNIVERSITA DI PARMA SU POLITICA ESTERA ITALIANA DURANTE IL FASCISMO
=======================
http://www.ehrea.org/blocind.php BLOCCO INDIPENDENZA in 1949 Eritrea
==================================================http://www.ehrea.org/blocind.php BLOCCO INDIPENDENZA in 1949 Eritrea
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http://foreignpolicynews.org/2014/03/02/... Italy & Albania (for Researchomnia)
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https://books.google.it/books?id=-Ji-CQA... Nueva Italia in PARAGUAY (Resolución Ministerial:Resolución Nº:28 (11-X-02) Declara Patrimonio Histórico Cultural de la República del Paraguay)
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http://archive.is/9EeM9 Adriani Mazzei muerte envenenado
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http://italianoucv.blogspot.com/2012/12/... Italianos muertos por independencia de Venezuela
http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se... Rosminiani a Maracaibo (COLEGIO ITALO_VENEZOLANO)
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http://www.academia.edu/6358362/Roman_co... ROMAN COINS IN ICELAND
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https://f.hypotheses.org/wp-content/blog... Carte des populations du Maroc Septentrional
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http://orgullosvenezolanos.blogspot.com/... VINOTINTO & Godigna Vittorio allenatore 1938
http://www.el-nacional.com/deportes/Libe... Augusto Nitti (Deportivo Italia)
https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-0WWgtNHQolg/V... foto di Nitti e Luis Mendoza
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https://www.jstor.org/stable/207822?seq=... Italian regions of mixed population, Olinto Marinelli 1919 with perfect maps at final page
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TOMMASO CARLETTI
{{Coin image box 1 double
| header = Four bese
| image = File:Somalia 4 bese 87001978.jpg
| caption_left = Vittorio Emanuele III
| caption_right = Denomination and date in four lines.
| width = 300
| footer = Æ; Rome mint, 1909
| position = right
| margin = 0
| background =
}}
'''Tommaso Carletti''' was born in [[Viterbo]] ([[Italy]]) and was [[List of colonial governors of Italian Somaliland|Governor]] of [[Italian Somalia]]. https://books.google.it/books?id=eH5EAQA... Tommaso Carletti early biography]
==Life==
Tommaso Carletti was the ''Commissioner-General'' of the Italian colony in [[Banadir]] from 1907 to 1908. Later he was named ''Governor'' of the newly created ''Somalia italiana'', that he ruled from 1908 until July 1910 (when was substituted by [[Giacomo De Martino]].
In July 1908 Carletti started the full conquest of the interior of Somalia https://books.google.com/books?id=TE2ldb... Governor Carletti started the "pacification" of all Somalia; p.137], because until then the Italians controlled only the coastal area around [[Mogadishu under Italian rule|Mogadishu]] and other port cities.
In 1909 Carletti introduced the [[Italian Somaliland rupia|Somali Rupia]] as the currency of Somalia in use, that lasted until 1925.Beltrami; p.140 The Somali Rupia was divided in ''bese'' coins.
==Notes==
==Bibliography==
* Beltrami, Vanni. ''Italia d'oltremare: storie dei territori italiani dalla conquista alla caduta''. Publisher Edizioni Nuova Cultura. Roma, 2011 ISBN 8861347029
* *Calchi Novati, Gian Paolo. ''L'Africa d'Italia'' Editori Carrocci. Roma, 2011.
==See also==
*[[Italian Somalia]]
*[[Mogadishu under Italian rule]]
{{Italian Governors of Eritrea and Somaliland}}
{{Somalia italiana (Colonia)}}
[[Category:Governors of Italian Somaliland]]
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http://tranaturaecultura.blogspot.com/p/... COLONIALISMO ITALIANO IN ERITREA
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?tit... Guido Corni (strana sparizione da en.wiki)
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VITTORIO D'AFRICA
'''Vittorio d'Africa ''' was a small town in southern [[Italian Somalia]], created by Italian colonists in the 1920s. http://images.delcampe.com/img_large/auc... Map showing Vittorio d'Africa (green area was the farm concessions)]
==History==
The [[Genale Dam|Genale dam]] on the river [[Shebelle]], together with an extensive network of canals, was built in the south of [[Somalia]] in the late 1920s. It was strongly promoted by [[Cesare Maria De Vecchi]] -Italian governor of [[Italian Somalia]] from 1924 to 1928- in order to provide water for irrigation of a vast territory of 20000 hectares between [[Genale Dorya|Genale]], [[Merca]] and Vittorio d'Africa, to be given in concession to [[Italian Somalians|colonists]].
One hundred of those colonists created in the south of the Genale concessions a small city named "Vittorio d'Africa", that had a population of nearly 1200 inhabitants in 1940. It was located 11 kms from [[Merca]]. The city was linked to the [[Port of Merca]] by a [[decauville]] railway http://www.internetculturale.it/jmms/icc... Decauville Station], used to transport the huge production of bananas of the farms around Vittorio d'Africa http://www.postcardman.net/somalia/25756... Aerial view of some "banana farms"].
In 1929 was created in the city a special processing building (called "sgranatoio" in [[Italian language|Italian]]) where the [[cotton]] produced in the concessions was selected before the shipping to Italy. Given the importance of the area it was created, from the administrative point of view, the ''Vicecommissariato di Genale'' with Vittorio d'Africa as capital, where some industrial activities were focused also for the processing & shipping of agricultural products. https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736... Foto of "sgranatoio" building in Vittorio d'Africa]
During [[WW2]] in Vittorio d'Africa was done by the Italians the last battle against the British army before the Allied attacked [[Mogadiscio]] in 1941: because of this fight the small city suffered heavy damages. After the war all the Italians moved away and the farm production dwindled, reducing the city to a kind of [[ghost town]].
Actually is growing in the area of the disappeared Vittorio d'Africa a small village of Somalis, called ''Shalam boot''.
==Notes==
==Bibliography==
* De Vecchi di Val Cismon, Cesare. ''Relazione sul progetto di Bilancio della Somalia Italiana per l'esercizio finanziario 1927-1928''.
* Tripodi, Paolo. ''The Colonial Legacy in Somalia''. St. Martin's P Inc. New York, 1999.
* https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gfg12XlA... Video showing some colonists of Vittorio d'Africa in 1938 (in Italian)]
==See also==
*[[Genale Dam]]
*[[Mogadiscio]]
*[[Genale Dorya|Genale]]
*[[Villabruzzi]]
*[[Italian Somalia]]
{{Somalia italiana (Colonia)}}
[[Category:Populated places in Lower Shebelle]]
==================================
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gfg12XlA... Video di Genale/Vittorio d'Africa 1938
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http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/sale...(Federiciana)/ OTTIMA Storia di Salerno CAPUT/CAPITALE con Sichelgaita ed altri (TRECCANI!!!!)
http://2.bp.blogspot.com/--h1qHbXjx5U/VX... Immagine dettagliata di Salerno nel 1239
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http://www.vivamalta.net/VMforum/index.p... Camillo Bonanno e gli irredentisti di Malta
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CARMELO BORG PISANI
{{infobox military award
| name = Gold Medal of Military Valour
''Medaglia d'oro al valor militare''
| image = [[Image:Medaglia d'oro al valor militare.svg|100px]]
| caption = Italy's Gold Medal of Military Valour given to Carmelo Borg Pisani
| awarded_by =
| country = Italy
| type = Military decoration
| eligibility = Junior officers and soldiers
| for = Deeds of outstanding gallantry in war
| campaign =
| status =
| description =
| motto =
| clasps =
| post-nominals =
| established = 21 May 1793
| first_award =
| last_award =
| total =
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| precedence_label =
| individual =
| higher = [[Military Order of Italy]]{{cite web|url=http://www.esercito.difesa.it/Equipaggiamenti/Militaria/Decorazioni/DecorazionieOnorificenze/Nastrinidecorazioniinuso/Pagine/default.aspx |title=Esercito Italiano- Nastrini delle decorazioni in uso |publisher=Esercito.difesa.it |date= |accessdate=2012-05-30|language=Italian}}
| same =
| lower =
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| image2 = [[Image:Valor militare gold medal BAR.svg|100px]]
| caption2 = Ribbon bar of the medal
}}
'''Carmelo Borg Pisani Gold medal''' ([[August 10]] [[1915]]–[[November 28]] [[1942]]) was a Gold Medal of Military Valour given to [[Carmelo Borg Pisani]], a [[Fascio|fascist]] Pro-Italian [[Malta|Maltese]] and [[Italy|Italian]] [[nationalist]]. He was born in [[Senglea]] ([[Malta]]) and executed at ''Corradino'' prison in Malta for fighting for the [[Axis Powers]] as an Italian soldier. The Italian government considers him an "Italian citizen", having received the highest Italian military medal (the "''Medaglia d'oro al Valor Militare alla memoria''") from the King of Italy [[Victor Emmanuel III]]. http://www.quirinale.it/elementi/Dettagl... Italian Republic official list and motivation]
==The [[Gold Medal of Military Valour]] of Carmelo B. Pisani==
[[Carmelo Borg Pisani]] is the only maltese decorated with the Italian Gold Medal of military honor. He is also the only man -not born inside the official territory of Italy- to have received this honor.
{{Quote|''Irredento maltese e, come tale, esente dagli obblighi militari, chiedeva ripetutamente ed otteneva di essere arruolato, nonostante una grave imperfezione fisica. Come camicia nera partecipava alla campagna di Grecia, durante la quale contraeva una infermità per cui avrebbe dovuto essere sotto posto ad atto operatorio, al quale si sottraeva per non allontanarsi anche solo per pochi giorni dal campo di battaglia. Conseguita la nomina ad ufficiale della milizia artiglieria marittima, chiedeva insistentemente di essere utilizzato in una rischiosissima impresa di guerra, alla quale si preparava in lunghi mesi di allenamento e di studio, in perfetta serenità di spirito e in piena consapevolezza della gravità del pericolo. Catturato dal nemico, riaffermava di fronte alla corte marziale britannica di Malta la sua nazionalità italiana e cadeva sotto il piombo del plotone di esecuzione al grido di: " Viva l'Italia a. Fulgido esempio di eroismo, di fede, di abnegazione e di virtù militari, che si riallaccia alle più pure tradizioni dell'irredentismo. - Malta, 1942.''}}
Translation: "Maltese unredeemed and, as such, exempt from military service, repeatedly sought and was granted to be enlisted, despite a severe physical imperfections. As black shirt participated in the Greek campaign, during which contracted an illness that should have been under way for surgical procedure, which is subtracted for not even for a few days away from the battlefield. Awarded to the official appointment of the maritime militia artillery, insistently she asked to be used in a risky enterprise of war, to which he prepared in the long months of training and study, in perfect peace of mind and in full awareness of the severity of hazards. Captured by the enemy, reaffirmed in front of the British court martial of Malta his Italian nationality and came under the lead of the firing squad shouting "Long live Italy in. The shining example of heroism, faith, sacrifice and virtue military, which is linked to the purest traditions of irredentism. Malta, 1942"
==His awarded action==
Born into a very well respected [[Catholic]] and Nationalist Maltese family, Pisani enrolled as a student at the ''Umberto Primo art lyceum'', where he won a scholarship to study in [[Rome]]. In Italy he showed support for fascism and [[Italia irredenta|Italian irredentism]].
{{Quote|''Malta is not British but for usurpation and I am not a British subject were it not because of this usurpation. My real fatherland is Italy. And so it is for it that I must fight. (Malta non è inglese che per usurpazione ed io non sono suddito britannico che per effetto di questa usurpazione. La mia vera Patria è l’Italia. È dunque per lei che devo combattere''). Carmelo Borg Pisani}}
When [[World War II|war]] was declared on [[June 10]] [[1940]], Pisani (who had just requested the Italian citizenship) was still attending the ''Accademia di Belle Arti'' (the "National Academy of Arts" of Italy) in Rome.
Pisani believed that Malta's [[Italian people|Latin]] soul was being destroyed by [[United Kingdom|British]] rule. He also believed that the best opportunity to restore Malta to its original state was to expel the British.
To this end, Pisani, along with many other Maltese students, joined the Fascist party of [[Italy]] and the [[Black shirt]] (Camicie Nere) movement. This led him to participate in the Italian occupation of [[Kefallinia]] in [[Greece]] with the ''Compagnia Speciale del Gruppo CC.NN. da sbarco della 50a Legione''. He decided to get the Italian citizenship in [[1940]].
On [[May 18]] [[1942]], Pisani was sent on a secret mission to be the first Axis spy on the island of Malta. This was in line with [[Benito Mussolini]]'s ambitions to have the British turn the island over to [[Italy]] (he believed the Italian people were the rightful & original inhabitants of Malta because of cultural and linguistic reasons).
[[Image:Malta mapa2.jpg|thumb|right|380px|Map of Malta in the XVI century, when Italian was declared the official language by the Knights of Malta, showing ''Dingle'' (the landing place chosen by Carmelo Borg Pisani for his 1942 secret mission)]]
Pisani disembarked at the [[Dingli Cliffs]] in Ras id-Dawwara, and transferred all his rations to the cave, which he knew well from his youth. The unusually inclement weather and the rough sea, however, washed all his possessions away within 48 hours and he was forced to wave down a British [[patrol boat]]. Upon rescue, he was brought to the Military Hospital at [[Mtarfa]].
There, Pisani was recognized by one of his childhood friends, Cpt. Tom Warrington. He was transferred to Corradino prison, [[interrogated]], and accused of [[treason]]. On [[November 12]] [[1942]], he stood trial. The public was excluded to avoid a possible hostile reaction from the Maltese Fascists; however, by this time, the fascists in Malta were either interned in [[Uganda]] or deported to Italy. http://www.maltamigration.com/news/times... Exile of 43 Maltese 60 years ago : One of the most shameful episodes of Malta's history]
Since the "Maltese Legal Code" was suspended during the war, a jury was not convened. In addition, the judges did not consider his renouncement of British citizenship and passport, his acquisition of Italian citizenship, and his participation in combat with the [[Italian Army]]. In fact, the latter only weakened his position, since he fought against Greece, an ally of the United Kingdom. On [[November 19]] [[1942]], he was sentenced to death for conspiring against His Majesty's government and for treason. His execution followed quickly in just nine days.
The King of Italy, [[Victor Emmanuel III]], personally gave him a few days after his death the highest Italian military medal (the "Medaglia d'oro al Valor Militare alla memoria"), because he considered Carmelo Borg Pisani an Italian soldier with Italian citizenship.
His family still awaits approval to bury his body outside the garrison where was executed.
In Malta today some claim his trial was unfair and partial, while others also say he was a [[prisoner of war]] with Italian citizenship, and thus entitled to different treatment. [[Norman Lowell]], the leader of a fringe Maltese radical right-wing political party, claims he was a national hero. http://www.vivamalta.org/main/ Website and Forum where Norman Lowell defends Carmelo Borg Pisani]
[[Mussolini]] called him a "Maltese Martyr" and created in his honor in [[Liguria]] the "Battaglione Borg Pisani" in November 1943, where other Maltese irredentists fought. Indeed Carmelo Borg Pisani is still considered [[Italians|Italian]] by the Italian government and his "Gold Medal for military valor" is still valid. His tomb is -even now- inside the "Corradino" jail where he was executed. Inside his own jail was found written by him: "I vili ed i servi non sono graditi al Signore" (''The cowards and the servants are not esteemed by the Lord'').
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
==Bibliography==
* L. Mizzi. ''Per il sogno della sua vita'' Volpe ed. Roma, 1981.
* G. Vignoli. ''Gli Italiani dimenticati. Minoranze italiane in Europa'' Giuffré ed. Milano, 2000.
* L. Mizzi. ''Il-Kaz Borg Pisani''. Sittin sena Wara, PEG publications. Valletta, 2003.
* S. Fabei. ''Carmelo Borg Pisani (1915-1942) - eroe o traditore?'' Lo Scarabeo ed. Bologna, 2007.
==See also==
*[[Italia irredenta]]
*[[Greater Italia]]
*[[Carmelo Borg Pisani|Carmelo B. Pisani]]
==External links==
* http://www.carmeloborgpisani.20m.com/ Site which claims Pisani as a hero]. It quotes [[Dom Mintoff]], who served several times as the Prime Minister of Maltese government during British and independent times. ([[English language|English]] and [[Maltese language|Maltese]])
* http://www.isses.it/borg.htm More Maltese irredentists are mentioned there.] {{It_icon}}
* http://www.marina.difesa.it/storia/movm/... "Medaglia d'oro al Valor Militare alla memoria" awarded to him after his death (with photo of Carmelo Borg Pisani).] {{It_icon}}
* http://www.maltamigration.com Website with information about Carmelo Borg Pisani]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Borg Pisani, Carmelo}}
[[Category:1915 births]]
[[Category:1942 deaths]]
[[Category:Maltese people]]
[[it:Carmelo Borg Pisani]]
[[mt:Carmelo Borg Pisani]]
[[pl:Carmelo Borg Pisani]]
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http://www.bandaarcgeophysics.co.uk/arch... OTTIME MAPPE DEL 2015 DI ROMAN BRITAIN CON SCOZIA, RIFERIMENTI DETTAGLIATISSIMI A STRADE E FORTI (copyrighted by English krown!)
http://cdn0.vox-cdn.com/assets/4825134/A... Roman coins map (1997-2010)
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BERBERS AND CHRISTIANITY
[[File:Sainte Monique.jpg|thumb|rught|400px|The Christian Berbers [[Saint Augustine]] and his mother [[saint Monica]]]]
There was a huge diffusion of [[Christianity]] between [[Berbers]], during the [[Rome|Roman rule]] of the actual [[Maghreb]] in [[Antiquity]]. http://www.30giorni.it/us/articolo.asp?i... "The African roots of Latin Christianity", by Henri Teissier]
==Notable ancient Christian Berbers==
[[Theodore Mommsen]] wrote in his famous "The Provinces of the Roman empire" that, at the beginning of the century when happened the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]], practically all the [[Berbers]] living inside the borders of Roman Africa were Christians.
Accomplished Christian Berbers included writers such as [[Martianus Capella]]. There were also Christian saints such as [[Cyprian]], Roman popes such as Pope [[Victor I]] and even the Roman emperor [[Septimius Severus]]. Most of these figures appeared in a socio-cultural period of development in [[Roman Africa]] following the introduction of Christianity. However most of these figures are historical, and the Christians in North Africa do not have as much of a dominant community as they used to have in Roman times.
Christian Berbers were Roman writers such as [[Terentius]], [[Lactantius]], [[Martianus Capella]], [[Marcus Cornelius Fronto]], [[Apuleius]] and [[Tertullianus]]. Christian saints included [[Scillitan Martyrs]], [[Cyprian]], [[Victor Maurus]], [[Saint Monica]] and [[Saint Augustine]] (and even Roman popes like Pope [[Victor I]], Pope Miltiades, Pope [[Gelasius I]]). Roman emperors such as [[Septimius Severus]], [[Macrinus]] and [[Emilianus]] were also famous Christian Berbers.
Christian Berber kings of exclusive Christian Berber realms known as the "Romano-Berber states" includes [[Masuna]] of [[Garmul]] or the [[Kingdom of Altava]]. They are known for making Christian "jedars" and mausoleums such as the "Tomb of the Christians" near [[Caesarea of Mauretania|Caesarea]] (also known as the "Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania").
Actually, even after the Arab domination of the Maghreb since the eight century (interrupted only by the century of [[French empire|French colonialism]]), estimates show that there are nearly half a million [[Christianity|Christian]] Berbers, many living in a situation of diaspora in Western [[Europe]] and the [[Americas]] and nearly 300,000 living in the [[Maghreb]] region of [[North Africa]] (ranging from [[Morocco]] to [[Libya]])
==History during the Roman Empire==
Christian Berbers are Berbers who worship or worshipped the Christian faith. Usually the term is referred to the centuries when North Africa was ruled by the [[Roman Empire]]. These initial Christian Berbers started to greatly diminish after the eight century and probably disappeared around the fifteenth century, because of the conquest of north Africa by the [[Arabs]] who promoted in all ways their muslim religion in the region.
===Tertullian===
The first record of Christians in Africa is a document known as the "Acts of the Martyrs scillitans" dating from 180 AD. This documents a dozen Christian (known as [[Scillitan Martyrs]]) in a village of [[Africa Proconsularis]], which is yet to be named, in front of the proconsul of Africa.
The major figures in early Christian North Africa was [[Tertullian]], (born of pagan parents; a Roman centurion father and possibly a Romanised Berber mother) who joined the Christian community in [[Carthage]] in 195 AD and became close to the local administrative elite, who protected him from pagan repression against his religion. After becoming a priest, he argued in his early writings that Christianity should be recognized as a legitimate religion by the Roman Empire.
"African Christianity" grew in followers after Tertullian found a way to merge Christianity with popular Berber life through religious doctrine. This would conflict with the Roman institutions promoting pagan worship at the time. The most major cause of anger between the two sides was the refusal of Christians to serve in the Roman army. For Tertullian Christians joining the army and killing opponents, hence violating the sixth commandment, was a great dilemma.
The Romans began to persecute early Christians as they were hence endangering the Roman Empire by refusing military service (this period was a time of dire need for more soldiers). Tertullian provoked the authorities until they lead to killing Christians, making them martyrs.
It is a known fact the African Church began with martyrdom. Tertullian later wrote about the rapid growth of Christianity among Africans, it had spread across North Africa to eventually reach peoples south and southeast of the [[Aurès Mountains]]. Around the year 200 AD there was a violent attack at Carthage and in provinces held by the Romans against Christians. This was the persecution in which [[St. Perpetua]] died, which we know of form the writings of Tertullian. Despite persecution, Christianity did not cease to expand. Christian epitaphs were found at Sour el Ghozlane in 227 AD and [[Tipasa]] at 238 AD.
By the third century there was a substantial Christian population in Africa. It consisted not only of the poor but also those of the highest rank. A council held in Carthage around the year 220 AD attracted 18 bishops from [[Numidia]]. By the middle of the third century, another was held which was attended by 87 bishops. At the end of this century Christianity was already the faith of the majority in Berber lands ruled by the Romans.
Though at this time the African Church suffered a crisis. Emperor [[Decius]] published an edict to persecute Christians further. Bishops followed by their whole communities were planned to be executed. Many people had already bought certificates of apostasy for money, so much that they believed they could command the church by the law, and demand their restoration to communion. A lot of controversy was seen at this period.
===Conflict between Catholics and Donatists===
When [[Constantine]] arose to power the African Church had become torn apart by heresies and controversies, like the [[Donatism]]. Catholics and Donatists conflicted for power in a violent way. In 318 AD Constantine deprived Donatists of churches, most of which had been taken from Catholics. The Donatists were so numerous that this could not stop them and a Donatist council held at Carthage in 327 AD was attended by 270 bishops.
Attempts by [[Constantius II]] at reconciliation only lead to armed repression. [[Gratus]], the Primate of Carthage, declared in 349 AD that "God has restored Africa to religious unity." However, with Emperor [[Julian]]'s accession in 361 and his permission to allow all religious exiles back to their homes, the African Church saw more troubles. Donatist bishops were centered around a seceded "See" in Carthage opposed to orthodox bishops. One act of violence followed another and bred new conflicts. [[Optatus]], Bishop of Milevi, wrote works combating the sect.
Meanwhile [[St. Augustine]], converted at [[Milan]], returned to his home land. Since then, [[Paganism]] was no longer a menace to the church. In 399 AD temples were closed in Carthage. From 390 to 430 AD, the Councils of Carthage discussed with Donatists, gave sermons, homilies and scriptural commentaries persisted almost without stop. Augustine had managed to train clergy and instruct the faithful that Christianity was now strong in Africa.
''Of all the fathers of the church, St. Augustine was the most admired and the most influential during the Middle Ages ... Augustine was an outsider—a native North African whose family was not Roman but Berber ... He was a genius—an intellectual giant.''{{Citation |first=Norman |last=Cantor |authorlink=Norman Cantor |title=The Civilization of the Middle Ages |publisher=Harper |year=1993 |page=74 |isbn=0-06-092553-1}}In 412 AD the Council of Carthage condemned [[Pelagianism]]. Donatism and Semi-Pelagianism were done away with, at a time which changed the history and destiny of the African Church. There was Conflict between Carthage and Rome on how the African Church would be run when [[Apiarius of Sicca]] appealed his excommunication to Rome and thus challenged Carthage.
==History in late Antiquity==
[[File:Spread of Christianity to AD 600 (1).png|thumb|350px|The spread of Christianity in Europe by 600 AD, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. In dark blue the areas fully Christian, like former [[Africa Proconsularis]]]]
With the fifth century started the [[barbarian invasions]] in western Europe. When Saint Augustine worshipped, Berbers in Roman Africa were fully [[romanisation|romanised]] and were nearly all Christians. The region was a quiet "granary" of the Roman empire, that enjoyed a peaceful and rich period of a plentiful economy. This attracted the [[Vandals]], a German tribe living in north-central Europe.
Outside the borders of the Roman empire, the berber tribes were mostly not Christian and worshipped their own [[paganism]].
===Vandal Invasion===
{{Main article|Vandal Kingdom}}
[[Count Boniface]] summoned the Vandals to Africa in 426 AD, and by 429 AD their invasion was complete. The Vandals conquered many cities and provinces. 9 years after Augustine died in 430, during the siege of [[Hippo]], king [[Geiseric]] of the Vandals took Carthage.
The Vandals were Arians. They established their [[Arianism]] and set about destroying Catholicism. Churches surviving the invasion were to be transferred to the Arians or closed to public worship. This was only stopped briefly when Emperor [[Zeno]] intervened and made an agreement with Geiseric that the Catholics be allowed to choose a bishop. This was in 476 AD. But [[Hunneric]], the new king following the death of Geiseric, by 484 AD passed an edict which made matters much worse. The Christians of Africa did not display much resistance to this persecution, even in this terror, as writer Victor of Vita has told us.
Later in the Vandal rule in Africa, [[St. Fulgentius]], Bishop of Ruspe, managed to influence the princes of the Vandal dynasty, who had become more Roman and Byzantine in culture. The Vandal monarchy, which had lasted for nearly a century, was also dwindling in power.
The Vandals permitted the creation of some "Romano-Berber states" at their borders, but were later conquered by the [[Byzantine Empire|Roman eastern empire]], which established and African prefecture, later the [[Exarchate of Carthage]]. At this point some paganism was still worshipped in the Atlas mountains despite the strong Christian influence in Africa. Pope [[Gelasius I]] was able to convert the pagans of the Aures who became the most loyal Christians who ended up defending Romanised north-western Africa to the death with their queen [[Kahina]] during the Muslim invasion centuries later.
===Romano-Berber States & the Bizantines===
The "Neo-Latin" states in North Africa are called so as they are ''post-Roman''. They were no longer under Roman Empire authority, and Byzantine rule in Africa was collapsing. Their culture was a special form of Latin mixed with the local Berber language and the Christian religion.
The Christians living there initially followed a Christian sect previously mentioned known as Donatism. By the 6th century they only existed within communities of Berber Christians. The Christian kings of the Romano-Berber states left "Djeddars".
The Byzantines had never managed to conquer land far from Carthage, leaving these states alone for much of their development. The African Church was in decline. The Byzantine invasions had not given it any more of a base it had during the Vandal rule. The church was ridden with those who had failed their duties and those involved in fruitless and petty theological debates. Pope [[Gregory the Great]] attempted to send priests to Africa to help deal with this issue. The priest Hilarus became a papal legate and had authority over African Bishops, he reminded them of their duty and instructed them. He had managed to help restore peace, unity and discipline among the African Church.
[[Justinian]] also helped strengthen the Romano-Berber's Christian elements by establishing Christian centers such as the one in [[Abyla|Septem]] (actual [[Ceuta]]).
===Arab invasion===
The Arabs, who had conquered [[Egypt]], made their way into [[Byzantine]] Africa. In 647 AD the Caliph Othman gave orders for a direct attack on Berber Africa, and an army that had gained a victory at Sbeitla against Byzantine and Christian Berber armies, withdrew on payment of a large ransom. Some years of respite ensued.
The African Church showed its firm attachment to orthodoxy by remaining loyal to Pope[[ Martin I]] (649-655 AD) in his conflict with the Emperor of Byzantium. The last forty years of the seventh century witnessed the gradual fall of the fragments of Byzantine Africa into the hands of the [[Arabs]].
The Berber, or native tribes, which before this had seemed to accept full conversion to the [[Gospel]], passed in a short time, and without resistance, to [[Islam]]. Carthage was taken by the Arabs in 695 AD after an [[Battle of Carthage (698)|historically decisive battle]]. Two years later it was re-entered by the Byzantine Patrician John, but only for a brief period; in 698 AD Hassan once more took possession of the capital of Northern Africa, destroying totally the city. He killed half the inhabitants and enslaved the other half, erasing forever in this way the main center of Greco-Roman presence and influence in the Maghreb.
==Fate of indigenous Christianity after the Arab conquest ==
The conventional historical view is that the conquest of North Africa by the Islamic Umayyad Caliphate between AD 647–709 effectively ended Christianity in Africa for several centuries.http://www.bethel.edu/~letnie/AfricanChristianity/WesternNorthAfricaHomepage.html
The prevailing view is that the Church at that time lacked the backbone of a [[Monasticism|monastic tradition]] and was still suffering from the aftermath of heresies including the so-called [[Donatist]] heresy, and that this contributed to the early obliteration of the Church in the present day Maghreb.The Disappearance of Christianity from North Africa in the Wake of the Rise of Islam
C. J. Speel, II
Church History, Vol. 29, No. 4 (December , 1960), pp. 379-397 Some historians contrast this with the strong monastic tradition in Coptic Egypt, which is credited as a factor that allowed the [[Coptic Church]] to remain the majority faith in that country until around after the 14th century despite numerous persecutions.
However, new scholarship has appeared that disputes this. There are reports that Christianity persisted in the region from [[Tripolitania]] (present-day western Libya) to present-day Morocco for several centuries after the completion of the Arab conquest by 700 AD. A Christian community is recorded in 1114 AD in Qal'a in central [[Algeria]]. There is also evidence of religious pilgrimages after 850 AD to tombs of Christian saints outside of the city of Carthage, and evidence of religious contacts with Christians of Arab [[Spain]]. In addition, calendrical reforms adopted in Europe at this time were disseminated amongst the indigenous Christians of Tunis, which would have not been possible had there been an absence of contact with Rome.
Local Catholicism came under pressure when the Muslim fundamentalist regimes of the [[Almohad dynasty|Almohads]] and [[Almoravid dynasty|Almoravids]] came into power, and the record shows persecutions and demands made that the local Christians of Tunis to convert to Islam. We still have reports of Christian inhabitants and a bishop in the city of [[Kairouan]] around 1150 AD – a significant report, since this city was founded by [[Arab Muslims]] around 680 AD as their administrative center after their conquest. A letter from the 14th century shows that there were still four bishoprics left in North Africa, admittedly a sharp decline from the over four hundred bishoprics in existence at the time of the Arab conquest.http://www.orthodoxengland.org.uk/maghreb.htm Berber Christians continued to live in Tunis and Nefzaoua in the south of Tunisia until the early 15th century, and ''"[i]n the first quarter of the fifteenth century, we even read that the native Christians of Tunis, though much assimilated, extended their church, perhaps because the last of the persecuted Christians from all over the Maghreb had gathered there."''http://www.orthodoxengland.org.uk, citing Mohamed Talbi, "Le Christianisme maghrébin", in M. Gervers & R. Bikhazi, ''Indigenous Christian Communities in Islamic Lands''; Toronto, 1990; pp. 344-345.
By 1830, when the French came as conquerors to [[Algeria]] and [[Tunis]], local Christianity had been extinguished. The growth of Christianity in the region after the French conquest was initially built on European settlers, and these immigrants and their descendants mostly left when the countries of the region became independent. However actually (2012) there it is a revival of Christianity between Berbers (mainly in the [[Algeria|Algerian Kabylie]]).
==Notes==
==Bibliography==
*Will Durant, ''The History of Civilization: Part IV—The Age of Faith''. 1950. New York: Simon and Schuster.
*Edward Gibbon, ''History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/g... Chapter 51.]
*Yves Modéran: "Kusayla, l'Afrique et les Arabes." In ''Identités et Cultures dans l'Algérie Antique'', University of Rouen, 2005 (ISBN 2-87775-391-3).
* Mommsen, Theodore. ''The Provinces of the Roman Empire''. Barnes & Noble editors. New York, 2008
* {{cite book | last=Pringle | first=Denys | title=The Defence of Byzantine Africa from Justinian to the Arab Conquest: An Account of the Military History and Archaeology of the African Provinces in the Sixth and Seventh Century | location=Oxford, United Kingdom | publisher=British Archaeological Reports | year=1981 | isbn=0-86054-119-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4DIjAQAAIAAJ}}
[[Category:African Christians]]
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http://www.ivgenealogia.org.ve/index_arc... Biografia originale del veneziano Francisco de Graterol
http://www.mcnbiografias.com/app-bio/do/... "GraterolO Francesco" (viene citato cambio nome )
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http://cumbotoaragua.blogspot.com/2011/1... Biografia de italiano de Araira (ex-colonia bolivar)
http://santuariodelasmercedes.org/06espe... Araira (Ottimo, con foto)
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COLONIA BOLIVAR (ARAIRA)
[[Archivo:Fundadores de Araira.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Placa conmemorativa con los nombres de los fundadores italianos de la "Colonia Bolivar" en Araira ([[Estado Miranda]]).]]
La '''Colonia Bolivar''' en [[Araira]] fue una colonia de immigrantes europeos (inicialmente franceses y luego en su mayoría [[Italo venezolanos|italianos]]), fundada en 1874 en el [[estado Miranda]] de [[Venezuela]].
==Historia==
La colonización europea -en forma programada- empieza en Venezuela inmediatamente despues de las guerras de independencia, que habían depopulado enormemente la nación suramericana.
En 1841 el general [[Carlo Castelli|Castelli]] viajó a [[Italia]] y trató de hacer llegar a Venezuela un barco con unos 300 italianos, que desafortunadamente se hundió en el [[Mediterráneo]] apenas salido del puerto de [[Livorno]] (Toscana). En 1843 [[Agustín Codazzi]] trajo a [[La Guaira]] unos 389 inmigrantes alemanes, de los cuales 239 eran hombres y 150 mujeres, con el fin de construir y organizar el asentamiento de la recién creada [[Colonia Tovar]] ( en [[Aragua (estado)|Aragua]]), nombrada así en honor a los Tovar Ponte.
En [[1874]] el presidente [[Antonio Guzmán Blanco]] fundó tras ''colonias'' ("Bolivar", "Guzman Blanco" y "Libertador") en Venezuela y compró una extensa porción de las 2300 hectáreas de lo que era la antigua "Hacienda Araira" con la finalidad de crear una colonia agrícola (de nombre "Bolívar") con inmigrantes franceses al este de [[Caracas]].
El 15 de enero de 1874 el Gobierno del General Antonio Guzmán Blanco promulga un Decreto promoviendo la “Inmigración”, especialmente de personas aptas para la agricultura, las artes y el servicio doméstico. Para coordinar todo el proceso se creó la "Dirección General de Inmigración" (1874) con sede en Caracas y dependiente del Ministerio de Fomento. Con ese contingente humano se quizo fomentar y organizar el establecimiento de "Colonias agrícolas" en la República, con un beneficio importante para Venezuela, como lo fue el posible desarrollo de tierras con vocación agrícola hasta entonces baldías. https://tucuy.wordpress.com/2012/03/27/g... Guzman Blanco y la fundacion de colonias]
El 21 de septiembre de ese año, mediante decreto, creó la ''Colonia Bolívar''. Los primeros en asentarse en el lugar fueron quince familias francesas: los Clement, los Olivier, los Penau, entre otros. No todos permanecieron mucho tiempo en el lugar. Segun autoridades venezolanas estos franceses no eran agricultores y no se acostumbraron a la vida de campo en un lugar tropical, aunque localizado en la [[Cordillera de la Costa (Venezuela)|Cordillera de la Costa]] a casi 400 metros de altura: fue un fracaso, por lo que se decidió hacer llegar sucesivamente un barco de italianos para repoblar la colonia.
Tres años más tarde, el [[17 de febrero]] de [[1877]] llegaba al puerto de La Guaira el barco ''Il Veloce'' con sesenta y cuatro familias de origen italiano, específicamente de la provincia de [[Belluno]] en el norte de Italia. Esas familias se asentaron con suceso en el entonces llamado ''Distrito colonial Bolivar'', refundando la despoblada "Colonia Bolívar". En efecto cuando en 1882, los ultimos colonos franceses dejaron definitivamente la colonia, el entonces gobernador de la Colonia, José Mara González, hizo gestión ante los italianos adjudicados a las cercanas haciendas de El Rincón, El Ingenio, Santa Cruz y La Siria de [[Guatire]], a fin de que se ubicaran en la colonia. El Gobierno nacional entonces, asignó oficialmente cada parcela a estas familias italianas.
Entre ellos estaban: los Begnosi, Bertorelli, Blondi, Brignole, Daló, Dal Magro, De Lion, Fanti, Fregona, Livinalli, Melcior (Melchor), Pittol http://araira.com/portal/index.php/histo... Vida y emigración de Vittorio Giacomo Pittol], Pellin, Possamai, Sandon, Sponga, Sumabila, Zanella, Zanin, entre otros.
Cincuenta y tres (53) de las 64 familias permanecieron en la “Colonia Bolívar” durante toda su vida y algunos de sus descendientes permanecen aun en el sitio que les fue adjudicado a sus antepasados por haber sido pagado de acuerdo a lo estipulado en el contrato concordante con el "Decreto del 14 de enero de 1874", por lo cual vinieron a Venezuela.
Para 1897, de acuerdo con un registro del "Ministerio de Fomento" en Caracas, la "Colonia Bolívar" ya era mixta con una población de 523 venezolanos (la mayoría hijos de los primeros colonos italianos), 143 italianos, 10 franceses y 8 alemanes. Contaba con 73 parcelas, 302 hectáreas cultivadas y 372 sin cultivar.
El Gobierno nacional sucesivamente fundó oficialmente el pueblo de [[Araira]] en 1900. En ese mismo año fue cancelada la "Colonia Bolivar", quedando substituída por el ''Municipio de Araira''.
{{Quote|''PARA 1912 LOS INMIGRANTES Y SUS DESCENDIENTES O FAMILIARES ESTABLECIDOS EN ARAIRA ERAN:
''1)Pueblo de Araira: Eugenio Beñosi (italiano), Ricardo Possamai (italiano), María Possamai (italiana, tenía tren de rayar yuca para almidón), Antonio Troján (venezolano), Juana Mares de Troján (italiana), María Loire de Pastry (francesa, plantación de café), Desiderio Fanti (italiano, tren de rayar yuca para almidón), María Moró de Delión (italiana, tren de rayar yuca para almidón, molino de maíz y siembra de café), Víctor Pitol (italiano, oficina para beneficiar yuca para almidón), Maximiliano Pitol (italiano, oficina para beneficiar yuca para almidón y potrero), Antonio Daló (italiano, siembra de café y potrero), Luis Fulda (alemán, siembra de café), Antonio y Carlos Fulda (venezolanos, en la posesión de su padre), Francisco Bristot (italiano, siembra de café), Mariana Demín de Beñosi (italiana), Pedro Porto (italiano, comerciante de víveres), Luis Delión (italiano, comerciante de víveres) y Luis Porto B. (venezolano, comerciante), y 38 familias venezolanas.2)Quebrada de Ceniza: Ángel Reveane (italiano, comerciante, potrero y siembras), Antonio Kiley (inglés, carpintero) y Pedro Jaspe (venezolano, en los terrenos que fueron de su tía la inmigrante francesa María Olivier de Jaspe), José Ruiz (español, siembra de cacao) y 16 familias venezolanas.3)Río Araira: Juan Stiz (italiano, siembras de conuco), José Gerardi (italiano, siembra de café), Magdalena Sandón de Zanella (italiana, siembra de conuco), Ángel Stiz (italiano, siembra de conuco), y 15 familias venezolanas.4)Santa Rosalía: No vivían familias de los inmigrantes sino 9 familias de origen venezolano.5)Quebrada Canela: Pedro Dalmagro (italiano, tren de rayar yuca para almidón, potrero y conuco), Francisco Melchor (Marchioro) (venezolano, conuco, siembra de café y potrero), Federico Salazar (español, café y conuco), y 8 familias venezolanas.6)El Bautismo: No vivían familias de los inmigrantes sino 17 familias venezolanas con siembras de café y conucos.7)San Rafael: Luis Zanella (italiano, siembra de café).'' Dra. Angelina Citty Pittol}}
En 1912 se contaban unos 800 habitantes en Araira, que habian desarrollado una pujante agricultura local basada especialmente sobre la produccion de mandarinas. En 2014 Araira es la capital de la Parroquia Bolivar en el [[Municipio Zamora (Miranda)|Municipio Zamora]], a unos 40 kms al este del area metropolitana de Caracas.
==Gobernadores de la "Colonia Bolivar"==
En la colonia hubo 13 gobernadores entre 1874 y 1900, durante los 26 años de su existencia:
*General Félix María Domínguez (1874-1875)
*General Luis Charboné (1875-1876)
*Pedro Porto (1876-1879)
*General José María González (1879-1885)
*Coronel Federico Pacheco Jurado (1885-1886)
*Heriberto Paúl (1886-1888)
*Víctor M. Bigott (1888-1891)
*LaO Borges (1891)
*José María González (1891-1894)
*Guillermo Tell Carranza (1894-1895)
*Máximo Tirado (1895-1896)
*Natividad Rojas (1896-1899)
*J. P. Borges Requena (1899-1900)
==Notas==
== Bibliografía ==
* Jean-J. Dauxion Lavaysse. ''A statistical, commercial, and political description of Venezuela, Trinidad, Margarita, and Tobago: containing various anecdotes and observations, illustrative of the past and present state of these interesting countries''. Publisher G. and W.B. Whittaker, 1820 (Original from Harvard University: http://books.google.com/books?id=u0QUAAA... Texto entero en inglés])
* Santander Laya-Garrido, Alfonso. ''Los Italianos forjadores de la nacionalidad y del desarrollo económico en Venezuela''. Editorial Vadell. Valencia, 1978.
* Vannini, Marisa. ''Italia y los Italianos en la Historia y en la Cultura de Venezuela''. Oficina Central de Información. Caracas, 1966
==Vease tambien==
*[[Colonia Tovar]]
*[[Italo venezolanos]]
==Enlaces externos==
* http://araira.com/portal/index.php/histo... Historia de la Colonia Bolívar en Araria]
[[Categoría:Historia de Venezuela]]
[[Categoría:Inmigración en Venezuela]]
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http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/... Memoria di Somalia 1970 (OTTIMO DIARIO)
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http://www.giuliocesaro.it/pdf/storici/0...(pdf).pdf L'impero degli italiani -OTTIMO!- scritto nel 1940
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http://oaktrust.library.tamu.edu/bitstre... Romans in India/Ceylon (ottima tesi per Researchomnia!)
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http://images.delcampe.com/img_large/auc... Foto del palazzo Governatore ad Asmara italiana
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http://www.longobardidelsud.benicultural... OTTIMO su SALERNO MEDIEVALE!!!!!!
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http://www.linkiesta.it/it/blog-post/201... "Croati pigliatutto", di Giacomo Scotti (per ilmioweblogaromuno)
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https://books.google.com/books?id=lKVzCQ... OTTIMO LIBRO DI TRAJAN STOIANIOVICH, un accademico Serbo statunitense che ha scritto sui VLACHS nei Balcani
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http://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j&... Olga Corsini in AOI guerriglia e inoltre brano su generale italiano nella disfatta in libia 1940
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https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/564... Foto del Circuito di Asmara nel 1938
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https://diacronie.revues.org/272 La Somalia coloniale: una storia ai margini della memoria italiana
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ASMARA CIRCUIT
[[File:Circuito Asmara 1950.JPG|thumb|right|500px|The ''Circuito Asmara'' was started in 1938. Photo of the 1950 car race, in the "III Circuito Asmara"]]
'''Asmara circuit''' (in Italian called ''Circuito Asmara'' and in English sometimes "Circuit of Asmara") was a car race done in the main streets of [[Asmara, Eritrea|Asmara]], when was a colony of the [[Kingdom of Italy]]. The Circuito was created in 1938 [[Italian Eritrea]] and was later done -with many interruptions- until 1972.
==History==
The Italian government after [[WWI]] gave importance to sport activities in the [[Italian Empire|Italian colonies]]. One of the most followed were those related to car races. Indeed, in Italian Libya was created the famous "[[Tripoli Grand Prix|Gran Premio di Tripoli]]", one of the most important in the world during the late 1930s, but even minor car races were done in the other Italian colonies, like the one in Asmara.
{{Quote|'' (The Italians in Asmara) organised an automobile club and started running competitions, one of the first of which was the 26 Kms Nefasit to Asmara Hillclimb for the "Coppa del Governatore dell’Eritrea" on 23 May 1937. I am sure that there was more competition but the next major event was held on Christmas Day 1938 which attracted two Alfa Romeos from Italy as well as lots of locals. There were two races for cars up to, and over, 1.5 litres. The former was won by a 4CS Maserati, whilst Romano’s Alfa Romeo 8C2300 Monza won the main event. There were no fewer than fourteen 6C1750 Alfa entered in the race for larger capacity cars so it is not surprising that an Alfa Romeo agency was opened in Asmara.'' Simon Moore}}
So, in Italian Asmara (capital of Eritrea), was done in 1938 the "Primo Circuito di Asmara". https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/564... Photo of the 1938 "start", in front of the Asmara Opera House] It was won by an "[[Alfa Romeo]] 8C 2300 Monza" driven by Emilio Romano on the Christmas race called ''Coppa di Natale''. http://sgrallying.blogspot.com/2014/06/1... Alfa Romeo in Asmara (in French)] Before there has been a race for smaller cars with less the 1500cc, that was won by a 4CS Maserati and was called ''Coppa Governatore''. In the main race there were 14 Alfa Romeo 1750 http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/Immagini2/0... Photo of one of the Alfa Romeo 1750] and was enthusiastically followed by many thousands of Italians and Eritreans http://www.artcurial.com/en/departments/... Simon Moore on the "1936 Alfa 8C"]
[[File:Alfa Romeo Bimotore 1936.jpg|thumb|right|300px|An Alfa Romeo 8C 2300, like the one that won the 1938 Asmara circuit]]
The "Primo Circuito di Asmara" was made of two car races, the first being the most important:
* "Coppa di Natale": 1. Emilio Romano (Alfa Romeo 2.8L) (108,810 km - 67,613 mi); 2. Antonio D'Agata (Maserati 2.6L)
* "Coppa del Governatore": 1. Ferdinando Gay (Maserati 1100) in 51’26"2 (72,540 km - 45,075 mi), at 84,891 km/h - 52,750 mph; 2. Cristoforo Bigi (Fiat 508) in 53’22"4
The race was done on the streets of Italian Asmara, with the start in front of the [[Asmara's Opera|Asmara Opera]]: it was long nearly 2865 meters on each side of the "Viale Milano" and "Viale Roma" (now called "Sematat avenue") and lasted 40 laps (in Italian called "Giri") for a total of 108 km http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/Immagini2/0... The 1952 Circuito di Asmara, with a map]
==Other years==
The second "Circuito Asmara" was to be done on December 1939, but the beginning of [[WWII]] blocked it. Only in 1948 was done the second and was won by Salvatore Ettori on Maserati, even if was done with reduced participation of cars. http://www.gdecarli.it/php/circuit.php?v... De Carli: Asmara circuits]
After the end of the war the circuit was also done in 1950, 1951 and 1952, but was only for local people. The fifth done in 1952 was followed by huge crowds. http://motorsportinangola.blogspot.com/2... Photos of the 1952 Asmara Circuit] Later it was done with some interruptions until 1969, with the "Coppa SM Haile Selassie". http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/Immagini1/5... 1969 Circuito] The last that was done in 1972 http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/Immagini1/5... 1972 race](when was called "Gran Premio Automobilistico Expo'72" http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/Immagini1/5... Award personally given by Ethiopia emperor]) with the presence of emperor [[Haile Selassie]] http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/cassetto10-... Chichingiolo: Asmara corse (in Italian)]
With the start of the [[Eritrean Civil Wars]] related to the struggle for the independence of Eritrea from Ethiopia all the car races were stopped in Asmara. But in the 2010s the car races are again done in Asmara, even if with "local cars". https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i9mbtqdY... Video of 2014 local race cars in Asmara]
==See also==
* [[Tripoli Grand Prix]]
==Notes==
==Bibliography==
* Antonicelli, Franco. ''Trent'anni di storia italiana 1915 - 1945''. Mondadori Editore. Torinop, 1961
* Di Meglio, Rita. ''Gli Italiani in Eritrea''. Italian Embassy in Eritrea. Asmara, 2004.
* Pool, David. (2001-12-01). ''From Guerrillas to Government: The Eritrean People's Liberation Front''. Ohio University Press. ISBN 0-8214-1387-2
{{Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)}}
[[Category:Italian Eritrea]]
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http://www.msn.com/en-us/travel/news/thi... La mia "Franca C", foto e articolo sul fatto che ancora esiste dopo cent'anni di uso
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http://ilgiornaleoff.ilgiornale.it/2016/... Articolo sui profughi da Fiume
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ITALIAN INVASION OF FRENCH SOMALIA
[[File:Ali-Sabieh, c. 1940.jpg|thumb|right|300px|French military post at Ali-Sabieh, where happened heavy fightings in June & July 1940]]
The '''Italian invasion of French Somalia''' is a tentative of occupation of [[French Somaliland]], that happened in the first two months after Italy's declaration of war in [[WWII]] against the [[Allies]]. It resulted in a temporary occupation of the border western areas of the French Somaliland, until the British conquest of all [[Italian East Africa|Africa Orientale Italiana]] in early 1941.
==Background==
Since late 1937 [[Mussolini]] had requested from [[France]] the possession of French Somaliland (then called ''Cote Francaise des Somalis'', or CFS), together with [[Tunisia]] in Africa. In January 1938 an Italian force moved down onto the plain of [[Hanlé]] (in the south of the [[Danakil Desert]] of [[Djibouti]]) inside the French territory and encamped there.
[[File:Camillo Bechis alla testa delle truppe cammellate.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Dubat camel troops of colonel Camillo Bechis]]
A detachment of "Italian Méharistes" (camel corps of the Italian [[Dubats]]) subsequently crossed the unmarked border between [[Italian East Africa]] and the French Somali Coast and travelled more than 40 kilometers into French territory until the proximity of [[Gorabous|Galamo]]. Under the orders of Colonel Camillo Bechis, they mainly served as "light infantry" and developed a reputation as effective fighters.Philip S. Jowett, Stephen Andrew, ''The Italian Army 1940-45: Africa 1940-43'', Volume 2, (Osprey Publishing: 2001), p.7.
Italian Dubats in the late 1930s were concentrated along the [[British Somaliland]] and French Somaliland, [[Ethiopia]]n and [[East Africa Protectorate]] frontiers, while Camel mounted detachments (''Recul'') were also employed for patrol work in the Ogaden region and in the Ethiopian area bordering Djibouti. Italy claimed that this territory occupied by the camel troops was on the [[Ethiopia]]n side of the border, as per the Franco-Ethiopian treaty of 1897.{{sfn|Thompson|Adloff|1968|p=14}}
On 30 November, after anti-French protests in Rome, the Italian foreign minister, [[Galeazzo Ciano]], demanded the cession of French Somaliland to Italy. On 18 December there was a counter-protest in Djibouti: the Italians, however, created a group of small fortifications (Abba, [[Dagguirou]], Gouma, etc.) inside the western border of French Somalia, claiming at the end of 1939 that the territory was inside their colonial area.{{sfn|Imbert-Vier|2008|p=171|ps=: map titled "Postes français et italiens fin 1939".}} At the start of 1940 Italians still occupied most of these small border forts.
==The 1940 invasion==
[[File:GeneraleGuglielmo Nasi.jpg|thumb|right|100px|General Gugielmo Nasi]]
In June 1940 and until September 1940 the Italians did a series of attacks in Africa: one was in the "Cote Francaise des Somalis" https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbRjAw... Map showing the 1940 Italian attacks in Africa]
[[File:General Le Gentilhomme Djibouti.jpg|thumb|left|200px|French general Legentilhomme in Djibouti]]
In June 1940 the French commander in Djibouti, Brigadier-General [[Paul Legentilhomme]], had nearly 9,000 men in seven battalions of Senegalese and Somali infantry. Legentilhomme also had three batteries of field guns, four batteries of anti-aircraft guns, a company of 16 light [[Renault R35]] tanks, four companies of militia and irregulars, two platoons of camel corps, and an assortment of 18 aircraft. https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbRjAw... Patrick Coutler: Djibouti, p.41]
The Italians had on the eastern border of their [[Italian Ethiopia]] -under the "Commander" General [[Guglielmo Nasi]] and with the support of the ''Regia Aeronautica''- nearly 40,000 soldiersVirginia Thompson: "Djibouti and the Horn of Africa"; p.16: the [[40th Infantry Division Cacciatori d'Africa]] of General Giovanni Varda, the [[65th Infantry Division Granatieri di Savoia]] of general Amedeo Liberati and 6 colonial brigades supported by 4 tank companies (mainly Fiat [[L3/35]] tankettes) and by one Armored Car Company with Fiat 611 "autoblindo" http://utenti.quipo.it/mc68/Italtank/aut... Fiat 611 armored cars]. But only the Italian colonial troops (the brigades were made mainly of [[Eritrean Ascari]]) fought inside the French Somaliland, while the division "Cacciatori D'Africa" only entered southern coastal French Somalia during the [[Italian conquest of British Somaliland| August attack]] on British [[Zeila]].
After Italy's declaration of war on France and Great Britain on June 10, there were in the following week some skirmishing between the French and Italians around the [[Ethio-Djibouti Railways|railroad connecting Addis Abeba to Djibouti]]: the nearby French fort of [[Ali-Sabieh]] was hit by Italian colonial troops {{sfn|Thompson|Adloff|1968|p=16}}
{{Quote|''Italy entered the war in Europe on June 10, Daddato was evacuated by the French on June 17 and reoccupied by the Italians; and skirmishes took place in the Hanle region until "the CFS (Cote Francaise des Somalis) ceased to be a war theater" on July 28....Local armistice negotiations were done from 8 August 1940 in Dewele. The CFS (French Somaliland) was then integrated into the Ethiopian space - the Italians now had important facilities - it was therefore subject to the maritime blockade imposed by the Allies. The evolution of the situation in the interior of the colony was described in a French note on August 1940: "The Italians occupied fighting our fortifications at Daddato and Balambolto, and took a number of those we evacuated: including Daguirou and Agna in Henle, Hadela to the northern point of Lake Abbé, and also Alailou". An internal memo from the Italian government, in April 1940, defined the new border (Ethiopia-French Somalia) on the line: "Adola-Arcadoda-Sudda-M.Diddà-Bolomboltà-Daimoli-Maghul-Daddato".''Simon Imbert-Vier, p. 172}}
The invasion was started from [[Italian Ethiopia]]'s [[Harrar Governorate]], when colonial troops of general Guglielmo Nasi attacked the fort of Ali-Sabieh in the south and Daddato in the north. There were initial skirmishes even in the area of Dagguirou and around the lakes Abhe & Ally.Rovighi, Alberto; p.107
After the first week the Italian aviation started to attack: on 17 June some Italian [[IMAM Ro.37|Meridionali Ro.37bis]] aircraft undertook a reconnaissance of Djibouti, noting five or six warships in the port and about twenty aircraft at a nearby aerodrome.{{sfn|Shores|1996|p=23}} On 21 June eleven [[Caproni Ca.133]]s bombed Djibouti in the largest raid of the colony's brief war. Anti-aircraft fire was intense and two Italian aircraft failed to return, but fires and explosions were seen in Djibouti.{{sfn|Shores|1996|p=26}} Overnight, several waves of [[Savoia-Marchetti SM.81]] bombers attacked the port facilities. On 22 June the Italians suspected the British might try to establish a forward base at Djibouti, and five Ro.37bis, four [[Fiat CR.42|CR.42]] and one [[Fiat CR.32|CR.32]] aircraft hit the airfield there.{{sfn|Shores|1996|p=27}} Some French [[Potez 25|Potez 25 TOE]] reconnaissance aircraft bombed Italian installations at [[Dewele]] in retaliation.{{sfn|Ferry|2005|p=148}}
The invasion was also done inside the "''[[Territorial waters]]''" of French Somaliland in the gulf of [[Tadjoura]]. Since the first week the Italian Navy sent two submarines ("Torricelli" & "Perla") to patrol the waters in front of [[Djibouti city]], Tadjoura and Oblock.Alberto Rovighi, p. 105
The [[Armistice of Villa Incisa]] (previously written on June 24) requested officially on June 25 the ''forced demilitarisation of Gibuti'', according to articles 3, 5 and 9. http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/soma...(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/ Treccani: armistice in Gibuti (in Italian)]
By the end of June the Italians had also occupied the border fortifications of: Magdoul, Daimoli, Alambolto, Birt Eyla, Asmailo, Tewo, Abba, Alailou, Madda and RahaleAlberto Rovighi, p.109
However [[Paul Legentilhomme|Legentilhomme]] (governor of French Somaliand) procrastinated in carrying out the armistice terms, claiming that he had lost contact with the government in France. On 28 June, when the Italians demanded that he fulfill certain clauses, he denied all knowledge of any such clauses.{{sfn|Shores|1996|p=30}}
[[File:Cheik-Saïd 1938.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Map showing the new Italian Eritrea-French Somaliland border as per the Laval-Mussolini Accord of January 1935. The coast of French Somalia was reduced south until the Bab-el-Mandeb strait. After WWII, the border was pushed back north, to what it had been before 1935]]
As a consequence between 1 and 10 July several clashes with the Italians took place again on the plain of Hanlé, at Ali-Sabieh and along the railroad.{{sfn|Thompson|Adloff|1968|p=17}} The border area of western French Somalia was occupied by Italian troops, who withdrew from Hanlé in October 1940 and only in March 1941 from Dagguirou.{{sfn|Imbert-Vier|2008|p=}} Since July the Italians occupied nearly 1/5 of French Somaliland, but it was nearly all a semi-desert and depopulated region.
Meanwhile, as a consequence of the problems about Legentilhomme withdrawal, the Italians reinforced their garrisons in Hanlé and Daggirou. Dagguirou remained under Italian control until March 1941, when the British conquered [[Assab]] in southern [[Italian Eritrea]] and the Italian garrison went to defend this last Italian outpost in Eritrea.
During the period of uncertainty in Djibouti, the Italian viceroy of East Africa, [[Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta]], urged an attack on British Somaliland in order to cut off the French colony from British support. [[Benito Mussolini]] approved the campaign on 19 July, but the situation in Djibouti changed rapidly in Italy's favour after that (with the new Vichy government). Nonetheless, in August [[Italy conquered British Somaliland]] in a swift assault, encircling Djibouti: on August 6, units of the Italian Division "Cacciatori d'Africa conquered [[Loyada]] on the southern CFS coast and from there moved south reaching and occupying Zeila -just the next day- in British Somaliland.
With the British attack on "Africa Orientale Italiana" in early 1941, the Italian garrisons inside French Somaliland were withdrawn and the troops returned mainly toward Assab in southern Eritrea.
==Submarine blockade==
Since the first week of war the invasion was supported by the occupation of the "Territorial waters" of French Somaliland, done by the Italian Navy units based in Eritrea.
Indeed the [[Red Sea Flotilla]] was a unit of the [[Regia Marina|Italian Royal Navy]] (''[[Regia Marina|Regia Marina Italia]]'') based in [[Massawa]] and [[Assab]] when Eritrea was part of [[Italian East Africa]]. On June 1940 the submarines of this Italian Navy unit did a submarine blockade of the Djibouti coast.
Several attempts were made after Italy's entry into the war in June 1940 to stage offensive actions from [[Italian Eritrea]] against the British [[Royal Navy]] and Allied convoys in the Horn of Africa: some were made in the Djibouti waters. Indeed, the earliest failed when Italian submarine [[air conditioning]] systems intended to reduce temperatures in the warm water of the Red Sea proved dangerous under wartime operating conditions. Leakage of [[chloromethane]] refrigerants caused [[central nervous system]] poisoning in the recirculating air during submerged operations. Approximately a dozen Italian sailors died aboard ''[[Italian submarine Archimede|Archimede]]''. ''Perla'' and ''Macallè'' ran aground in the Bab-el-Mandeb strait, while their crews were intoxicated; and the latter could not be salvaged.{{cite web|url=http://www.icsm.it/regiamarina/redsea.htm|title=THE MILITARY OPERATIONS OF THE ITALIAN FLEET ON RED SEA JUNE 1940 - APRIL 1941|publisher=Arnaldo Borsa}}
On June 12 the Italian ''82nd Submarine Squadron'' started to patrol the waters off Djibouti. The submarine ''Galilei'' sank the [[Norway|Norwegian]] freighter ''James Stove'' off [[Djibouti]] before British counter measures forced the submarines to depart the area. The submarine ''Torricelli'' and the ''Perla'' blocked all navy traffic to the port of Djibouti, while Italian colonial troops occupied western areas of French Somaliland.
However the Italian [[Brin class submarine]] ''Torricelli'' http://www.navypedia.org/ships/italy/it_... Brin class submarines, with photo] was spotted on 23 June approaching the [[Bab-el-Mandeb|Bab-el-Mandeb strait]] while returning from Djibouti waters, because of problems with leakage of [[chloromethane]] refrigerants. An intensive search ensued involving four British warships and aircraft from [[Aden]]. The four British ships encircled the Italian submarine, that attacked with its cannon. After a fierce resistance on surface, during which the sloop [[Shoreham-class sloop|HMS ''Shoreham'']] was damaged by return fire, the ''Torricelli'' was sunk in combat. After the engagement, the British destroyer [[HMS Khartoum (F45)|''Khartoum'']] was destroyed by an internal explosion probably initially originated by the Torricelli cannon shots.Giorgio Giorgerini, "Uomini sul fondo. Storia del sommergibilismo italiano dalle origini a oggi", p. 404 The British destroyer sank in shallow water off [[Perim Island]]. As a mark of respect for ''Torricelli'' crew's gallantry, the Italian captain was guest of honour at a dinner at the British naval base.
Meanwhile, the ''Galvani'' sunk the [[India]]n HMIS ''Pathan''{{cite web
| last = Kindell
| first = Don
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Sunday, 23 June
| work = British and Other Navies in World War 2 Day-by-Day
| publisher =
| date =
| url = http://www.naval-history.net/xDKWW2-4006...
| doi =
| accessdate = 29 Dec 2008 }} Disputes that ''Pathan'' was sunk by ''Torricelli''. at the same time that her sisters were fighting and was herself sunk on the following day.Jackson, pp.281-283
After July 1940 the Red sea flotilla' submarines -even because of lack of fuel- retreated from operations in the French Somalia waters.
==See also==
*[[Italian conquest of British Somaliland]]
*[[French Somaliland in World War II]]
*[[Italian Eritrea]]
*[[Italian Ethiopia]]
==Notes==
==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
* Coutler, Patrick. ''Regio Esercito: The Italian Royal Army in Mussolini's Wars, 1935-1943''. Publ. "Lulu". New York, 2013 ISBN 1105074013
*{{cite book |ref={{harvid|Ferry|2005}}|title=Croix de Lorraine et Croix du Sud, 1940–1942: aviateurs belges et de la France Libre en Afrique |first=Vital |last=Ferry |publisher=Éditions du Gerfaut |year=2005 |isbn=2-914622-92-9}}
*Jowett, Phillip & Stephen Andrew. ''The Italian Army 1940-45: Africa 1940-43'' Volume 2. Osprey Publishing. London, 2001
*{{cite thesis |ref=harv |first=Simon |last=Imbert-Vier |title=Frontières et limites à Djibouti durant la période coloniale (1884–1977) |type=PhD thesis |institution=[[University of Provence|Université de Provence–Aix-Marseille I]] |year=2008 |url=https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00736163}}
*{{cite book |ref={{harvid|Knox|1982}}|title=Mussolini Unleashed, 1939–1941: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War |last=Knox |first=MacGregor |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1982}}
* Maugini,Alberto. ''La colonizzazione della Somalia'', in "L'Italia in Africa", a cura della Società geografica italiana. Roma, 1948.
* Rovighi, Alberto. ''Le operazioni in Africa orientale'' (Giugno 1940 - Novembre 1941). Volume II Documenti - Stato Maggiore dell'Esercito. Roma, 1995
*{{cite book |ref={{harvid|Shores|1996}} |title=Dust Clouds in the Middle East: Air War for East Africa, Iraq, Syria, Iran and Madagascar, 1940–42 |first=Christopher |last=Shores |year=1996 |location=London |publisher=Grub Street}}
*{{cite book |ref={{harvid|Thompson|Adloff|1968}}|title=Djibouti and the Horn of Africa |first1=Virginia McLean |first2=Richard |last1=Thompson |last2=Adloff |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1968}}
{{refend}}
[[Category:French Somaliland]]
[[Category:History of Djibouti]]
[[Category:Military history of Italy during World War II]]
======================================================================
HAFUN SALT FACTORY
[[File:Hafun2.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Remaining transport-towers & buildings of The "Hafun Salt Factory", built in the 1930s by the [[Italian Somalians|Italians]]]]
'''Hafun Salt Factory''' (called initially ''Saline Dante'' in Italian) was the biggest salt factory in the world during the 1930s. It was created in the area of actual [[Hafun]] (then called "Dante") by the [[Italian Somalians|Italians]] in northern [[Italian Somalia]]. https://italiacoloniale.wordpress.com/20... The biggest Salt mine in the world (in Italian)] In 1941 it was destroyed during [[WWII]]'s British conquest of [[Italian East Africa]].
==History==
In 1930, an Italian firm called ''Società Saline e Industrie della Somalia settentrionale Migiurtina'' invested huge capital to exploit salt deposits in Hafun/Dante and Hurdiyo. The "Hafun Salt Factory" was created and was the main producing facility of sea [[salt]] on the world in the 1930s. By 1933-34, the Hafun/Dante salt works were producing more than 200,000 metric tons of salt, most of which was exported to [[India]] & the [[Far East]].{{cite journal|last1=Ahmed|first1=Ahmed Abbas|title=Transformation Towards a Regulated Economy|page=74}}
The industrial facility gave work to 600 Italians and 2000 natives (nearly all the native males in Hafun/Dante), giving a huge boost to the local Somalian economy: Dante grew to more than 5000 inhabitants in 1939. Electrical plants were built in the Dante area for the facility, together with an acqueduct, solving the semi-desert area problems for the first time in its history. The production reached nearly half a million tons per year in the late 1930s and was supposed to increase in the 1940s, but [[WWII]] stopped it.
{{Quote|''Soon after the First World War, the Italians realized that the shallow bay of Hafun, which had a long, low beach along the mainland side, was a perfect place for a large salt works. The "Società Saline e Industrie della Somalia Settentrionale" built on both sides of the peninsula of Ras Hafun (Hafun and Hurdiyo) what would be the largest salt-works in the world. The firm, constituted in Milan in 1922, rebuilt a town for 5,000 inhabitants in what was ancient Hafun and called it with the name "Dante". Construction began in 1922 and was completed by 1929. In 1931, production began at the salt factory and soon the enterprise at Ras Hafun was exporting by sea over three hundred thousand tons of salt a year for industrial use. In 1941, during World War II, the British, who had lost British Somaliland to an Italian attack, sent north into Somalia from Kenya an expeditionary force that captured all of Italian East Africa and in the process destroyed the salt works.''Wikimapia http://wikimapia.org/3994872/Old-Italian... Facility history & map]}}
The salt was treated with a total of 27.5 km long [[Ropeway conveyor]] of the salt pans: about 14 km were across the lagoon to a station on the opposite bank and then another 16 km were to the Treatment plant at Dante (now called [[Hafun]]).
[[File:Hafun3.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Remains of the Treatment plant in the outskirts of Hafun]]
From there the cable car went to be up to 1.5 km into the sea extending loading facilities. The cable car and the ropeway was built around 1925 by the German company "Ernst Heckel". https://italiacoloniale.files.wordpress.... Photo of the cableway]
The British destroyed the salt factory in 1941 during their conquest of [[Italian Somalia]] and since then the productivity has been reduced to a minimal activity until the 1950s, when was totally abandoned. The result was that Hafun in the 1970s was reduced to a small village of nearly 500 native inhabitants surviving mainly on fishing.
However in late 2014, the Udug Ltd. company in conjunction with the US-based Redd Engineering consultancy firm began conducting feasibility studies for the renovation of the salt production plants in Hafun and Hurdiyo. The first phase of the initiative was completed in March 2015, and saw the historic salt works in both towns refurbished following community-wide consultations. "Redd Engineering" official Lowry Redd indicated that the initiative aims to make the Hafun plant again one of the main global suppliers of salt.{{cite news|title=Somalia salt industry revives|url=http://www.garoweonline.com/page/show/post/1948/somalia-salt-industry-revives|agency=Garowe Online}}
==Notes==
==See also==
*[[Italian Somalia]]
*[[Hafun]]
==External links==
* https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RFrHjp9c... Migiurtina salt factory video]
* http://s168.photobucket.com/user/Riighay... Photos of the Hafun/Dante Salt Factory]
{{Somalia italiana (Colonia)}}
[[Category:Italian Somaliland]]
======================================================================
COSTANTE FERRARI
{{Ficha de persona
|nombre = Costante Ferrari
|fecha de nacimiento = 1785
|lugar de nacimiento = [[Reggio Emilia]] (Italia)
|fecha de fallecimiento = 1851
|lugar de fallecimiento = [[Massa Lombarda]]
|ocupación = militar, escritor
|conocido = patriota italiano (que también luchó con [[Simon Bolívar|Bolívar]])
}}
'''Costante Ferrari''' ([[Reggio Emilia]], 1785 - [[Massa Lombarda]], 1851) fue un patriota italiano de las guerras de independencia de [[Italia]], que luchó incluso en [[Venezuela]] y Centroamérica por su independencia. http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/cost...(Dizionario_Biografico)/ Treccani: Costante Ferrari] Es famoso por haber dejado sus memorias, un escrito muy conocido en Italia en el siglo XIX.
==Vida==
Costante Ferrari nació en Reggio Emilia (llamada "Reggio di Modena" en esos años) el 5 de enero de 1785 http://www.codazzi.mitreum.net/imgs/0105... Imagen de Costante Ferrari]. Su padre y su madre eran Francesco y Maddalena Messori, ricos comerciantes de ideas liberales. Desde muy temprana edad mostró una pasión por la confrontación física y por las armas, de modo que -cuando en 1796 los ejércitos franceses al mando del general Augerau entraron en su ciudad natal- se alistó en el "Conde Bolognini" (un batallón de voluntarios) sin el conocimiento de la familia y a sólo doce años de edad (al poco tiempo alcanzó el grado de "Cabo" del batallon).
Entonces -entusiasmado por las ideas liberales e igualitarias propagadas en toda [[Europa]] por el [[Revolución francesa|ejército revolucionario francés]]- entró en el ejército de la [[República Italiana (1802-1805)|República Italiana]], y más tarde en el del [[Reino de Italia (1805-1814)|Reino napoleónico de Italia]]: participó en los sitios de Colberg y Stralsund, en la expedición de [[Nápoles]], y desde 1808 hasta 1813 luchó con honor en [[España]], lo que le valió la condecoración de la "Corona de Hierro" (marzo de 1811) y, unos meses más tarde, el grado de "Teniente" (agosto de 1811).
En 1814 Ferrari fue testigo del colapso del Reino de Italia. Después de negarse a ingresar en el ejército austríaco, optó por luchar por la causa de la independencia nacional italiana bajo el mando de [[Joachim Murat]], rey de Nápoles. Después de la derrota de Murat, se embarcó desde Italia rumbo a países de Europa del Este.
[[Archivo:Viajes de Agustín Codazzi.svg|250px|thumb|right|Viajes de Costante Ferrari con Agustín Codazzi (1816-1822)]]
A continuación hizo amistad con [[Agustin Codazzi|Agostino Codazzi]], ex suboficial de la artillería del ejército del Reino de Italia, y -ofreciendo sus servicios militares- viajó con él a través de [[Grecia]], [[Moldavia]], [[Valaquia]], [[Polonia]], [[Prusia]] y [[Dinamarca]] hasta llegar a [[Holanda]]. Luego desde [[Amberes]] fue hacia [[Baltimore]] en los Estados Unidos de America. A partir de ahí, los dos se trasladaron a [[Florida]], donde fueron jefes de un batallón de las fuerzas armadas locales.
Costante Ferrari más tarde participó en las guerras de liberación en el Caribe y Venezuela (en donde se le conoció también en lengua española como "Constante" Ferrari). Participó en la [[Toma de Amelia|Toma de la isla Amelia]], un episodio de las [[Guerras de Independencia Hispanoamericana]], en el cual un grupo de patriotas venezolanos con el apoyo de milicianos norteamericanos y europeos tomaron la [[isla de Amelia]] en la costa de [[Florida]] en junio de [[1817]] y proclamaron la [[República de Florida (1817)|República de Florida]]. Los expedicionarios fueron dirigidos en primera instancia por el general [[Gregor MacGregor]] y posteriormente por el general (corsario) francés [[Luis Aury]] con la participación entre otros de [[Pedro Gual]], [[Luis Brión]], [[Juan Germán Roscio]] y su amigo [[Agustín Codazzi]]. La operación se realizó con la autorización de [[Simón Bolívar]] y tuvo sus causas en el apoyo que otorgaban los [[Estados Unidos]] a los españoles en [[Venezuela]], [[Provincias Unidas de la Nueva Granada|Nueva Granada]] y el [[Mar Caribe|Caribe]]. Agustín Codazzi y Costante Ferrari se unieron inicialmente a la expedición en apoyo a la campaña libertadora de Bolívar en las costas de Venezuela, que organizaba el contraalmirante de la armada venezolana Agustín Gustavo Villeret http://www.venezuelatuya.com/biografias/... Venezuela tuya]. Pero por desavenencias de Villeret con el almirante [[Luis Brión]], comandante de la escuadra, en vez de navegar hacia la [[isla de Margarita]], se desviaron hacia la [[isla de Amelia]], frente a las costas de la Florida.
El general Aury lo nombró ''Capitan del batallón europeo'', cuando Costante Ferrari se le unió en la isla de Amelia junto a 250 voluntarios, casi todos ex militares napoleónicos.
{{Quote|''Ahí (en Amelia) nos unimos en numero de 250 a las tropas del general Aury..que dispuso la creación de tres batallones para garantizar el control de la isla, uno de británicos y norteamericanos bajo el mando del colonel Wals, el segundo de "moros" y negros bajo el mando del colonel Molo y el tercero de europeos sucesivamente bajo mi mando....en fecha 8 de febrero de 1818 con Decreto (sucesivo) del general Aury mi amigo Agustin Codazzi fue nombrado "Teniente de artillería" y yo fui promovido a "Capitan de batallon".'' Costante FerrariFerrari."Memorie postume"; p.425}}
De las costas de la Florida Costante Ferrari y su amigo Codazzi pasaron -bajo el mando del general Aury, que recibía orderes directas de Bolivar- a las costas caribeñas de Centroamérica, participando en la guerra de liberación de [[Honduras]] y [[Nicaragua]]. En [[1818]] la [[Capitanía General de Guatemala]], la manera en que estaba organizada la colonia española en [[América Central]], seguía bajo control "realista" y por lo tanto era una plaza fuerte de España contra los intentos emancipadores del poder colonial tanto de [[Norteamérica]] como de [[Suramérica]]. Para asegurar su independencia, la [[Gran Colombia]] de Bolívar lanzó entonces una expedición combinada por tierra y mar en contra de los puertos de [[Omoa]] y [[Trujillo (Honduras)| Trujillo]]. Ferrari se distinguió en esos combates. Aury junto con su flota, entre cuya tripulación se encontraban Codazzi y Ferrari, se dirigió a la [[isla de Providencia]] frente a las costas de [[Nicaragua]], la cual capturó en julio de [[1818]] y donde estableció una base para sus operaciones corsarias por varios años, constituyendo así el primer territorio libre de la [[Provincias Unidas de la Nueva Granada|Nueva Granada]]. Después de este acontecimiento Aury, Codazzi y Ferrari navegaron hasta [[Buenos Aires]] para ponerse al servicio de las [[Provincias Unidas del Río de la Plata]].
En 1822 decidió volver a Italia, siempre con el amigo de confianza Codazzi.
Una vez en Reggio Emilia en diciembre de 1822, con el dinero ahorrado luchando en América del Sur, los dos compraron en Massa Lombarda (en la provincia de [[Ravenna]]), una enorme finca agrícola - ''Villa Serraglio'' - que fue el feudo de la Marquesa Albergati Capacelli de Bolonia. En esos años Ferrari se casó con una muchacha local de apellido Tesla Ferrari."Memorie postume"; p.475
Sin embargo, Costante Ferrari se mantuvo esencialmente un hombre de guerra y acción. Por lo tanto, no mucho después, se embarcó para luchar por Grecia, sublevada contra el Imperio Otomano en busca de su independencia nacional. En Grecia se dio cuenta de que los insurgentes griegos no toleraban la presencia de voluntarios extranjeros de Italia y así decidió -aunque de malas ganas- a volver a su actividad de agricultor. Trabajó en su granja durante seis años, mientras que Codazzi (que había perdido su propiedad) en 1826 prefirió volver a América Latina, donde comenzó su exitosa carrera como cartógrafo y científico militar en Venezuela y [[Colombia]].
En 1831, al estallar la revuelta en el centro de Italia con el inicio del [[Risorgimento]], Costante Ferrari ofreció inmediatamente sus servicios a la causa liberal italiana. En febrero 1831, el "Gobierno provisional de la Comisión de Imola" le nombró comandante en jefe de la ciudad, dándole diez días después el grado de "Colonel". Con la derrota de la insurrección, Ferrari dejó Italia para escapar de la detención y el encarcelamiento y huyó a [[Marsella]]. Al regresar a casa después de la amnistía general de 1833, en octubre del año siguiente se embarcó para América quiriendo abrazar al amigo Codazzi. Sin embargo, la larga separación había enfriado la vieja amistad, por lo que Costante Ferrari volvió tristemente a la finca de Villa Serraglio, que se había convertido enteramente suya.
Siguieron años de inacción inconcluyentes: la finca era demasiado grande para sus recursos: él no era un buen administrador y como agricultor era aún peor.
Por último, en 1848, durante la primera guerra de la independencia de Italia, tomó el mando de un batallón de voluntarios, entre las tropas bajo el mando del general Durando, y luchó en el [[Veneto]], tomando parte en el sitio de [[Vicenza]] al defender la ciudad de los ataques de los austriacos. Después de la capitulación de la ciudad (11 de junio, 1848), Ferrari y sus hombres se concentraron en [[Bolonia]] y estuvieron involucrados en los enfrentamientos que llevaron a la expulsión de los austriacos.
Finalmente regresó al aislamiento en su tranquila Villa Serraglio, en donde escribió sus famosas "Memorie postume". Su último acto político fue en abril de 1849, con su adhesión a la vibrante, pero estéril, protesta contra la [[República Romana (1849)|expedición francesa de Roma]]. Sin embargo no pudo participar en la defensa de la ciudad ya que fue impedido por su edad y por sus muchas dolencias.
Costante Ferrari murió en su residencia de Villa Serraglio en Massa Lombarda el 30 de abril 1851, siendo honrado por muchos patriotas italianos y conciudadanos.Commemorazione del cav. colonnello Costante Ferrari fatta a Villa Serraglio il 27 maggio 1894: con note e documento in parte inediti
Editore Tip. d'I. Galeati e figlio, 1895 ( https://books.google.it/books?id=osAsAAA...])
==Notas==
==Bibliografía==
* Cassani Pironti, Fabio. ''Gli italiani in Venezuela dall’Indipendenza al Secondo Dopoguerra''. Ed. Mondadori. Roma, 2004
* Ferrari, Constante. ''Memorie postume del Cav. Costante Ferrari, capitano delle Guardie reali del regno italico, tenente-colonnello nelle Americhe e colonnello effettivo in Italia ''. Editore Tip. di F. Cappelli Bologna, 1855 (Harvard University: https://books.google.it/books?id=B3kqAAA... Versión original del libro escrito por Costante Ferrari]
* Vannini Marisa. ''Memorias Póstumas de Constante Ferrari y Agustin Codazzi''. Banco de la Republica. Caracas, 2000 ( http://www.banrepcultural.org/blaavirtua...])
==Ver también==
* [[Agustin Codazzi]]
* [[Luis Aury]]
* [[Italo venezolanos|Italianos en Venezuela]]
[[Categoría:Historia de Italia]]
[[Categoría:Militares de Italia del siglo XIX]]
[[Categoría:Militares de la Guerra de Independencia de Venezuela]]
=======================================================================
ALBERTO ADRIANI MAZZEI
[[File:Alberto Adriani.jpg|thumb|tight|200px|Alberto Adriani Mazzei]]
'''Alberto Adriani Mazzei''' ([[Zea (Mérida)]], 14/06/1898 - [[Caracas]], 10/08/1936) fue un destacado economista y politico [[Italo venezolanos|venezolano de origen italiano]]. Durante el gobierno de [[Eleazar López Contreras]], siendo Ministro, llevó a cabo una importante reorganización de la "Hacienda Pública Nacional". http://archivo.globovision.com/alberto-a... Articulo con foto de Alberto Adriani Mazzei (es el primero a la izquierda de la foto) con el presidente Contreras]
==Vida==
Alberto Adriani Mazzei nació en una familia de italianos que emigraron a Merida en 1892. Desde niño fue un estudiante muy destacado y en 1918 ingresó en la [[Universidad Central de Venezuela]] donde estudió para ser abogado. Inicialmente hizo carrera diplomática y fue nombrado cónsul en [[Ginebra]], donde representó [[Venezuela]] por tres años como secretario de la delegación venezolana delante de la [[Sociedad de Naciones]]. Al mismo tiempo se graduó de economista.
{{Quote|'' Al morir el general Gómez, regresó a Caracas y en marzo de 1936 es parte del gabinete del presidente Eleazar López Contreras en el nuevo ministerio de Agricultura y Cría que organiza en dos meses. Y el 29 de abril de 1936 Contreras lo designa al ministerio de Hacienda para que reorganice la Hacienda Pública. Adriani Mazzei había propuesto crear el "Banco de la Nación", que diez años después fue fundado como "Banco Central de Venezuela".'' Juan Jose Peralta}}
Adriani Mazzei hablaba cuatro idiomas perfectamente (italiano, español, ingles y francés) y también se graduó de periodista en [[Londres]] en 1928. Sucesivamente fue alumno del famoso premio Nobel [[John Maynard Keynes]] y trabajó en [[Washington]], como jefe de la División o Departamento de Cooperación Agrícola. En 1927 representó a la Cámara de Comercio de Caracas en la tercera "Conferencia Panamericana".
En 1931 Alberto Adriani propuso crear el "Banco de la Nación", con objeto de que fuera la entidad emisora de la moneda nacional: exactamente diez años después de esa propuesta se fundó el [[Banco Central de Venezuela]]. En ese año planteó la necesidad de favorecer la emigración en masa a Venezuela desde [[Europa]].
Adriani describió en sus escritos desde su ciudad natal Zea, entre 1932 y 1934, cómo el auge de un recurso natural da lugar a una sobrevaluación de la moneda local que abarata los productos importados y encarece la oferta exportadora agrícola e industrial, desplazando y atrofiando la actividad agropecuaria y manufacturera a favor de bienes y servicios no transables como la construcción y la especulación inmobiliaria y financiera, con el consecuente empobrecimiento de las zonas rurales y el enriquecimiento ficticio de las ciudades. Para Adriani la solución estaba en un estado fuerte que controlara eficazmente la distribución de la riqueza: en esto se acercó al [[corporativismo]] del fascismo italiano, aunque rechazando su excesivo autoritarismo y favoreciendo el [[liberalismo]] keynesiano.
En 1935 escribió dos de sus mejores análisis sobre la economía venezolana: ''La crisis, los cambios y nosotros'' y el famoso ''El dilema de nuestra moneda y la situacion economica venezolana''Consalvi: Pensamiento de Adriani; p. 180, poniendo sucesivamente las bases para la creación del partido político "ORVE" ("Movimiento de Organización venezolana") junto con el merideño [[Mariano Picón-Salas]].
{{Quote|''El Movimiento de Organización Venezolana tuvo mayor fortuna. ORVE, fundada por Alberto Adriani y Mariano Picón-Salas, atrajo a innumerables intelectuales. ORVE nació el 1º de marzo 1936 en una concentración en el "Nuevo Circo". Atrajo a la gran mayoría de intelectuales. Bajo el liderazgo de Adriani y Picón-Salas surge como un factor de moderación. Condenan los apresuramientos ideológicos, la lucha de clases, como si adivinaran la fragilidad de la transición política. Muy pronto, Adriani ingresó al gabinete como ministro de Agricultura, y Picón-Salas fue enviado al servicio exterior en Praga.'' Simon Consalvi}}
En diciembre 1935 volvió a Caracas, donde el presidente López Contreras lo hizo "Ministro de Agricultura y Cría" a principios de 1936. En esos meses dió un impulso enorme a la reforma de la Hacienda publica de Venezuela, creando las bases para la futura creación del Banco Central de Venezuela como principal garante de la emisión de moneda.
[[File:Hotel majestic-1933.jpg|thumb|right|180px|El Hotel Majestic, donde murió el dr. Alberto Adriani]]
Al mismo tiempo, según [[Arturo Uslar Pietri]], Adriani Mazzei formuló la famosa frase ''Sembrar el Petroleo'', refiriéndose a la necesidad de que las entradas del petróleo -que en esa época empezaban a inundar abundantemente las cajas del gobierno venezolano- no fueran desperdiciadas en enriquecer solamente un grupo de políticos y empresarios oligarcas. Adriani Mazzei como economista era partidario de un estado fuerte que nivelara la oligarquía de los tiempos del dictador Gomez http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se... Simon Consalvi: "Alberto Adriani, el hombre de estado"]
A causa de su determinación de llevar la economía venezolana a niveles modernos (atacando la oligarquia "gomecista" con la creación de impuestos y devaluando el bolívar para salvar la producción agropecuaria), fue muy criticado en los meses que fue ministro: Adriani Mattei fue encontrado muerto en el [[Hotel Majestic (Caracas)|Hotel Majestic]] de Caracas el 10 de agosto de 1936. Muerto -según las autoridades- de ataque cardíaco. Hubo sucesivamente muchos comentarios sobre su muerte, ya que era un hombre de buena salud y sana fortaleza física. Pedro Pablo Paredes opinó que fue envenenado, supuestamente con substancias que le provocaron un [[infarto]] http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se... Alberto Adriani Mazzei fue posiblemente envenenado].
Lo cierto es que la devaluación del bolívar no se hizo y la economía agropecuaria se vino para abajo después de su muerte, substituida por una artificial basada en el petróleo. El presidente [[Rómulo Betancourt]] -que en 1936 era un joven ayudante de Adriani Mazzei- en los años sucesivos siempre criticó este hecho.
{{Quote|''Adriani nunca escribió un libro para su publicación, pero sus trabajos fueron publicados en diarios y revistas de Venezuela y el extranjero.Al cumplirse un año de la muerte de Alberto Adriani, sus amigos Arturo Uslar Pietri y Diego Nacerte Sardi recopilaron sus principales trabajos en libro titulado: “labor Venezolanista”''. Narciso Parra http://nguaramato3.blogspot.com/2009/06/... Biografía del Dr. Adriani Mazzei] }}
En 1955 ha sido creado en los Andes venezolanos un distrito en el [[Mérida (estado)|estado Merida]] con su nombre: el [[Municipio Alberto Adriani]].
En 1999 sus restos fueron trasladados al [[Panteón Nacional de Venezuela]], haciendo de Alberto Adriani uno de los [[Anexo:Personajes sepultados en el Panteón Nacional|Personajes venezolanos sepultados en el Panteón Nacional]].
==Notas==
==Bibliografía==
* Santander Laya-Garrido, Alfonso. ''Los Italianos forjadores de la nacionalidad y del desarrollo económico en Venezuela''. Editorial Vadell. Valencia, 1978.
* Vannini, Marisa. ''Italia y los Italianos en la Historia y en la Cultura de Venezuela''. Oficina Central de Información. Caracas, 1966
==Vease también==
*[[Anexo:Personajes sepultados en el Panteón Nacional]]
*[[Italo venezolanos]]
[[Categoría:Historia de Venezuela]]
[[Categoría:Ministros de Venezuela]]
[[Categoría:Venezolanos de ascendencia italiana]]
[[Categoría:Políticos de la Venezuela contemporánea]]
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http://www.codazzi.mitreum.net/imgs/0105... Immagine di Costante ferrari
http://www.difesaonline.it/news-forze-ar...
Blocco costa Venezuela nel 1902
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.11... Italians in contemporary Venezuela (OTTIMO)
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ITALIAN MOGADISHU
[[File:Fiatmogadiscio1940.png|thumb|right|400px|Fiat's Boero Building in Mogadishu (1940).]]
'''Mogadishu''' or '''Mogadiscio''' was the capital of [[Italian Somalia]] in the first half of the XX century. In [[Italian language]], the city was called ''Mogadiscio italiana'' and the inhabitants were called ''Mogadini''. Italian Mogadiscio https://mogadishuimages.files.wordpress.... Map of Mogadiscio Somalia in 1930] was under Italian control from 1885 until February 1941: officially it disappeared in 1947 after the "Peace Treaty" following [[WWII]] when Italy lost all the colonies.
==History==
{{Quote|''Mogadishu (or Mukdishu) is mentioned by Marco Polo and described by Ibn Batuta as an “immense” city. This was in the early part of the 14th century.....In 1892 it was transferred to Italy. The name of the town is spelt in a great variety of ways, including Madeigascar, whence the name of the island of Madagascar. Alfred Grandidier points out that the Portuguese, misled by Marco Polo's description of Mukdishu as an island, fancied they had discovered the land of which he wrote when they touched at Madagascar'' 1911 E. Britannica}}
The first [[Italian people|Italian]] to write about Mogadiscio was [[Marco Polo]], who knew of the city during his merchant travels in [[Asia]]. But only in the late XIX century the commerce company "Filonardi" from [[Italy]] took control of facilities in the port of Mogadishu.
By 1882, Mogadishu was under the joint control of the Somali [[Geledi Sultanate]] (which was also holding sway over the [[Shebelle Valley]] region in the interior called [[Benadir]]) and the [[Oman]]i [[List of Sultans of Zanzibar|Sultan of Zanzibar]].I. M. Lewis, ''A modern history of Somalia: nation and state in the Horn of Africa'', (Westview Press: 1988), p.38 In 1885, [[Ali bin Said of Zanzibar|Ali bin Said]] leased the city to an Italian [[chartered company]] owned by [[Vincenzo Filonardi]]. This "Compagnia Filonardi" (1893–96) and later the "Società Anonima Commerciale Italiana del Benadir" (1899-1905) was finally taken by the Italian government, that obtained the control of the entire region of Benadir with the port of Mogadishu through an agreement with the British government in 1892. From 3 August 1889 to 15 May 1893 Filonardi was the first [[List of colonial heads of Italian Somaliland|Governor]] of the "Somalia italiana" (he was governor again from 1896 to 1897).
[[File:Mogadishu, Bank of Italy.jpg|thumb|left|300px|"Banca d'Italia" building]]
The [[Kingdom of Italy]] purchased the city in 1905 and made Mogadishu the capital of the newly established [[Italian Somaliland|Somalia italiana]]. The Italians subsequently referred to the city as ''Mogadiscio''.
The city was soon modernized in the early 1910s with the creation of the first sewage system, the first hospital, the first paved roads and the new electricity facilities. In the 1910s and 1920s the Italians enlarged the [[Port of Mogadishu]] and created the first airport (initially only for military airplanes). In the 1910s was created the first radio-telegraph station in eastern Africa, under the supervision of [[Guglielmo Marconi]], that was able to connect Mogadishu directly with [[Italian Eritrea]] and [[Rome]]: it was worldwide celebrated.
From 5 April 1908 to 5 May 1936, the [[Royal Corps of Somali Colonial Troops]] (''Regio corpo truppe coloniali della Somalia Italiana''), originally called the "Guard Corps of Benadir", served as the territory's formal military corps with headquarters in Mogadiscio. At the start of its establishment, the force had 2,600 Italian officers.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Italian_colonialism_in_Somalia.html?id=33QWAAAAIAAJ |title=Italian colonialism in Somalia |author=Robert L. Hess |page=91}} Between 1911 and 1912, over 1,000 Somalis from Mogadishu served as combat units along with Eritrean and Italian soldiers in the [[Italo-Turkish War]].{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?ei=_vexU_fCEYeEqgaqkYKIBQ& |title=Journal of the Royal United Service Institution, Whitehall Yard, Volume 57, Issue 2 |author=W. Mitchell |page=997}} Most of the troops stationed never returned home until they were transferred back to Italian Somaliland in preparation for the [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War|invasion of Ethiopia]] in 1935.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4O0vAAAAIAAJ&|title=War Over Ethiopia |author=William James Makin |page=227}}
In November 1920, the [[Banca d'Italia]], the first modern bank in Italian Somaliland, was established in Mogadishu.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=03QwAQAAIAAJ& |title=Putting the cart before the horse: contested nationalism and the crisis of the nation-state in Somalia |author=Abdi Kusow |page=179}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UGEwAQAAIAAJ&q |title=Huddur & the history of Southern Somalia |author=Salah Mohamed Ali |page=68}} Later were founded in the city the branches of other Italian banks: in 1936 [[Banco di Roma]] and in 1938 [[Banco di Napoli]] established a branch (Banco di Napoli replaced [[Cassa di Risparmio di Torino]], which had opened an office in Mogadishu in 1932). After [[WWII]] from the Banca d'Italia was developed the [[Central Bank of Somalia]].
On December 5, 1923, [[Cesare Maria De Vecchi|Cesare Maria De Vecchi di Val Cismon]] was named [[List of colonial governors of Italian Somaliland|Governor]] in charge of the new colonial administration and promoted the process of complete pacification of the Somalia italiana, with the initial integration of the native population. Italian colonial policy followed two principles in Italian Somaliland: preservation of the dominant clan and ethnic configurations and respect for Islam as the territory's religion.Ben-Ghiat, p. 311
In 1928, the Italian authorities built the [[Mogadishu Cathedral]] (''Cattedrale di Mogadiscio''). It was constructed in a [[Norman architecture|Norman]] [[Gothic Revival architecture|Gothic]] style, based on the [[Cefalù Cathedral]] in [[Cefalù]], [[Sicily]].{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?ei=8LVAU9nDEYqmsASVs4HQAQ&id=ulXZAAAAMAAJ |title=Consolata Missionaries in the World (1901-2001) |author= Giovanni Tebaldi |page=127}} Following its establishment, Crown Prince [[Umberto II of Italy|Umberto II]] made his first publicized visit to Mogadishu.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tm6uVwH03hAC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Mussolini's Italy: Life Under the Fascist Dictatorship, 1915-1945 |author= R. J. B. Bosworth |page=48}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vaDkDZmrZmYC&source=gbs_navlinks_s |title=Safirka: An American Envoy |author= Peter Bridges |page=71}} To commemorate the visit, the Arch of Umberto was constructed. The arch was built at the center of Mogadishu Garden.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_dotAQAAIAAJ& |title=The road to zero: Somalia's self-destruction |author= Mohamed Osman Omar |page=35}} The [[Mogadishu International Airport]] was constructed that same year. The facility was regarded as one of the finest in the region.
In the early 1930s, the new Italian Governors, Guido Corni and Maurizio Rava, started a policy of full assimilation of the Somalis. Many Somalis were enrolled in the Italian colonial troops, and thousands of Italian colonists moved to live in Mogadishu. The city grew in size and some small manufacturing companies opened up. The Italians also settled in agricultural areas around the capital, such as Jowhar and [[Janale]] (''Genale'').Bevilacqua, Piero. ''Storia dell'emigrazione italiana''. p. 233
{| border="0" align="right" style="border: 1px solid #999; background-color:#FFFFFF"
|-align="right" bgcolor="#ffbbbb"
! year !! Italians !! Mogadishu population
!%
|-bgcolor="#fff0ee"
|1905
|100
|5,000
|2%
|-bgcolor="#fff0ee"
|1914
|900
|18,000
|5%
|-bgcolor="#fff0ee"
|1930
|17,000
|50,000
|30%
|-bgcolor="#fff0ee"
|1940
|30,000
|90,000
|33%
|-bgcolor="#fff0ee"
|1945
|40,000
|100,000
|40%
|- bgcolor="#fff0ee"
|1960
|9,000
|118,000
|<10%
|-bgcolor="#fff0ee"
|1970
|1,962
|230,000
|<1%
|-
|- bgcolor="#fff0ee"
|1989
|500
|800,000
|<0,1%
|-
| colspan="8" |'''The Italian population in Mogadishu, from 1905 to 1989'''
|}
In 1930, there were 22,000 Italians living in Italian Somaliland, representing 2% of the territory's population. The majority resided in the capital Mogadishu, with other Italian communities concentrated in Jowhar (''Villabruzzi''), [[Adale]] (''Itala''), Janale (''Genale''), [[Jamame]] and [[Kismayo]]. http://xoomer.alice.it/fernandotermentin... Article with photos on a 2005 visit to 'Villaggio Duca degli Abruzzi' and areas of former Italian Somaliland (in Italian)] http://www.populstat.info/Africa/somalia... Population of Somalia in 1939]
By 1935, Mogadishu began to serve as a major naval base and port for the Italians.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7qV5AgAAQBAJ& |title=Strategic Basing and the Great Powers, 1200-2000 |author= Robert E. Harkavy |page=87}} Then [[Prime Minister of Italy|Prime Minister]] of Italy [[Benito Mussolini]] regarded [[Greater Somalia]] (''La Grande Somalia'') with capital Mogadiscio as the crown jewel in Italy's colonial empire in eastern [[Africa]]. Consequently, from 1936 to 1940, new roads were constructed in the region around Mogadiscio, such as the "Imperial Road" from Mogadishu to [[Addis Abeba]]. New railways (114 km from Mogadishu to Jowhar) and many schools, hospitals, ports and bridges were also built.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N2IMAQAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Beginning Somali History |author=Paul S. Gilbert, Scott Winfield Street, Robert A. Blume |page=75}}
Mogadishu airport was established in 1928 with the name ''Petrella-Mogadiscio aeroporto'', the first such facility to be opened in the [[Horn of Africa]]. It served as the main military airport for [[Italian Somaliland]]. In the mid-1930s, the airport began offering civilian and commercial flights. A regular [[Asmara]]-[[Assab]]-Mogadishu commercial route was started in 1935, with an [[Ala Littoria]] [[Caproni Ca.133|Caproni 133]] providing 13-hour flights from the Mogadishu airport to [[Italian Eritrea]]. The aircraft had a maximal capacity of 18 passengers, which at the time was a record. In 1936, Ala Littoria launched an intercontinental connection between Mogadishu-Asmara-[[Khartoum]]-[[Tripoli]] and Rome. The voyage lasted four days and was one of the first long range flights in the world.{{cite web|last=Flavio Riccitelli (A.I.D.A.)|title=ALA LITTORIA S.A. (1934–1941)|url=http://www.ilpostalista.it/unico2004pag55.htm|publisher=Il Postalista|accessdate=7 October 2013}}
The port of Italian Mogadiscio had an exportation in 1934 of 43.467 tons of agricultural products (mainly bananas) toward Italy and Europe. For this commercial transport were used the service of special container-ships called "RAMB" (that were built with the possibility to be converted to be an [[auxiliary cruiser]]). The [[Ramb II]] was a [[banana boat (ship)|banana boat]] based even in Mogadishu. Ramb II was the second of four sister ships all built to the same design: the other ships were the [[Ramb I]], the [[Ramb III]], and the [[Ramb IV]]. The four ships were built for the Royal Banana Monopoly Business ("Regia Azienda Monopolio Banane") to transport refrigerated bananas from Italian Somalia to Italy.
[[File:Italy-motonave-Vulcania-1948.jpg|thumb|300px|left|The Italian [[ocean liner]] Vulcania was the biggest ship to serve the port of Mogadishu]]
From 1936 the port started to have a weekly international ship line for passengers, connecting Mogadishu with [[Massaua]] in [[Eritrea]] and [[Genova]] in [[Italy]] with the Italian [[Lloyd Triestino]] and [[Italian Line]]. http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-porti.ht... Ship lines of Mogadishu port (in Italian)] The [[MS Vulcania]] was a transatlantic ship that served the port of Mogadiscio. Later, in 1941 the port was damaged by British bombings during [[WWII]].
In the 1930s, Italian authorities began to organize professional [[sport]] in Somalia. These sports were initially concentrated only in the capital [[Mogadishu]]. https://books.google.com/books?id=SW_q8y... Sport e fascismo (in Italian); p. 248] In 1931 governor Maurizio Rava created the ''Federazione Sportiva della Somalia'', which organized competences of athletics, tennis and football for the Italian community and promoted the first sport activities among the young native population. In 1933 the first Somalian football championship was created in Mogadishu, called ''Coppa Federazione Sportiva'', with three teams ("Societa' Mogadiscio", "Marina" and "Milizia"). In 1938 the football championship was won by the "Amaruini" team, made up mainly of local [[Somalis|Somalians]]; in 1939 the winning team was the "Araba". In 1938 competitions of other sports, like swimming and cycling, were held.
In summer 1938 was created the ''Circuito Mogadiscio'' (called even "Circuito di Mogadiscio" and in English: "Mogadishu Circuit"), a car race done in the main streets of Mogadishu that was one of the firsts in Africa. http://www.bibibruschi.com/#!mogadiscio-... Photo of the Circuit Stands] The main Italian newspaper of Mogadiscio and the Italian colonies, "Il Littoriale", http://dlib.coninet.it/bookreader.php?&a... "Il Littorale" on the 1938 Auto Circuit on page 5 (in Italian)] reported that on mid-August 1938 was done the first car race circuit of Mogadiscio. Indeed, on August 15 the Governor Francesco Saveno flagged the start of a car race followed by many thousands in the "Corso Vittorio Emanuele" (actual "Somalia Boulevard") of Somalia's capital, where there were the main stands. On Mogadiscio streets many native Somalis enjoyed enthusiastically to the first car race in their country. It was followed even by a motorcycle race, done with 250 cc and 350 cc category. The "Circuito di Mogadiscio" was repeated in 1939, but the edition of 1940 was not done because of the beginning of the war.
In the first years of the XX century there were only one hundred Italian civilians (mostly members of the colonial administration with their families) in Mogadishu, but soon started to arrive thousands of colonists (with some merchants and entrepreneurs) from Italy: by March 1940, over 30,000 Italians lived in Mogadishu, representing around 33% of the city's total 90,000 residents.{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9ukPAAAAIAAJ& |title=Yearbook of the Encyclopedia Americana |author=Alexander Hopkins McDannald |accessdate=2014-04-06}}{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hAI5AAAAIAAJ& |title=Development of Italian East Africa |author=Ferdinando Quaranta di San Severino (barone) |accessdate=2014-06-22}} They frequented local Italian schools that the colonial authorities had opened, such as a local "Liceum".{{cite web|url=http://picasaweb.google.com/giannmari/ScuolaMediaDiMogadiscio#5262938895776011394 |title=Photo of a mixed Italian and Somali school in Mogadishu |date= 11 October 2008 |accessdate=2014-03-29}}
During [[WWII]] Italian Mogadiscio was conquered by the British in February 1941: nearly all the Italians in Somalia took refuge in the city -for security reasons- during those war years until 1945. Because of these refugees Mogadishu in those years had a population that was nearly half Italian, when added the 7000 descendants of Italian soldiers who had illegitimate offsprings with Somalian girls.According to historian Tripodi, in Somalia nearly 10,000 children were born from Italians (mainly soldiers) and Somalian native girls during the half a century of colonial presence in Italian Somalia. Most of them lived in the Mogadishu area
Since then the [[Italian Somalis|Italian population]] of Mogadiscio started to diminish, mainly after 1948 when there was the killing of Italians by the [[Somali Youth League]], https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=icoirpaf... Video related to January 1948 massacre] and practically disappeared a few decades later. Indeed somali nationalist agitation against the possibility of renewed Italian rule reached the level of violent confrontation in 1948, when on 11 January, large riots broke out that left fifty-two Italians dead in the streets of Mogadishu and other coastal cities in which many more were injured.
Even if there was an important community of nearly 10,000 Italians in Mogadishu in the 1950s, when Italy administrated the country with a [[ONU]] mandate, in the late 1990s practically there were no more Italians in Mogadishu.
===Legacy===
The legacy of the Italian presence in [[Mogadishu]] is mainly related to the decision to develop this city as the capital of actual Somalia: in 1885 the Italians found a small city/village with 3,000 inhabitants living in ruined medieval buildings and in just half a century the city was transformed in a modern capital (of one of the biggest countries in eastern Africa) with 100,000 inhabitants, that was nicknamed ''the White Pearl of the Indian Ocean''.
However some other legacies of the Italian presence in Mogadishu still remain: from the diffused use of pasta (''baasto'') such as [[spaghetti]] and of [[polenta]] (''mishaari''), http://www.liutprand.it/articoliMondo.as... Somalian recipes (in Italian)] that comes from the [[Italian Somalis]] families, to the [[latin script]] in the [[Somalian language]] and to the architecture of the city.
==Architecture==
{{Quote|''The story of Mogadishu’s Modernist buildings begins during the time of Italian colonial rule. Unlike Asmara in Eritrea and Tripoli in Libya, where the Italians built their colonial city alongside the native walled town, in Mogadishu the walls of the old medina were torn down and the occupiers’ buildings imposed in the city centre.''Rakesh Ramchum http://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/cultu... Italian era modernist buildings in Mogadishu]}}
In 1905 was started a plan to develop the city, that the Italians found divided in two medieval areas: Amaruini and Scingani. In the middle was built the new "Corso Vittorio Emanuele III" (the main avenue) and governmental buildings with a garden area (that in 1934 was beautified with the "Arch of Umberto"). In 1928 was created the "Piano regolatore di Mogadiscio", the first urban planification for the city, when the medioeval Scingani was demolished and was created a modern area with new buildings and tree lined roads.
Since then in Mogadishu were made many architectural improvements before [[WWII]]. https://italiacoloniale.wordpress.com/20... Italian architecture -with images- in 1935 Mogadiscio (in Italian)] The most inportant are:
1) [[Villa Somalia]]. It is the [[official residence|official residential]] [[presidential palace|palace]] and principal workplace of the [[President of Somalia]], [[Hassan Sheikh Mohamud]]. It sits on high ground that overlooks the city on the Indian Ocean, with access to both the [[Port of Mogadishu|harbour]] and [[Aden Adde International Airport|airport]].{{cite book|title=Reports Service: Northeast Africa series, Volume 13, Issue 1|year=1966|publisher=American Universities Field Staff|url=http://www.google.com/books?id=SlUaAQAAIAAJ}}
The edifice was built -in partially modern [[art deco]] style- by the colonial authorities in [[Italian Somaliland]], serving as a residence for the Governors. http://senato.archivioluce.it/senato-luc... 1938 Foto, showing the athletic race track near the newly built Villa Somalia]
Villa Somalia sits on high ground that overlooks Mogadishu on the [[Indian Ocean]], with nearby the first athletic structure for sport in Somalia. It was originally a large, squarish [[stucco]] building with a modern tiled roof.{{cite book|title=Reports Service: Northeast Africa series, Volume 13, Issue 1|year=1966|publisher=American Universities Field Staff|url=http://www.google.com/books?id=SlUaAQAAIAAJ}}
Villa Somalia was built in the new section of the city created by the Italians in the late 1930s: it was a famous symbol of modernist (art deco) architecture.
[[File:1931-quaderno-Mogadiscio-palazzo-del-governatore.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Image of the Governor Palace]]
2) The [[Governor's Palace of Mogadishu]]. In the 1930s it was the seat of the [[List of colonial governors of Italian Somaliland|governor]] of Italian Somaliland, and then the administrator of the [[Trust Territory of Somalia]].It was built during the colonial period (in the late 1920s) in the capital city of [[Mogadishu]]: in those decades the city was improved with Italian architecture and urbanism: this palace was one of the most representatives of the colonial fascist architecture. http://www.artefascista.it/mogadiscio__f... Mogadiscio's colonial architecture]
It was located on the "Corso Umberto", the main street of Italian Mogadiscio, and overlooked the ocean & the port. The architecture was a mixture of Italian and Arab styles, with the second floor decorated with [[Italian Renaissance]] furniture. A huge garden was created in front of the main entrance.
In the Palace, among other things, there were the following halls in the lower floor:
* Arab hall with decorations, which were derived from the Islamic architecture of the old Mogadishu.
* Rooms of "Queen Elena of Italy" with tapestries.
* "Sala della Giustizia" with furniture in the Gothic style of the [[Aosta]] Valley.
* Hall of deliberations, with the wall-scenes taken from the classical style of the Italian architecture and with a huge panel showing "San Giorgio".
The second floor was for private use, with rooms for royal guest.
It was inaugurated by Italian governor [[Cesare Maria De Vecchi]], who ruled from 1923 to 1929. He ordered excavations in the gardens in front of the Palace that proved to be the ancient Arab palace of "El Muzaffar". https://mogadishuimages.files.wordpress.... Foto of 1935 showing the gardens around the Governor's Palace and the ruins of "El Muzaffar" (enlarge the photo center)]
In 1975 the Palace was completely razed to the ground (for political reasons) and the site was dedicated to the new construction of the luxurious "Al Uruba" (Curuuba) Hotel. http://vintagesomalia.com/post/625285957.... Photo of the "Al Uruba" Hotel]
[[File:Mogadishu1936.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The main avenue of Mogadishu in 1936, the "Corso Vittorio Emanuele III", with the "Arch of Umberto" and the "Mogadiscio Catholic Cathedral" in the background]]
3) [[Mogadishu Cathedral]]. Known as the ''"Cattedrale di Mogadiscio"'' (when inaugurated on March first, 1928), the Mogadishu Cathedral was constructed in a [[Norman architecture|Norman]] [[Gothic Revival architecture|Gothic]] style, based on the [[Cefalù Cathedral]] in [[Cefalù]], [[Sicily]]. It was built in nearly six years by the Italian authorities in their former [[Italian Somaliland]], in a central area of the capital not far from the [[Governor's Palace of Mogadishu|Governor's Palace]]{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?ei=8LVAU9nDEYqmsASVs4HQAQ&id=ulXZAAAAMAAJ |title=Consolata Missionaries in the World (1901-2001) |author= Giovanni Tebaldi |page=127 |date= |accessdate=2014-04-06}}
Indeed the Cathedral was built as the biggest in eastern Africa by order of [[Cesare Maria De Vecchi]], a catholic governor of "Somalia italiana" who promoted the "Missionari della Consolata" christianization of Somalian people. http://www.asei.eu/it/2011/11/le-mission... The catholic missionaries of "Consolata" promoted by governor De Vecchi (in Italian)] It was built between 1923 and 1928 and was used as a model the "Cathedral of Cefalu" (in northern [[Sicily]]), created to commemorate the Christian reconquest of Sicily from the Arabs in the X century.
The Cathedral was done in "Norman" [[Gothic style]], designed by architect Antonio Vandone. The facade, with an impressive appearance, was delimited to the sides by two towers, each 37.50 meters high. The plan of the building was a Latin cross; inside was divided into three naves separated by piers with pointed arches. http://senato.archivioluce.it/senato-luc... Religious ceremony inside the naves]
The church was entrusted to the "Consolata" missionaries, then replaced by the Franciscans (Friars Minor). The altar had a huge statue -done by sculptor Cesare Biscarra- of the Virgin Mary of Consolata, http://www.internetculturale.it/opencms/... Statue & decorations inside the Mogadiscio Cathedral] that looked at the parishioners in an impressive way like a statue of Roman Gods inside an ancient imperial temple. http://www.internetculturale.it/jmms/icc... Image of the Virgin Mary over the Altar]
4) [[National Museum of Somalia|Garesa Museum]]. In 1933, the building that used to be the "Garesa" residence of the Zanzibar Sultanate was totally reconstructed by the Italian governor Rava and adapted to the Somalia Museum ({{lang|it|''Museo della Somalia''}}). http://www.ebay.it/itm/1930-ca-MOGADISCI... Postcard showing the works done to the "Garesa" in the early 1930s] It was the most important cultural place in Italian [[Mogadishu|Mogadiscio]]. http://sebinaol.unior.it/sebina/reposito...(84210).pdf Museo della Garesa: original detailed information when inaugurated in 1934 (in Italian)]
The "Museo della Garesa" (as was called by the [[Italian Somalians|Italian colonists]]) was officially opened to the public the next year by [[List of colonial governors of Italian Somaliland|Governor]] Maurizio Rava.{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=DPwOsOcNy5YC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Historical Dictionary of Somalia |author= Mohamed Haji Mukhtar |page=xxxi |date= |accessdate=2014-04-06}} The museum suffered heavy damages during [[WWII]].
After WWII, the old Garesa Museum was turned into the ''National Museum of Somalia''. The National Museum was later moved in 1985, renamed to the Garesa Museum, and converted to a regional museum.{{cite news|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0007/000787/078773eo.pdf|title=Museum development and monuments conservation: Somalia|author=Crespo-Toral, H.|work=[[UNESCO]]|year=1988|accessdate=23 January 2014}}{{cite news|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0005/000519/051939eo.pdf|title=National Museum of Somalia, Mogadiscio: Roof Restoration Project|author=Lengyel, Oguz Janos|work=[[UNESCO]]|year=1982|accessdate=23 January 2014}} After shutting down, the National Museum later reopened. As of January 2014, it holds many culturally important artefacts, including old coins, bartering tools, traditional artwork, ancient weaponry and pottery items.{{cite web|title=Mogadishu Points of interest|url=http://mogadishuairport.com/discover-mogadishu/mogadishu-attractions/|publisher=Aden Adde International Airport|accessdate=24 January 2014}}
5) ''Arch of Umberto''. In 1934 Crown Prince [[Umberto II of Italy|Umberto II]] made his first publicized visit to Mogadishu.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tm6uVwH03hAC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Mussolini's Italy: Life Under the Fascist Dictatorship, 1915-1945 |author= R. J. B. Bosworth |page=48}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vaDkDZmrZmYC&source=gbs_navlinks_s |title=Safirka: An American Envoy |author= Peter Bridges |page=71}} To commemorate the visit, the Arch of Umberto was constructed. The arch was built at the center of Mogadishu Garden.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_dotAQAAIAAJ& |title=The road to zero: Somalia's self-destruction |author= Mohamed Osman Omar |page=35}}
6) ''Fiat's Boero Building''. In 1939 Mogadishu was created a building that was judged as a masterpiece of italian-arab architecture. In the surrounding manufacturing area was created the "Inataree" Somali version of the famous Fiat 650 truck.
[[File:CinemaitaliaMogadiscio.png|thumb|right|200px|Cinema Italia]]
7) Other important architectures & buildings were: the ''Casa del Fascio'' (later headquarter of Somalian Parliament in the 1960s); http://www.artefascista.it/MOGADISCIO%20...(W)(OK)-9-%20Mogadiscio%20-%20Casa%20del%20Fascio.jpg Photo of "Casa del Fascio"] the ''Arco Trionfale'' (made in 1928); http://www.artefascista.it/MOGADISCIO%20...(W)(OK)-16-%20Mogadiscio%20-%20Arco.jpg Photo of Arco trionfale] the ''Albergo Croce del Sud'' (a modern [[art deco]] hotel); https://mogadishuimages.files.wordpress.... Photo of the Albergo Croce del Sud] the "Scuola Regina Elena" (the first educational building in Mogadiscio) https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/image... Photo of Regina Elena] and the ''Cinema Italia'' (the first cinema theater in Mogadishu).
==See also==
* [[Italian Somaliland]]
* [[Italian Somalis|Italians of Somalia]]
* [[Mogadishu]]
* [[History of Mogadishu]]
==Notes==
==Bibliography==
*Antonicelli, Franco. ''Trent'anni di storia italiana 1915 - 1945''. Mondadori Editore. Torino, 1961.
*Bevilacqua, Piero. ''Storia dell'emigrazione italiana''. Donzelli Editore. Roma, 2002 ISBN 88-7989-655-5
*Fitzgerald, Nina J. ''Somalia''. Nova Science, Inc. New York, 2002.
{{refend}}
*Hess, Robert L. ''Italian Colonialism in Somalia''. University of Chicago P. Chicago, 1966.
*Abdisalam Issa-Salwe. ''The Collapse of the Somali State: The Impact of the Colonial Legacy''. Haan Associates Ed. London, 1996 ISBN 187420991X ( https://books.google.com/books?id=GxMOAQ...])
*Tripodi, Paolo. ''The Colonial Legacy in Somalia: Rome and Mogadishu''. Michigan State University Press. Chicago, 1999
==External links==
* http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/1/Santoia... Italian architecture in Somalia (in Italian)]
* https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_DR4R10J... Video of 1936 Mogadiscio with governor Graziani]
* https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ctJYmXPG... Video of 1939 Mogadiscio]
* http://www.igmi.org/ancient/immagine.php... 1939 Map of roads in Mogadishu & Benadir area]
[[Category:Italian Somaliland]]
[[Category:Mogadishu]]
=========================================================
http://www.comandosupremo.com/forums/top... MASSACRO DI BISCARI IN SICILIA 1943 (ottimo per Researchomnia)
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http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se... Eritrea e suoi partiti politici pro-italia
http://www.mbali.info/doc566.htm partiti pro-italia in Somalia 1943-1950
http://www.comandosupremo.com/forums/top... Eccidio di Mogadiscio nel 1948
http://www.delcampe.it/items?language=I&... Cartoline della Somalia italiana
http://wikimapia.org/3994872/Old-Italian... HAFUN SALINE con mappa evidenziante resti di torrette trasporto (OTTIMO)
http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/... Immagine progetto STADIO CONI di Mogadiscio
http://kubadda.com/News/Article/tabid/10... Somalian football history
http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/... Corriere della Somalia 1955 Campionato (squadre)
https://www.google.com/search?q=societa+... "Palazzo Vincenzi" a Mogadiscio italiana
http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/... Altra foto di palazzo De Vincenzi a Mogadiscio
http://www.scoutstreviso.org/frontiera/i... Foto di Scouts a inaugurazione Stadio Coni di Mogadiscio
http://www.scoutstreviso.org/frontiera/s... Somalia Scouts
http://digilander.libero.it/pgl63/Indice... MONETAZIONE SOMALIA (Ottimo!)
http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/... Mappa di Mogadiscio nel 1908
https://mogadishuimages.files.wordpress.... Palazzo degli Uffici del governo a Mogadiscio; oggi city hall
https://mogadishuimages.files.wordpress.... Originally was the "Ginnasio De Bono", then after WWII renamed " Liceo scientifico Leonardo da Vinci" . After Somalia independence was renamed "Yusuf AlKowneyn Secondary School".......BD
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http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-Stretti%...(TESTO%20e%20Bibliografia)-C.pdf Ottimi scritti sull'impero italiano relativi a MANIFESTI & prodotti vari
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http://www.dvhh.org/history/1900s/1934-L... Villaggio creato dai TRENTINI nel BANATO sopra Timisoara
http://www.dvhh.org/mercydorf/Mercydorf-... Schiff: Italiani a Carani (Timisoara, Romania) nel Settecento
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https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbRjAw... Libro favorevole agli italiani nella WWII (riferimento alla mancata conquista di karthoum e Port sudan che poteva demorealizzare l'inghilterra nell'estate 1940
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Italian irredentism in the Ionian islands
(IMAGE : Ugo Foscolo, hero of the Italian Risorgimento, was born in Zante and lived in Corfu when young. He was used as a propaganda example for the Italian irredentism in the Ionian islands)
Italian irredentism in the Ionian islands was the only irredentism supported by Italian nationalists in Greece territory during Fascism.
Characteristics
This irredentism was promoted only during Benito Mussolini's dictatorhip, and was mainly related to the island of Corfu. This island, that was the northernmost of the Ionian islands, had a small population still speaking Venetian since the fall of the Republic of Venice in 1797. Even if greatly diminished in number and importance, the Corfiot Italians in the 1930s were supported by the growing nationalism of Musssolini's Italy.
Indeed when Venice ruled Corfu and the other Ionian islands during the Renaissance and until the late 18th century, most of the Corfiote and Ionian upper classes spoke Italian (or Venetian in many cases) and converted to Roman Catholicism, but the mass of people remained Greek ethnically, linguistically, and religiously before and after the Ottoman sieges of the 16th century. Corfiot Italians were mainly concentrated in the city of Corfu, which was called "Città di Corfù" by the Venetians. More than half of the population of Corfu city in the 18th century was Venetian-speaking.[1]
The re-emergence of Greek nationalism after the Napoleonic era, contributed to the disappearance of the Corfiot Italians (and the few Italians of the Ionian islands, like the family Foscolo in Zante). Corfu was incorporated into Greece in 1864. The Greek government abolished all Italian schools in the Ionian islands in 1870, and as a consequence, by the 1940s there were only four/five hundred Corfiote Italians left.[2]
Corfiot Italians and the Risorgimento
Main article: Corfiot Italians
The Italian Risorgimento began in the Italian peninsula with the surrounding continental areas (Istria, Dalmatia, Trentino, Nizzardo, etc.) and did not reach Corfu and the Ionian islands. One of the main heroes of the Italian Risorgimento, the poet Ugo Foscolo, was born in Zante from a noble Venetian family of the island, but only superficially promoted the possible unification of the Ionian islands to Italy.
The first newspaper of Corfu was in Italian: the official weekly newspaper (Gazzetta degli Stati Uniti delle Isole Jone) was first published in 1814. First in Italian, then in both Greek and Italian, finally from 1850 in Greek and English; and it continued for the entire duration of the English Protectorate until 1864.
According to historian Ezio Gray, the small communities of Venetian-speaking people in Corfu were mostly assimilated after the island became part of Greece in 1864 and especially after all Italian schools were closed in 1870.[3]
However, the Italian language maintained some importance, as can be seen by the fact that poets like Stefano Martzokis (Marzocchi was the surname of the father, an Italian from Emilia-Romagna) and Geranimos Markonos, the first from Corfù and the second from Cefalonia, wrote in Italian some of their poems in the second half of the 19th century.
The island of Corfu was a refuge for many Italians in exile during the Wars of Independence of Italy, like Niccolò Tommaseo (who married Diamante Pavello-Artale, a Corfiot Italian).[4]
After World War I, however, the Kingdom of Italy started to apply a policy of expansionism toward the Adriatic area and saw Corfu as the gate of this sea. Mussolini developed an extreme nationalistic position in accordance to the ideals of Italian irredentism and actively promoted the unification of Corfu to Italy.
The Corfiote Italians, even if reduced to a few hundreds in the 1930s, were strongly supported by Fascist propaganda and in the summer of 1941 (after the Italian occupation of the Ionian islands) Italian schools were reopened in Corfu city.[5] During World War II Mussolini promoted an initial development of Italian irredentism in Corfu, similar to the one being promoted in Savoy.[6]
After World War I, Italy had embarked on a policy of expansionism towards the Adriatic, in which Corfu played an important role, as it controlled entrance to it. As shown by the incident of 1923, Mussolini and Italian irredentism had set their sights firmly on the island. The Italian community was an especially useful tool, and it was both supported and exploited by Fascist propaganda.[5]
World War II
After the Battle of Greece, the Italians occupied the bulk of the Greek mainland and most of the islands in 1941. Although several proposals for territorial annexation had been put forward in Rome, none were actually carried out during the war. This was due to pressure from the King of Italy, Victor Emmanuel III, and from the Germans, who were concerned of further alienating the Greek population, which was already strongly opposing the Bulgarian annexations in Macedonia and Thrace.
(IMAGE: The Prefectures of Axis occupied Greece (in green the Italian ones on the Ionian islands) )
Nevertheless in the Ionian Islands, long a target of Italian expansionism, the Greek civil authorities were replaced by Italians in preparation for a post-war annexation. Indeed during the Second World War Mussolini wanted to possess the Ionian Islands: the Italians occupied Corfu and the Ionian islands from 28 March 1941. They implemented a process of Italianization, with creation of Italian schools, centered around the small surviving community of the Corfiote Italians, who still spoke the Venetian dialect,[7] but which by that time numbered only 500 people, living mainly in Corfu city.[8]
Furthermore Epirus, the area near the Albanian border where a significant Albanian minority (the Cham Albanians) lived, was claimed by Albanian irredentists as "Chameria". Before the war, a great part of Italian propaganda against Greece had revolved around the Chameria issue, as the Italians hoped to gain Albanian support by promoting irredentism in Chameria and Kosovo.[9] Although the Italians wanted to annex Chameria to Albania (that was in personal union to the Kingdom of Italy, in a somewhat way similar to Wales and the United Kingdom of Great Britain), the Germans vetoed the proposal. An Albanian High Commissioner, Xhemil Dino, was appointed, but his authority was limited, and for the duration of the Occupation, the area remained under direct control from the Axis military authorities in Athens.[10]
Another case of Italian-sponsored puppet states on Greek territory were the proposed Aromanian Principality of the Pindus with the Grand Voivodeship of Macedonia, statelets that were to encompass areas of the regions of West Macedonia, northern Thessaly and Epirus,[11] and headed by Alchiviad Diamandi, Nicolau Matoussi and Count Gyula Cseszneky. Many of the autochtonous Aromanian population however refused to collaborate and the "principality" never amounted to much beyond Diamandi's followers, the so-called Roman Legion.[12] With the growth of the Greek Resistance in 1943 and the collapse of their Italian sponsors in September 1943, the plans for the Principality were conclusively shelved.
In summer 1942 Cesare Maria De Vecchi (governor of the Italian Dodecanese from 1936 to 1940) studied the possibility of creating an "arch" of Italian islands, stretching from the Ionian islands to Crete and to Rodi. These island would be annexed to the proposed Greater Italy, to be created after the Axis victory in World War II.
Until September 1943 the population of the Ionian islands did not participate in the guerrilla war against the Italians and the Axis: only some protests happened, made by students in Corfu city.[13]
Notes
1.^ Gray, Ezio. Le terre nostre ritornano...Malta, Corsica, Nizza, p. 92.
2.^ Vignoli Giulio. Gli Italiani Dimenticati. Minoranze Italiane In Europa, p. 132.
3.^ Gray, Ezio Le terre nostre ritornano... p. 118
4.^ Seton-Watson. Italy from Liberalism to Fascism, 1870-1925, p. 236.
5.^ a b Vignoli Giulio Gli Italiani Dimenticati. Minoranze Italiane In Europa, p. 143.
6.^ Gray, Ezio. Le terre nostre ritornano... Malta, Corsica, Nizza, p. 127.
7.^ Gray, Ezio. Le terre nostre ritornano... Malta, Corsica, Nizza, p. 162.
8.^ Gray, Ezio. Le terre nostre ritornano...Malta, Corsica, Nizza, p. 47.
9.^ Fischer (1999), pp. 70-75
10.^ Fischer (1999), p. 85
11.^ Poulton, Hugh, Who are the Macedonians? Indiana University Press. (2000) p. 111
12.^ Mazower (1995), p. 46
13.^ Compared to what happened in the other two zones of Greece occupied (the German and the Bulgarian), the Italian occupation regime was relatively mild, which can be seen from the relatively low number of executions and atrocities committed in the Italian zone of occupation when compared with the atrocities and executions committed in the German and Bulgarian zones. Furthermore, unlike the Germans, and aside from some local commanders, the Italian military protected the Jews in their zone. The Germans were purportedly perturbed as the Italians not only protected Jews on their territory, but in parts of occupied France, Greece, the Balkans, and elsewhere, where they protected local Jewish populations also. On 13 December 1942, Joseph Goebbels, Hitler's propaganda minister, wrote in his diary, “The Italians are extremely lax in the treatment of the Jews. They protect the Italian Jews both in Tunis and in occupied France and will not permit their being drafted for work or compelled to wear the Star of David. This shows once again that Fascism does not really dare to get down to fundamentals but is very superficial regarding problems of vital importance.”
Bibliography
•Gray, Ezio. Le terre nostre ritornano... Malta, Corsica, Nizza. De Agostini Editoriale. Novara, 1943
•Fischer, Bernd Jürgen (1999). Albania at War, 1939-1945. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 978-1-85065-531-2.
•Martin, John Jeffries. Venice Reconsidered. The History and Civilization of an Italian City-State, 1297–1797. Johns Hopkins UP. New York, 2002.
•Mazower, Mark. Inside Hitler's Greece: The Experience of Occupation, 1941–44. Yale University Press. Yale, 1995 ISBN 0-300-08923-6.
•Norwich, John Julius. A History of Venice. Vintage Books. New York, 1989.
•Seton-Watson, Christopher. Italy from Liberalism to Fascism, 1870-1925. John Murray Publishers. London, 1967.
•Tagliavini, Carlo. Le origini delle lingue neolatine. Patron Ed. Bologna, 1982.
•Vignoli, Giulio. Gli Italiani Dimenticati. Minoranze Italiane In Europa. Saggi E Interventi. Editore Giuffrè. Roma, 2000.
See also
•Corfiot Italians
•Italian irredentism in Malta
Italian irredentism by region
Corsica ·
Dalmatia ·
Ionian islands ·
Istria ·
Malta ·
Nice ·
Savoy ·
Switzerland
Imperial Italy1: Albania1 · Greece1 · Baleares1 · Libya1 · Tunisia1
1 extreme irredentism promoted by Italian Fascism
Categories
Categories: Italian irredentism
Ionian Islands
Italian occupation of Greece during World War II
===================================
MAURIZIO RAVA
{{Infobox Officeholder
| honorific-prefix=
| name = Maurizio Rava
| honorific-suffix =
| image =
| imagesize =
| order = [[List of colonial governors of Italian Somaliland|Governor of Italian Somaliland]]
| term_start = 1 July 1931
| term_end = 6 March 1935
| predecessor = Guido Corni
| successor = [[Rodolfo Graziani]]
| birth_date = {{birth date|1878|01|31|df=y}}
| birth_place = Milan
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1941|01|23|1878|01|31|df=y}}
| death_place = Roma
| spouse =
| nationality = [[Italy|Italian]]
| occupation = [[politician]], [[general]]
| religion =
}}
'''Maurizio Rava ''' (1878-1941) was an Italian politician and general of the [[Regio Esercito]]. http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/maur...(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/ Maurizio Rava biography (in Italian)] He was Governor of [[Italian Somaliland]] from 1931 to 1935 http://img404.imageshack.us/img404/9819/... Photo of Maurizio Rava (to the left of image)]
==Life==
Maurizio Rava was born in a [[Jewish]] family in [[Milan]]. He enthusiastically joined the [[National Fascist Party]] during [[World War I]]: in 1919 he was a cofounder of the "Fascio" of Roma. But in the late 1930s he faced problems within the party because of German [[Nazi]] influences against Italian Jews.
In the 1920s Rava was vice-governor of [[Italian Libya]] and a general in the fascist militia. https://books.google.it/books?id=0WTFAAA... Maurizio Rava, p. 179]
From 1 July 1931 to 6 March 1935 Rava was the [[List of colonial heads of Italian Somaliland|Governor of Italian Somaliland]]. In his time as governor thousands of Italian colonists came to [[Mogadishu]] and many Somalis joined the Italian colonial troops as a result of his policy to assimilate the [[Somalis]].
==Works==
Maurizio Rava was a painter and a writer. When young he studied at Rome's "Accademia di Belle Arti" http://www.istitutomatteucci.it/it/dizio... Maurizio Rava studies as painter] and until 1903 he exposed his paintings with a relative success. http://www.maremagnum.com/libri-antichi/... Painting by Maurizio Rava]
Rava wrote some literary works. http://www.abebooks.it/ricerca-libro/aut... Books written by Maurizio Rava] In the late 1930s he wrote a book about Somalia (titled "Parole ai Coloniali"), that had a preface written by [[Benito Mussolini]]. http://www.abebooks.co.uk/servlet/BookDe... Maurizio Rava: "Parole ai Coloniali"]
==References==
==Bibliography==
*Bettin, Cristina. ''Italian Jews from Emancipation to the Racial Laws''. Italian and Italian American Studies. Editore Palgrave Macmillan. New York, 2010 ISBN 0230114377
==See also==
{{portal|Biography|Italy}}
* [[Italian Somalia]]
{{Italian Governors of Eritrea and Somaliland}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Rava, Maurizio}}
[[Category:Governors of Italian Somaliland]]
[[Category:1878 births]]
[[Category:1941 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Milan]]
[[Category:Italian military personnel of World War I]]
[[Category:Italian Jews]]
[[Category:Italian painters]]
[[Category:Italian writers]]
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ARTICLES ERASED IN SUMMER 2015: Cresthaven, Hypess, Oldsettler
Cresthaven.
1. Tomb of Tin Hinan · (Deleted) 2015-02-18 log · page history · topedits DONE (Tin hinan)
2. Rusucurru · (Deleted) 2015-02-02 log · page history · topedits
3. Gunugu · (Deleted) 2015-02-02 log · page history · topedits
4. Thuburnica · (Deleted) 2015-02-02 log · page history · topedits
5. Rusazu · (Deleted) 2015-02-02 log · page history · topedits
6. Aquae Calidae · (Deleted) 2015-02-01 log · page history · topedits
7. Tubusuctu · (Deleted) 2015-02-01 log · page history · topedits
8. Vescera (Ad Piscinam) · (Deleted) 2015-01-31 log · page history · topedits
9. Unica Colonia · (Deleted) 2015-01-30 log · page history · topedits
10. Tingartia · (Deleted) 2015-01-29 log · page history · topedits
11. Thibilis · (Deleted) 2015-01-27 log · page history · topedits
12. Setifis · (Deleted) 2015-01-24 log · page history · topedits DONE
13. Rusguniae · (Deleted) 2015-01-23 log · page history · topedits
14. Portus Magnus (Mauretania) · (Deleted) 2015-01-22 log · page history · topedits
15. Portus Divinus · (Deleted) 2015-01-22 log · page history · topedits
16. Pomaria (Roman city) · (Deleted) 2015-01-21 log · page history · topedits
17. Oppidum Novum · (Deleted) 2015-01-20 log · page history · topedits
18. Mascula 2014-08-23 log · page history · topedits
19. Lamasba · (Deleted) 2014-08-23 log · page history · topedits
20. Cohors Breucorum · (Deleted) 2014-08-09 log · page history · topedits
21. Castra Nova (Mauretania) · (Deleted) 2014-08-06 log · page history · topedits
22. Castellum Tingitanum · (Deleted) 2014-08-05 log · page history · topedits
23. Chullu (Roman city) · (Deleted) 2014-07-30 log · page history · topedits Chullu (
24. Castellum Dimmidi · (Deleted) 2014-07-12 log · page history · topedits
25. Cartennas 2014-07-11 log · page history · topedits
26. Caesarea of Mauretania · (Deleted) 2014-07-10 log · page history · topedits
27. Calama (Numidia) 2014-07-07 log · page history · topedits
28. Albulae · (Deleted) 2014-07-03 log · page history · topedits
29. Numerus Syrorum · (Deleted) 2014-07-03 log · page history · topedits
30. Rapidum 2014-07-02 log · page history · topedits
31. Tipaza 2014-06-28 log · page history · topedits
32. Septem (Roman Ceuta) · (Deleted) 2014-06-20 log · page history · topedits
33. Gaerisa · (Deleted) 2014-06-05 log · page history · topedits
34. Roman colonies in Berber Africa · (Deleted) 2014-05-28 log · page history · topedits
35. Christian Berbers · (Deleted) 2014-05-10 log · page history · topedits
36. Iulia Campestris Babba 2014-05-09 log · page history · topedits
37. Regnum Maurorum et Romanorum · (Deleted) 2014-04-27 log · page history · topedits
38. Romano-Berber states · (Deleted) 2014-03-29 log · page history · topedits
Hypess.
1. Italian irredentism in the Ionian islands · (Deleted) 2015-02-14 log · page history · topedits
2. Province of Pola · (Deleted) 2014-12-26 log · page history · topedits
3. List of Spanish words borrowed from Italian 2014-11-24 log · page history · topedits
4. Litoranea Balbo 2014-08-26 log · page history · topedits
5. Little Maracanazo · (Deleted) 2014-08-16 log · page history · topedits
6. Marta R. Cristofini · (Deleted) 2014-06-06 log · page history · topedits
7. Romans in Sudan · (Deleted) 2014-03-21 log · page history · topedits
8. Roman expeditions to lake Chad and western Africa · (Deleted) 2014-03-13 log · page history · topedits
9. Nero expedition to Nile sources · (Deleted) 2014-02-20 log · page history · topedits
10. Province of Cattaro · (Deleted) 2014-02-08 log · page history · topedits
11. Province of Spalato · (Deleted) 2013-10-15 log · page history · topedits
Oldsettler.
1. Asmara's Opera 2015-04-13 log · page history · topedits
2. Agenore Frangipani 2015-04-11 log · page history · topedits
3. Vincenzo De Feo 2015-04-09 log · page history · topedits
4. Giuseppe Daodice 2015-04-09 log · page history · topedits
5. Italian Asmara · (Deleted) 2015-04-06 log · page history · topedits
6. Carla Maria Puccini · (Deleted) 2015-01-11 log · page history · topedits
7. Gabriella Ghermandi 2015-01-10 log · page history · topedits
8. History of Italian colonial railways · (Deleted) 2014-12-29 log · page history · topedits
9. Italian Benghazi 2014-12-16 log · page history · topedits
10. Italian Governors of Eritrea 2014-12-14 log · page history · topedits
11. Costantino Borsini 2014-11-15 log · page history · topedits
12. Concessions and forts of Italy in China · (Deleted) 2014-11-04 log · page history · topedits
13. Scioa Governorate 2014-11-02 log · page history · topedits
14. Italian Somali Divisions (101 and 102) 2014-10-29 log · page history · topedits
15. Ascari del Cielo 2014-10-25 log · page history · topedits
16. Italian refugees from Libya 2014-10-22 log · page history · topedits
17. Linea dell'Impero 2014-10-20 log · page history · topedits
18. Tripoli-Castel Benito Airport · (Deleted) 2014-10-18 log · page history · topedits
19. Massacre of Italians at Sciara Sciat · (Deleted) 2014-10-13 log · page history · topedits
20. Postage stamps of Italian Libya 2014-10-10 log · page history · topedits
21. Italian Tripoli · (Deleted) 2014-09-29 log · page history · topedits
IN SP.WIKI:
La Florida (Caracas)
Carlos Luis Castelli (done as [[Carlo Castelli]])
ADDITIONAL LATER ERASED:
Costante Ferrari
Alberto Adriani Mazzei (riscritto da un altro come [[Alberto Adriani]])
http://blog.erlingsson.com/?p=4373 wiki slandering (contro Vituzzu)
http://it.blastingnews.com/opinioni/2015... (contro Vituzzu)
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VIDEO
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqZMCS7c...
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