https://www.browardschools.com/Page/3212...
Maria's INTERIM information
=====================
http://www.avia-it.com/act/cera_una_volt... OTTIMISSIMO CON ARTICOLI SVARIATI (DA COPIARE SE NECESSARIO)
======================
https://www.academia.edu/29295757/Evers_... Articolo su possibile presenza romana a Socotra
=====================
ITALIAN MASSAWA
[[File:Massawa, Eritrea (Ottoman architecture).jpg|thumb|left|200 px|The "Hotel Torino" (built in 1938), an example of Venetian influenced architecture in the city's old section]]
Eritrean city of Massawa was a colony of the [[Kingdom of Italy]] since 1885 until 1947, when Italy surrendered all the colonies in the peace treaty after [[World War II]]. In those eight decades the city grew from a small village to a cosmopolitan city of nearly 25,000 inhabitants that was the main port or [[Eritrea]].
The port was the main of [[Italian Eritrea]] and was greatly improved in the 1930s, in order to allow a military navy base and also a service of civilian [[ocean liner]]s (like {{MS|Vulcania||2}}).
The port was also connected to [[Asmara]] by a railway still existing: construction of this rail line began from the Red Sea port city of Massawa in 1887, heading towards the capital city of Asmara. The "Decauville" railway was the first built, from Massawa to Saati, just {{convert|27|km|mi|abbr=on}}. http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/la_ferrovi... Railway Massaua-Saati, built in 1887-1888 (in italian)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012032531/http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/la_ferrovia_massauasaati.htm |date=12 October 2013 }} Progress was slow, thanks to the long climb up the mountains to the high plateau of inland Eritrea, and the substantial civil engineering works required; the line reached Asmara in 1911.
This [[Eritrean Railway]] was built by the Italians next to a modern highway in order to efficiently connect Massawa and Asmara, the main cities of Italian Eritrea.
There was also a link with the ''Asmara-Massawa Cableway'': it was a [[Aerial lift|cableway]] (or "ropeway").{{cite web|url=http://www.funivie.org/pagine/storia/mrw_massaua_asmara/index.htm|website=funivie.org|title=TELEFERICA MASSAUA ASMARA www.funivie.org :: Il sito italiano sugli impianti a fune (The Eritrean cableway)| language=it |accessdate=2018-08-13}} The Eritrean Ropeway, completed in 1937, ran {{convert|71.8|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the south end of Asmara until the city-port of Massawa.
{{Quote|''The Eritrean Ropeway, completed in 1937, ran 71.8 km from near Massawa to the south end of Asmara. This was the longest cableway ever.'' Ralph Reinhold}}
In 1940, Massawa had nearly 20,000 inhabitants, of which almost 6,000 were [[Italian Eritreans|Italians]]: the city was improved with an architectural plan similar to the one in Asmara, with a commercial and industrial area.{{cite web|url=http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/1/Santoianni_Progettazione_Architettonica.pdf|date=2008-05-22|title=Il Razionalismo nelle colonie italiane 1928-1943 | La "nuova architettura" delle Terre d’Oltremare|author=Vittorio Santoianni| publisher= Università degli Studi di Napoli “Federico II” - Facoltà di Architettura |accessdate=2018-08-11}}
During World War II Massawa was the homeport for the [[Red Sea Flotilla]] of the [[Regia Marina|Italian Royal Navy]]. When the city fell during the [[East African Campaign (World War II)|East African Campaign]], a large number of Italian and German ships were sunk in an attempt to [[Scuttling#Blockade of Massawa (1941)|block use of Massawa's harbor]].
==See also==
* [[Italian Eritrea]]
* [[Kingdom of Italy]]
==Notes==
==Bibliography==
* Bandini, Franco. ''Gli italiani in Africa, storia delle guerre coloniali 1882–1943''. Longanesi. Milano, 1971.
* Negash, Tekeste. ''Italian colonialism in Eritrea 1882–1941 (Politics, Praxis and Impact)''. Uppsala University. Uppsala, 1987.
{{Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)}}
[[Category:Italian Eritrea]]
==============
AGENORE FGRANGIPANI
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox military person
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Agenore Frangipani
| honorific_suffix =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| image =
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1876|12|04|df=y}}
| death_date = {{death date and age|1941|04|06|1876|12|04|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Benevento]], Italy
| death_place = [[Addis Abeba]], Ethiopia
| nickname =
| birth_name =
| allegiance = {{flag|Kingdom of Italy}}
| branch = {{army|Kingdom of Italy}}
| serviceyears =
| rank =
| servicenumber =
| unit =
| commands = General Officer of Italian Army; Governor of Scioa/Addis Abeba
| battles = [[World War I]];[[Second Italo-Abyssinian War]];[[Italian invasion of Albania]];[[World War II]]
}}
'''Agenore Frangipani''' ([[Benevento]]; 4 December 1876 – [[Addis Abeba]]; 6 April 1941) was an Italian general during [[World War II]], and for three days was [[List of Italian Governors of Addis Ababa|Governor of Addis Abeba]] in April 1941.
==Biography==
Agenore Frangipani was born in 1876 to a noble family of ancient lineage: the Marquis of Mileta. He was the second son of the Marquis of Mileta and by secular tradition he was destined to a military career. He started in the Italian Navy, studying for some time at the [[Italian Naval Academy|Naval Academy of Livorno]], but soon he preferred to pursue a career as an officer in the Italian Army. So, he went to study at the [[Nunziatella military academy|Military Academy "Nunziatella" of Napoli]], from which he became in 1899 lieutenant of the "[[Cuirassier|Corazzieri]]".
Frangipani when young took virtually no part in the military life from 1899 until 1905, having to deal with the death of his parents and older brother and taking control of the administration of his own lands at [[Benevento]] and in [[Molise]]; nevertheless he was promoted to captain of Cuirassiers in 1906 and in 1908 left the cavalry and the Cuirassiers for the "Artillery".
In 1907 Frangipani married Countess Cristina Agazzi (1891–1953), member of a noble Lombard family.
In 1911 Frangipani took part in the [[Italo-Turkish War]] in Libya (Tripolitania and Cyrenaica) and was particularly interested in the Turkish air defense: after the capture of [[Italian Tripoli|Tripoli]] he discovered some of the anti-aircraft defenses, proposing to the Italian Ministry of War to create similar defenses in Italian shores and in the colonial outposts in Libya.
During [[World War I]] Frangipani distinguished himself as a relentless interventionist in favor of the "Entente" and participated personally in the early fighting on the [[Karst|Carso]]. Unlike other officers of aristocratic family, he did not want to enter the Military Command headquarters but continued the war fighting in the trenches, being promoted to Major in 1917 and [[Colonel]] a year after the war ended.
Frangipani was not hostile to fascism, because he believed it was a form of rebirth of Italian military power and he joined the [[Fascist Party]] already in 1923. Senior official at the Ministry of War, Frangipani was ''military attaché'' in [[Berlin]] and Paris until 1930.
He also participated in the [[Spanish Civil War]] alongside the [[Francisco Franco|Franco]] troops as commander of the Italian contingent. Before fighting in Spain, he had distinguished himself during the [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War|War of Ethiopia]] and was promoted to Major General in 1936.
Agenore Frangipani also actively participated in the Italian invasion and conquest of [[Albania]] in 1939.
As an Officer commanding an Italian Army in Ethiopia, he succeeded his parent [[Giuseppe Daodice]] as governor of [[Addis Ababa]] in the last three days of the Italian Government. He found himself having to counter the Allied advance without any hope, he was forced to give the Ethiopia's capital to the British on 6 April 1941. Indeed, the Italian Viceroy [[Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta|Amedeo d'Aosta]] ordered him (the Italian governor of Addis Abeba), to surrender the city to the British commanders without any fight, in order to forestall the massacre of Italian civilians that happened a few days before in [[Dire Dawa]]. http://www.storiaxxisecolo.it/secondague... War in Italian eastern Africa (in Italian)] Frangipani-who was prepared for a defensive battle- accepted reluctantly the order to surrender.
But having on him the responsibility and the dishonor of surrender, during the retreat from the city committed suicide with poison. His family honored his old-aristocracy feelings about not accepting surrender without combat.
==Awards==
Some of the Awards (and Medals) received by Agenore Frangipani were:
[[image:Grande ufficiale OCI Kingdom BAR.svg|100px]] Grand'Ufficiale dell'Ordine della Corona d'Italia
[[image:Grande ufficiale SSML Regno BAR.svg|100px]] Grand'Ufficiale dell'Ordine dei Santi Maurizio e Lazzaro
[[image:Commendatore OMS BAR.svg|100px]] Commendatore dell'Ordine militare di Savoia
[[image:Ordine coloniale della stella d'italia commendatore.png|100px]] Commendatore dell'Ordine coloniale della stella d'Italia
[[image:Valor militare gold medal - old style BAR.svg|100px]] Medaglia d'oro al valor militare
[[image:ItaloTurca.png|100px]] Medaglia commemorativa della guerra italo-turca 1911–1912
[[image:Medaglia commemorativa della campagna di Spagna.svg|100px]] Medaglia Commemorativa della Guerra di Spagna (1936–1939)
[[image:Italian expedition to Albania BAR.svg|100px]] Medaglia commemorativa della Spedizione in Albania
==Notes==
==Bibliography==
* Beltrami, Vanni. ''Italia d'oltremare. Storie dei territori italiani dalla conquista alla caduta.'' Edizioni Nuova Cultura. Roma, 2013 {{ISBN|978-88-6134-702-1}} https://books.google.com/books?id=TE2ldb...]
* Goffredo Orlandi Contucci, ''A.O.I.- AFRICA ORIENTALE ITALIANA – La conquista dell'Impero nel ricordo del tenente Goffredo Orlandi Contucci'' – Edizioni MyLife, Monte Colombo/Coriano, 2009 {{ISBN|978-88-6285-100-8}}
==See also==
*[[East African Campaign (World War II)]]
*[[Scioa Governorate]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Frangipani, Agenore}}
[[Category:Italian East Africa]]
[[Category:Italian military personnel of World War II]]
[[Category:Italian generals]]
[[Category:1876 births]]
[[Category:1941 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Benevento]]
==============================
AC MOGADISGIO
{{Football club infobox
| clubname = AC Mogadiscio
| fullname = Associazione Calcio Mogadiscio
| nickname =
| founded = 1941
| ground = [[Banadir Stadium]], [[Mogadishu]]
| capacity = 10,000
| chairman =
| manager =
| league = [[Somali First Division]]
| season =
| position =
}}
'''AC Mogadiscio''' was a [[football (soccer)|football]] club in [[Somalia]]. They were Somali football champions in 1946/47 (amateur) and in 1957/58.{{cite web|url=http://www.rsssf.com/tabless/somachamp.html|title=Somalia Champions|author=|date=|website=www.rsssf.com|accessdate=13 January 2019}}
==History==
The club was founded as an amateur team in 1941 with the Italian name "Associazione Calcio Mogadiscio", but in 1956 the club changed name to ''AS Mogadiscio'' (or Association Sport Mogadishu) winning the Somali championsdhip the next year{{cite web|url=http://www.rsssf.com/tabless/soma58.html#cc58|title=Somalia 1957/58|author=|date=|website=www.rsssf.com|accessdate=13 January 2019}}. It was dismantled in 1964.
In 1955 -during the [[Trust Territory of Somalia|Trust Territory of Somalia under Italian administration]]- was created the first football stadium in [[Mogadishu]]: the ''Coni Stadium'', later called [[Banadir Stadium]]. The teams that played a Trust Territory of Somalia championship with the stadium inauguration were: "[[Lavori Publici]]", "Autoparco", "El Gab", "Sicurezza", "[[Somali Police FC]]" and "AS Mogadiscio" (the former AC Mogadiscio, that won the championship in 1947). http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/... "Corriere di Mogadiscio", page # 3 of November 28, 1955 (in Italian)]
== Achievements ==
*1958 First Division of [[Somalia League]] champions:
Final Table:
1.AS Mogadiscio 10 9 0 1 43-10 18 Champions
2.AS Corpo Polizia 10 6 2 2 21-11 14
3.Autoparco 10 6 0 4 25-18 12
4.LLPP 10 4 3 3 20-17 11
5.AS El Gab 10 2 0 8 10-34 4
6.AC Scuraran 10 0 1 9 10-39 1
==References==
{{reflist}}
==See also==
* [[Football in Somalia]]
* [[Alba FC]]
{{Somalia League}}
{{Somalia italiana (Colonia)}}
=================================
GONDRAND MASSACRE
[[File:Cimitero di Mai Lahla nel 1 anniversario eccidio del Gondrand.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Mai Lahlà Cemetery on the first anniversary of the massacre]]
[[File:C-123-M-62-1936-VII EN.pdf|thumb|right|330px|Italian communication of protest to the [[League of Nations]]]]
'''Gondrand massacre''' refers to the massacre occurred near the Ethiopian locality of [[Rama, Ethiopia|Mai Lahlà]] at dawn on February 13, 1936, during the [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War]], when almost all the Italian workers of a road construction site were killed as a result of an operation of [[guerrilla]] by Ethiopian soldiers under the orders of [[Imru Haile Selassie|Ras Immirù]] Gian Carlo Stella. Massacro di Gondrand ( http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-gondrand...]).
==History==
The massacre occurred at the same time as the [[Battle of Amba Aradam]], fought from 10 to 19 February at about 200 km south of Mai Lahlà.
[[File:1936AfricaOrientaleEccidioCantiereGondrand18.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Bares of Italians awaiting the burial]]
In the locality Utok Emni at Mai Lahlà In [[Amharic language]] ''Mai'' means river, located in the Ethiopian territory in the immediate vicinity of the border with [[Eritrea]], the "National Transport Company Gondrand" was working on the construction of colonial roads during the war in [[Ethiopia]]: at the village of Daro Taclè it had placed its yard n.1, engaged in the widening of the road between [[Asmara]] and [[Adwa|Adua]]. The construction site housed just under a hundred Italian workers headed by the engineer Cesare Rocca, accompanied by his wife Lidia Maffioli and the engineer Roberto Colloredo Mels. Although in the area there were garrisons of Italian troops, the area of the building site was not visible from these military compounds.
In the night between 12 and 13 February 1936 a band composed of 100 men (according to other sources 600 See the official report by Fulvio Suvich sent to the [[League of Nations]]) warriors of ras Imiru, under the command of Fitaurari Chenfè Tesfai, attacked the construction site conquering it after a short resistance.
{{Quote|''I gave myself to the "Fitautari" Tesfai the order to attack the Mai Lahlà field. I believed it and still consider it a legitimate act of war since the workers were in the area of operations and were armed with muskets. In fact, they defended themselves fiercely, inflicting harsh losses on us. What our populations certainly could not do, when they were attacked and decimated by fascist aviation'' Ras Immirù}}
The yard was poorly defended because equipped only with about 15 [[muskets]] as a defense weapon. However -although the workers had also used the work tools as shovels as defense tools- they all were overwhelmed by the surprise attack of the Ethiopians; almost all the workers present that night, sixty-eight Italians and seventeen Eritreans, were killed within one hourGiovanni Artieri "Chronicle of the Kingdom of Italy: From Victory to the Republic" Mondadori. Milano, 1978; p. 482 except for two Italians (Alfredo Lusetti and Ernesto Zannoni) who survived because lightly hit while hiding under the dead bodies.
The massacre was discovered an hour later by a department of the 41st Regiment: when they arrived at the site the military found that many Italian corpses showed mutilations or evirations. It is believed that 18 Italians were emasculated (Luigi Goglia. "Photographic history of the fascist Empire 1935-1941". Laterza. Bari, 1985 note N. 21; p. 18). Three members of the band were still inside the construction site (while stealing from the dead bodies and from the compound) and were fusillade after a few minutes. On the spot, there were also signs of an explosion of the construction site's powder magazine, which had caused the death of about forty Ethiopian warriors. Lidia Maffioli was found dead by a gunshot from her husband revolver There are other discordant versions of her death in different ways, probably in order to avoid her capture and consequent rape & painful torture. Another woman, an Eritrean girl, who was named Ruthie who worked as a maid for the civilian workers, was found murdered after being raped.
{{Quote|''First reports about the emasculation of Italian soldiers were received in December 1935 and caused alarm in the fighting force - especially after unauthorized photographs were circulated. While commanders in the field were instructed not to let the morale of the troops be affected, Rome decided to use emasculation as crying proof of the enemy's backwardness justifying Italy's civilizing mission. As of mid-January 1936, emasculation became a main focus of the Italian propaganda campaign, not least to offset the very damaging Ethiopian accusations of Italian bombings of Red Cross hospitals. The League of Nations was repeatedly confronted with the matter and the ICRC was kept constantly informed. In the worst single and well-documented incident — the attack on the Gondrand construction camp — seventeen workers out of eighty killed were mutilated in such a horrific way.'' http://www.historyrevealed.eu/africa-new... Photos of the Gondrand massacre, with article]}}
==Italian Retaliation==
[[File:1936AfricaOrientaleEccidioCantiereGondrand64.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Hanging in front of Ethiopian civilians of the main responsables of the Gondrand massacre]]
Immediately after the massacre, the Italian soldiers begin a hard [[reprisal]] against the population of the area surrounding Mai Lahlà. Soon all the members of the band were found, in many cases hiding inside nearby villages that were burned to the ground. Most of them were killed. All the leaders of the band were executed by hanging in front of civilians.
As a consequence of the massacre, the use of gas against the Ethiopians was greatly increased since then in the war. Furthermore, to all the Italian soldiers was given the order to maintain a last gunshot for themselves, in order not to fall in the hands of Ethiopians who would torture them to deathTiziano Bozio Madé. "Il diario di Giovanni Palestro in Africa orientale italiana". L'impegno; volume=XVIII; April 1998. Ed. Istituto per la storia della Resistenza e della società contemporanea nelle province di Biella e Vercelli ( http://www.storia900bivc.it/pagine/memog...])
==See also==
{{Commons category|Gondrand massacre}}
* [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War]]
* [[Battle of Amba Aradam]]
==Notes==
==Bibliography==
* Nicolle, David (1997). ''The Italian Invasion of Abyssinia 1935–1936''. Westminster, MD: Osprey. {{ISBN|978-1-85532-692-7}}.
* Sbacchi, Alberto (1997). ''Legacy of Bitterness: Ethiopia and Fascist Italy, 1935–1941''. Lawrenceville, NJ: Red Sea Press. {{ISBN|978-0-932415-74-5}}.
* Sbacchi, Alberto (1978) & Marcus, H. G. ''The Price of Empire: Towards an Enumeration of Italian Casualties in Ethiopia 1935–40''. Ethiopianist Notes. II (2). ISSN 1063-2751
* Zamorani, Massimo. ''La strage della "Gondrand"'', in "Storia militare", XXI, nº 236, May 2013, pp. 37-39
{{Authority control}}
{{coord missing|Ethiopia}}
[[Category:Second Italo-Ethiopian War]]
[[Category:Italian East Africa]]
[[Category:1936 in Italy]]
[[Category:1936 in Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Massacres in Ethiopia]]
====================================
BENGHAZI UNDER ITALY
'''Benghazi under Italy''' was the period of time during the Italian colonization of [[Libya]] for the port-city of [[Benghazi]] in [[Italian Cyrenaica]].
==History==
On October 19, 1911 the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] city of Benghazi was occupied by the Italians during the [[Italo-Turkish War]] https://archive.org/details/tripoliitali... Occupation of Benghazi by the Italian troops (p. 79-95)].
[[File:Benghazi Italiana.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Aerial view Italian Benghazi in 1940]]
Even if Benghazi city accepted the Italians and some members of the local community collaborated with the Italian government, in the interior nearly half the local population of [[Cyrenaica]] under the leadership of [[Omar Mukhtar]] resisted the Italian occupation. Many local arabs -under the [[Senussi]] leadership- suffered oppression, particularly from the fascist dictator [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]] in the late 1920s.
In the early 1930s, the revolt was over and the Italians—under governor [[Italo Balbo]]—started attempts to assimilate the local population with pacifying policies: a number of new villages for local Cyrenaicans were created with health services and schools.
Additionally Cyrenaica was populated by more than 20,000 [[Italian settlers in Libya|Italian colonists]] in the late 1930s, mainly around the coast of Benghazi. Benghazi population was made up of more than 35 per cent of Italians in 1939 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KBW_9EgH... Video of Italian colonists going to Libya from Venice in 1938].
In 1941 Italian Benghazi -according to estimates of the Italian governmentIstituto Agricolo Coloniale (Firenze).Ministero degli Esteri, 1946- reached a temporary population of nearly 80,000 inhabitants, due to the arrival of many Italians from [[Cyrenaica]] who took refuge from the British army attacks during [[WWII]]. As a consequence Tripoli was in that year -for the first time since the Arab conquest in 643 AD- a city mostly [[Christianity|Christian]].
Benghazi was heavily bombed during [[World War II]] (more than one thousand times) and -when the British finally occupied the city in December 1942- nearly 85% of the city was damaged or destroyed.
[[File:Italian Benghazi.jpg|thumb|The colonial Italians created the ''Lungomare'' (sea-walk) of Benghazi and constructed many other buildings]]
[[File:Cyrenaica Parliament.jpg|thumb|the ''Littorio Palace'' in Benghazi was later the seat of the "Cyrenaican regional assembly"]]
==Characteristics==
Benghazi https://dadfeatured.blogspot.com/2018/09... Italian Benghazi] was located in northern [[Italian Libya]], in [[Cyrenaica]]. It was the administrative center of the Italian [[Benghazi Province]], on the [[Mediterranean]] coast.
Indeed the Italians conquered from the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] in 1911 a region in coastal Cyrenaica that was very poor and underdeveloped: it had no asphalted road, no telegraph services, no sewages system and no hospitals (in 1874 Benghazi had been depopulated by the [[bubonic plague]]). In the next twenty years they built all these infrastructures and by the early 1930s a new port and a railways station were created in Benghazi.
In the 1920s in the Benghazi province was created a [[Libyan Railways|railway]] between Benghazi and Barce: a 750 mm (2 ft 5 1⁄2 in) (later 950 mm) gauge railway was built east from Benghazi; the main route was 110 km long to Marj and was opened in stages between 1911 and 1927. Benghazi also had a 56 km branch to Suluq opened in 1926. http://www.gips.unisi.it/files/wp18.pdf History of railways in colonial Libya (in Italian)]
In the late 1930s in the Benghazi province were settled thousands of [[Italian settlers in Libya|Italians]] as farmers in special villages. http://www.architecturebeyond.eu/wp-cont... Italians in new villages in Cyrenaica] Most of the Italians were concentrated in the city of Benghazi, where they were in 1939 nearly one third of the population.
==Architecture==
Benghazi came under Italian rule in the early part of the 20th century: some examples of [[Italianate]], as well as [[modernist]] colonial architecture from this period remain today. Under the governorships of Generals Ernesto Mombelli and Attilio Teruzzi in the 1920s, the buildings commissioned in Benghazi had an eclectic architectural language that embodied a Western conception of Eastern architecture.
An example of this is the [[Benghazi Municipal Hall|Municipal palace]] built in 1924, which stands in Maydan al-Hurriya (Freedom Square). The building combines [[Moorish Revival|Moorish]] arches with Italianate motifs on the facade. Italians even did the first architectural plan of Benghazi. http://www.paolocason.it/Libia/fotolibia... "Italian Urban Plan of Benghazi"]. in the 1930s, with a new [[Italian Libya Railways|railway station]] and promenade.
{{Quote|''The heart of the Italian city was the Piazza del Re, formerly Piazza del Sole, with the central part dedicated to a nice garden. On it overlooked the Palazzo del Governo, a Moorish-style building, formerly the seat of the Cyrenaic Parliament, which housed the Library and the Civil Court, and other noteworthy architectures. The Corso Italia, lined with palm trees, flowed into the square: it was the most important artery of the city and led to the Railways station; on it stood the main facade of the Palazzo del Governatore (1928-34), designed by Alpago Novello, Cabiati and Ferrazza, overlooking Piazza XXVIII Ottobre; here were lined various buildings such as the Elementary and Middle Schools and the Sports Club. Piazza del Re was connected, via the axis of via Roma and via general Briccola, to the Piazza del Municipio, located inside the ancient city, in which stood the Moorish-style Town Hall.'' V. SantoianniVittorio Santoianni."Il Razionalismo nelle colonie italiane 1928-1943. La 'nuova architettura' delle Terre d’Oltremare" Section: Bengasi (p. 59)}}
Many buildings and streets were built in the late 1930s, making "Bengasi" a town that looked like a typical Italian city https://i.pinimg.com/originals/4a/56/23/... Via Briccola].
The largest colonial building from this Italian period is the [[Benghazi Cathedral]] in Maydan El Catedraeya (Cathedral Square), which was built in the 1920s and has two large distinct domes.McLaren, Brian L. (2006). ''Architecture and Tourism in Italian Colonial Libya – An Ambivalent Modernism''. [[University of Washington Press]] ([[Seattle]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]]). p. 158. {{ISBN|978-0-295-98542-8}}.
[[File:Benghazi 1935 Panorama.jpg|thumb|center|800px|Panorama of "Bengazi italiana" in 1935, with new road construction]]
==Notes==
==Bibliography==
* Chapin Metz, Hellen. ''Libya: A Country Study''. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1987
* Pagano, Giovanni. ''Architettura e città durante il fascismo''. Editori Laterza. Roma, 1990
* Santoianni, Vittorio. ''Il Razionalismo nelle colonie italiane 1928-1943.La «nuova architettura» delle Terre d’Oltremare''. Ed. Universita' Federico II. Napoli, 2008 ( http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/1/Santoia...])
* {{cite web|url=http://escholarship.org/uc/item/9hm1p6m5#page-1|title=The Light and the Line: Florestano Di Fausto and the Politics of Mediterraneità|publisher=University of California, 2010|work=California Italian Studies|author=Sean Anderson}}
==See also==
* [[Italian Libya]]
* [[Benghazi]]
* [[Benghazi Governorate]]
* [[Italian Cyrenaica]]
{{Italian Libya}}
[[Category:Benghazi]]
[[Category:Italian Libya]]
=======================
{{ Infobox officeholder
| name =Pollera, Ludovico
| image=
| imagesize=
| caption=
|order1=[[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea|Italian Governor of Eritrea]]
| term_start1= November 20, 1920
|term_end1 = April 13, 1921
| predecessor1=[[De Camillis Camillo (governor)|Camillo De Camillis]]
| successor1=[[Giovanni Cerrina Feroni]]
|order2=
|term_start2 =
| term_end2=
| predecessor2=
| successor2=
| birth_date=
|birth_place =
| death_date=
| death_place=
| nationality=Italian
|party =
| footnotes=
}}
'''Pollera, Ludovico''' (1870–1953) was an [[Italians|Italian]] governor of [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]].
==Life==
Pollera was born in [[Lucca]] on July 4, 1870. He was a member of a [[Tuscany]] family with aristocracy roots.
Pollera was a colonial official like his brother Alberto, an ethnographist and writer. He arrived in Eritrea in 1895 and remained there until 1928. He participated in the [[battle of Adwa]] in March 1896. The next year he fought the [[Dervishi]] in Sudan.
In 1900 he left the military service and started to work as civilian for the Italian "Ministero Affari Esteri" (Foreign Policy Ministry).
Pollera started as a "Commissioner resident" of [[Agordat]] and then was regional commissioner of some areas of Eritrea. In 1912 he accompanied an aggregated [[Zaptie]] Mehariste company of the V Battalion [[Eritrean Ascari|Ascari]] in war operations in [[Italian Libya]]. Subsequently, he became the head of the "Civil and Political Affairs Department" in Eritrea (1918-1920) https://books.google.com/books?id=FPpHVh... Ludovico Pollera; p. 55].
From November 20, 1920 to April 13, 1921, he was [[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea|Governor of the Colony of Eritrea]] and successively he remained "General Secretary" of Eritrea until 1928 (a government job that was the equivalent of vice-governor). Pollera was discharged with honor from his government works in 1928.
He wrote only one book, a "Report" in 1913: ''Relazione Commissariato generale del Barca (1883-1892)'', for the "Camera dei Deputati" of [[Rome|Roma]].
Ludovico Pollera returned from Africa in the mid-thirties of the last century to be elected -between 1938 and 1945- President of the ''Cassa di Lucca'', a regional bank of his hometown https://www.assiter.org/file/2004-africu... Biography of Alberto and Ludovico Pollera].
He died in Lucca on January 21, 1953.
==See also==
* [[Italian Eritrea]]
* [[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea]]
==Notes==
==Bibliography==
* Bandini, Franco. ''Gli italiani in Africa, storia delle guerre coloniali 1882-1943''. Longanesi. Milano, 1971.
{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[De Camillis Camillo (governor)|Camillo De Camillis]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Italian Governor of Eritrea|years=1920–1921}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Giovanni Cerrina Feroni]]}}
{{s-end}}
{{Italian Governors of Eritrea and Somaliland}}
{{Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)}}
===================================
GABELLI OTTONE
{{ Infobox officeholder
| name =Gabelli Ottone
| image=
| imagesize=
| caption=
|order1=[[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea|Italian Governor of Eritrea]]
| term_start1= January 15, 1935
|term_end1 = January 18, 1935
| predecessor1=[[Riccardo Di Lucchesi]]
| successor1=[[Emilio De Bono]]
|order2=
|term_start2 =
| term_end2=
| predecessor2=
| successor2=
| birth_date=
|birth_place =
| death_date=
| death_place=
| nationality=Italian
|party =
| footnotes=
}}
'''Gabelli Ottone''' was a governor of [[Italian Eritrea]]. He was also a diplomat and a writer.
==Life==
Gabelli was born near [[Udine]] in 1880.
He started to work since young in the Italian "Ministero delle Colonie" (Ministry of Colonies) and soon he reached top positions becoming the "Main Director" in the early 1930s. He was also member of the "Italian Institute for the Middle East", a magazine about colonial studies. Ottone Gabelli was also a writer: his most famous book was about "Italian Tripolitania" https://books.google.com/books/about/La_... Gabelli's book on Italian Tripolitania].
In 1934 Gabelli moved to Italian Africa, where he was -for limited time- "interim" governor of Eritrea. He was named
''Funzionario ruolo colonie (attribuzione: Reggente)'' in January 1935 http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/pca-gov.htm... Governors of Italian colonies]. Successively, from January to November 1935 Gabelli was Eritrea's Vice-governor (when [[Emilio De Bono]] was governor). Gabelli was friendly linked to the architect Guido Ferrazza, who was in charge of one of the best urban Plans for Italian Asmara https://dadfeatured.blogspot.com/2018/08... Asmara italiana].
Gabelli in the late 1930s was secretary in [[Asmara under Italy|Asmara]] of the "Partito Nazionale Fascista" and in 1938 was one of the supporters of the controversial ''Manifesto della razza'' http://www.alterhistory.altervista.org/D... Manifesto's supporters]
Ottone Gabelli died in 1939 https://www.academia.edu/31388398/Borghi... ASMARA: I PIANI REGOLATORI FUNZIONALISTI (1936-1939); p. 98].
==Literary works==
* ''LA TRIPOLITANIA DALLA FINE DELLA GUERRA MONDIALE ALL'AVVENTO DEL FASCISMO'' - 2 VOLUMI. Editore: A. AIROLDI. Verona, 1939
* ''Le vicende della colonizzazione italiana in Eritrea e Somalia'' in "L'Africa orientale italiana e il conflitto italo-etiopico"; p. 113-126. Roma, 1936
{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Riccardo Di Lucchesi]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Italian Governor of Eritrea|years=January 1935}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Emilio De Bono]]}}
{{s-end}}
==Notes==
==See also==
* [[Italian Eritrea]]
* [[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea]]
==Bibliography==
* Bandini, Franco. ''Gli italiani in Africa, storia delle guerre coloniali 1882-1943''. Longanesi. Milano, 1971.
{{Italian Governors of Eritrea and Somaliland}}
[[Category:Italian Governors of Eritrea]]
[[Category:1880 births]]
[[Category:1939 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Udine]]
[[Category:20th-century Italian writers]]
===============================
[[Category:Italian Governors of Eritrea]]
=================================
CAMILLO DE CAMILLIS
{{ Infobox officeholder
| name =De Camillis, Camillo
| image=
| imagesize=
| caption=
|order1=[[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea|Italian Governor of Eritrea]]
| term_start1= July 1, 1919
|term_end1 = November 16, 1920
| predecessor1=[[Giacomo De Martino (governor)|Giacomo De Martino]]
| successor1=[[Pollera Ludovico (Governor)|Ludovico Pollera]]
|order2=
|term_start2 =
| term_end2=
| predecessor2=
| successor2=
| birth_date=
|birth_place =
| death_date=
| death_place=
| nationality=Italian
|party =
| footnotes=
}}
'''De Camillis Camillo''' was an Italian diplomat, who become the Italian colonial governor of [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]] in 1919 and 1920.
==Data==
His role of "Regent Governor" in [[Italian language|Italian]] was ''Funzionario ruolo colonie (attribuzione: Reggente)'' from July 1919 to November 1920.
The Regent Governor of Eritrea De Camillis instructed all colonial commissaries in Eritrea to attribute Italian citizenship automatically to the sons and daughters of unknown Italian paternal parenthood, even in the absence of paternal legal acknowledgement. So these "mulatto" Eritrean kids became Italian citizens by law https://books.google.com/books?id=KQ0MAA...(governor+of+Eritrea)+biography&source=bl&ots=_wL0Rabaum&sig=DnLnWLvAThKmDkOhAd6iRJfvq1c&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjb4KPY-tPQAhWhq1QKHXiGC5sQ6AEIRDAH#v=onepage&q=Camillo%20De%20Camillis%20(governor%20of%20Eritrea)%20biography&f=false A Political History of National Citizenship and Identity in Italy, 1861–1950, by Sabina Donati].
This was a revolutionary law when created, opening the first steps toward racial integration in colonial [[Africa]].
{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Giacomo De Martino (governor)|Giacomo De Martino]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Italian Governor of Eritrea|years=1919–1920}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Pollera Ludovico (Governor)|Ludovico Pollera]]}}
{{s-end}}
==See also==
* [[Italian Eritrea]]
* [[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea]]
* [[Italian Eritreans]]
==Notes==
==Bibliography==
* Donati, Sabina. ''A Political History of National Citizenship and Identity in Italy, 1861–1950''. Publisher Stanford University Press. Stanford, 2013. {{ISBN|0804787336}}
{{Italian Governors of Eritrea and Somaliland}}
{{Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)}}
[[Category:Italian diplomats]]
[[Category:Italian Governors of Eritrea]]
=============================
SOMALIAN ITALIAN
[[File:ItalianSomalilandP13-10Somali-1950-donatedcm f.jpg|thumb|right|400px|A 10 Somali banknote of 1950, written in Italian language]]
The [[Italian language]] had once been an official language of [[Somalia]] [[Somali Republic|from 1960 to 1969]] and then again [[Transitional Federal Government|from 2004 to 2012]]. The use of this [[Europe|European]] language goes as far back as the [[Italian Somaliland|colonial period]] of Somalia in the late 1890s, when was the only official language for more than half a century until after the end of [[World War II]].
==Overview==
Italian is a legacy of the [[Italian Somaliland|Italian colonial period]] of Somalia when it was part of the [[Italian Empire]]. Italian was the mother tongue of the [[Italian Somalis|Italian settlers]] of Somalia.
The Somalian school system in the colonial era before World War II was in Italian language and limited mainly to primary schools and a few middle schools (like the "Scuola Regina Elena" http://blog.ilgiornale.it/franza/files/2... Scuola Regina Elena]), but in the capital Mogadishu of "Italian Somalia" there was an important high school. https://dadfeatured.blogspot.com/2018/05... The "Lyceum De Bono" of Mogadishu] In this Lyceum was created in the early 1950s the "National Institute of Legal, Economic and Social Studies", https://books.google.com/books?id=DPwOsO... Istituto Superiore studi pre-universitari] as a post-secondary school in Italian language for pre-university studies in order to access the Italian universities.
Although it was the primary language since [[Italian Somaliland|colonial rule]], Italian continued to be used among the country's ruling elite even after [[Somali Republic|1960 independence]] when it continued to remain as an official language. It is estimated that more than 200,000 native Somalis were fluent speaking Italian when independence was declared in 1960 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W96tncBc... Video (showing Somalis speaking Italian) of the last day of Italian presence in Mogadishu, when was declared the Somalian independence in July 1960 {{it icon}}].
After a [[Somali Democratic Republic|military coup in 1969]], all foreign entities were nationalized by [[Siad Barre]] (who spoke fluently Italian), including [[Mogadishu under Italian rule|Mogadishu]]'s principal university, which was renamed 'Jaamacadda Ummadda Soomaliyeed' ([[Somali National University]]). This marked the initial decline of the use of Italian in Somalia.
However, Italian is still widely spoken by the elderly, the educated, and by the governmental officials of Somalia. Prior to the [[Somali civil war]], Mogadishu still had an Italian-language school, but was later destroyed by the conflict. http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vt... Scuola media di Mogadiscio] (Picture)
Italian was later declared an official language again by [[Transitional Federal Government]] along with [[English language|English]] in 2006.
==See also==
* [[Italian language]]
==Notes==
==Bibliography==
* Bereketeab, R. ''Eritrea: The making of a Nation''. Uppsala University. Uppsala, 2000.
[[Category:Languages of Somalia]]
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https://www.slideshare.net/matierno/sale... evoluzione di salerno dall'ottiocento ad oggi - piano Calza Bini del 1937
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http://research.ku.dk/search/?pure=files... P E R F E T T O !!!! The Roman Empire and Southern Scandinavia - a Northern Connection! Grane, Thomas. University of Copenhagen
http://storicamente.org/eck_augusto_germ... GERMANIA (Ottimo) Univrs. Bologna
http://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/m... Vita di Drusus
http://www.instoria.it/home/province_rom... Germania
http://legio-iiii-scythica.com/index.php... MAPPA BELLISSIMA IN TEDESCO
http://battletracker.com/forum/other/off... Altra infomazione su romani in Germania (cercare nei siti per mappe ottime)
http://www.rosetta.bham.ac.uk/issue8/art... mappa di germanicus conquiste e di primo confine su Elba
http://www.fectio.org.uk/sites/ermelo200... Sito in inglese su ERMELO roman camp in Olanda costiera
http://alisonensis.de/EN/1%20Magna%20Ger... Alisonensis: MAGNA GERMANIA (OTTIMISSIMO!!!!)
https://books.google.com/books?id=DGOnoY... Google book dove si afferma che Varus voleva creare la provincia romana di Germania
https://books.google.com/books?id=_62dCw... Google book sul primo governatore della neocostituita provincia de Germania (PERFETTO!!)
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https://encyclopediadramatica.rs/Arbitra... Foto di ArbComs
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Now I want to make a few considerations about this image:
1) Romans were realistic pragmatically in making their statues. So, they used to represent only something really important: Why the statue should show a simple and very common pine cone? Nobody in Rome would appreciate this, of course!
2) The roman boy in his right hand has something that looks like a dish. Ma be he was a young servant bringing the pineapple to be eaten?
3) The pineapple looks very similar to a Puerto Rican pineapple called "Red Spanish". See image at the bottom of the article. To the reader the final judgement!
Finally, I want to add something I wrote in the discussion page of the wiki Noteboard:
A)...."....Sincerely I only added some information about "another pineapple". I don't want to promote any "fringe theory"! I think that Elio Cadelo is a famous journalist in Italy (of the RAI, the official Italian Radio-TV institution: he is "Scrittore, Caporedattore giornale radio Rai per la scienza e l'ambiente") who is well accepted & judged in historian circles of Italy. So, for me he is a "Reliable source for claims of other pineapples: Elio Cadelo has won the Premio ENEA 1999 (please read https://www.ibs.it/libri/autori/Elio%20C..., as I wrote). Here it is a video where Cadelo comments his book about the Romans in America in the "Istituto Italiano per gli Studi Filosofici e Geografici": [13]. It is in Italian, but I can give a translation if requested. Anyway, I just wanted to add this information...and nothing else....(but allow me to add that the pineapple shown in the hands of the roman kid inside the Geneva museum (see http://www.lsdmagazine.com/wp-content/up... and that was quickly made disappear by Doug Weller) has no round "grapes" near his hand like the wine-grape fruit, but "rectangular pieces" that looks astonishingly similar to this photo of an
ananas:https://avatanplus.com/files/resources/mid/573ecbf4cac11154cd4cb45e.png ). And we know that ananas is a fruit that can survive many weeks of travel, with only the loss of the green leaves....So, I think this Wikipedia article must add evidences like these pineapples and not only evidences about "Claims involving California canoes" & "Claims involving chickens". Regards to all of you...."
B)...."...So, in your opinion what is in the hands of the roman kid? At this point I like to leave all this mess. All this attacks -that is what I feel, sincerely- are on a simple refusal to allow that something roman can have reached America, but if it is Phoenician or Chinese or Polynesian....well that's acceptable. This reminds me the discussion (on academic circles, of course) about the latin word "perdomita", related to the fact that Britain -according to Tacitus who wrote "Britannia perdomita, sed olim missa est" (Britain was totally conquered but quickly was lost)- was fully conquered by the roman Agricola. As you probably know the british circles of historians linked to the "glory" of the British empire cannot accept that the word perdomita is made in latin from the words "PERfecta DOMInaTA" (meaning 'completely dominated' in classical latin) and so they deny the total conquest of Britain by Agricola. So, as written before, I like to leave all this mess & these attacks: I semi-retire from Wikipedia...."
C)...."...So some users and admin Doug Weller have obtained to impose what they wanted. Congratulations....But at the end nobody has answered my question: in your opinion what is in the hands of the roman kid in the Geneva museum?......obviously it can be ONLY an ananas from America! My last four cents with the same words of Galileo to the abuses of the Inquisition: EPPUR SI MUOVE....and at the end all of us admit that he was right!. So, in a similar way I am sure soon or later the truth about these pineapples in roman hands will come out.."
D)...."... I am totally sure it is an ananas, because of the pineapple rectangular pieces near the kid hand that cannot be dimples grapes but only pieces of leaves in the first stages of decomposition (probably this fruit was many weeks old). Here it is an image that shows the leaves falling: the first line of leaves covers the top of the ananas "dimples" ([17]). I also remember the ananas of the Geneva museum was very similar to those imported from Puerto Rico: it is a species of pineapple imported in Switzerland.
....(to be continued)...
===============================================
https://www.hackthissite.org/pages/index... Sito per imparare I fondamenti di "Hackering"
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:... Informazioni su "Hacker studi" (Wikipedia)
==================================================
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https://etudesafricaines.revues.org/doca... Foto Ascari mutilate da etiopi dopo adua
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http://www.levantineheritage.com/pdf/pan... Levantini (OTTIMO)
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ALTO ADIGE-HAUTE ADIGE
[[File:Carte de l'Empire Français Divisé en 133 Départemens (Bonissel, 1811).jpg|thumb|right|400px|Map of the [[First French Empire]], divided into 133 départements, with the Kingdom of Italy, by N Bonissel, published by "Jean" in Paris in 1811. Click on the map in order to enlarge it and read ''Haute Adige'' -with precise borders- inside the "Royaume d'Italie"]]
'''Alto Adige''' (in French ''Haute Adige'') is the name of an alpine region that was first created by the [[Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)|Napoleonic French]] in order to distinguish this Italian-speaking area (at the start of the XIX century) from the Austrian empire's [[History of Tyrol|Tyrol]] (located directly north).
==Name's etymology==
The name "Alto Adige" was coined (created) in the late eighteenth century by [[Napoleon]], when he occupied the territory of northern Italy near the [[Alps]]. Indeed this was the name of the French administrative division known as the "[[Department of Alto Adige]]" (''Dipartimento dell'Alto Adige''), created during Napoleon's "[[Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)|Kingdom of Italy]]" in 1810, which is related to the name of the [[river Adige]] born in this province.
In Italian etymology, the name "Alto Adige" currently is related to the full name of the [[Province of Bolzano-Bozen|"Provincia autonoma di Bolzano - Alto Adige"]], while usually the simple name "Alto Adige" is used for this alpine region around [[Bolzano]] (since academic [[Ettore Tolomei]] made it official in Italy after the [[Great War]]).
==Napoleon's Alto Adige==
During French control of the region, South Tyrol was officially named ''Haute Adige'' to get rid of relation to the historic "County of Tyrol" of [[Austria]].Rolf Steininger, Department of Contemporary History. University of Innsbruck
[[File:Dep-fr-it.jpg|thumb|right|200px|"Department Haut-Adige" (1810)]]
The [[Alto Adige (District)|District of Alto Adige]] was initially created by Napoleon as part of the ''Dipartamento del Benaco'' in his Cisalpine Republic, and was near [[Verona]].{{cite book|title=Raccolta delle leggi, proclami, ordini ed avvisi, Vol 4|year=1797|publisher=Luigi Viladini|location=Milan|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Gy5FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA201#v=onepage&q=Alto%20Adige&f=false|author=Cisalpine Republic|page=201|language=Italian}}{{cite book|title=Raccolta delle leggi, proclami, ordini ed avvisi, Vol 5|year=1798|publisher=Luigi Viladini|location=Milan|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1RDgAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA184&dq=%22alto+adige%22+benaco+-torri+-trentino&hl=en&ei=s2AkTqjzNMLg0QGP3PmmAw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CEsQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=%22alto%20adige%22%20benaco%20-torri%20-trentino&f=false|author=Cisalpine Republic|page=184|language=Italian}} This Benaco department, created in 1797, was gotten rid of in 1798 as a result of administrative changes to the Cisalpine Republic.
Some years later, Napoleon additionally created the "[[Department of Alto Adige|Department Alto Adige]] further north; this department was a part of the Napoleonic [[Kingdom of Italy]] from [[1810]] to [[1814]].Cfr. Reinhard Stauber, ''Der Zentralstaat an seinen Grenzen. Administrative Integration, Herrschaftswechsel und politische Kultur im südlichen Alpenraum 1750-1820'', Göttingen 2001, pp. 317ss.
So, it was created this Department of Alto Adige with the division of the Austrian [[Tyrol (region)|Tyrol]] between French [[Bavaria]] and the Kingdom of Italy, and included the southern part of the "Germanized" Tyrol with the city of [[Bolzano]] with surroundings (along with the [[Trentino]]).
The boundaries were made by Austrian and German commissioners, saying that a territory would belong to the Kingdom of Italy if it is inhabited by Italians, according to the principle: "belonging to the Kingdom of Italy because inhabited by Italians" (''{{lang|it|da appartenersi al Regno d'Italia perché paese italiano}}'' http://books.google.it/books?id=VI9IAAAA... Nuova antologia di scienze, lettere ed arti, Volume 2, 1866, pag. 431]).
This shows that [[Bolzano]] was a mostly Italian town in Napoleonic times, and that in the following century was "Germanized" (as in the 1911 Austrian census, Bolzano was mostly German-speaking, at almost 91%).
Indeed between the [[Renaissance]] and the 19th century, the whole area, originally populated by Latins from the time of [[Roman Empire]], experienced a lot of Germanization. In the centuries before [[Napoleon]], only the Dolomite's area of the western part of the present province of Bolzano (especially the Val Venosta near Merano) remained neolatin http://www.vejin.com/history.html#ridare... Ethnic history of Alto Adige (in Italian)]. Furthermore, just after [[WWII]] about sixty five percent of the population spoke [[German language|German]] as their mother tongue, while about a third spoke [[Italian language|Italian]] and about five percent spoke the Latin language (but in the 2011 census the percentages were: 63%, 23% and 4%, with another 10% who are immigrants from outside [[Republic of Italy|Italy]]).
==Notes==
==Bibliography==
* Connelly, Owen. ''Napoleon's Satellite Kingdoms'' (1965)
* Gregory, Desmond. ''Napoleon's Italy'' (2001)
* Pagano, Emanuele. ''Enti locali e Stato in Italia sotto Napoleone'' Editoriale Carocci. Roma, 2007 ISBN 978-88-430-4310-1
==See also==
* [[Department of Alto Adige]]
* [[Alto Adige (District)|District of Alto Adige]]
* [[Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)]]
* [[Bolzano]]
[[Category:Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)]]
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http://www.lastampa.it/2017/04/29/esteri... Crisis in Venezuela -aprile 2017 (La Stampa)
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http://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/the-... WALL STREET JOURNAL sul Venezuela ("MOLTO OTTIMISSIMO!") del giugno 2017
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http://image.archivioluce.com/foto/high/... Foto di Angelo De Ruben governatore Somalia, a fianco di principessa Maria Jose
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GIORGIO SORRENTINO
{{ Infobox Officeholder
| name =Giorgio Sorrentino
| image=
| imagesize=
| caption=
|order1= [[List of colonial governors of Italian Somaliland|Italian Governor of Somalia]]
| term_start1= 1897
|term_end1 = 1898
| predecessor1=[[Emilio Dulio]]
| successor1=[[Emilio Dulio]]
| birth_date= 1847|5|4
|birth_place =[[San Giorgio a Cremano|S.Giorgio a Cremano (Napoli)]]
| death_date= 1919|2|1
| death_place= [[Napoli]]
| nationality= Italian
|party =
| footnotes=
}}
'''Giorgio Sorrentino''' (born on [[May 9]], [[1847]] in [[San Giorgio a Cremano|San Giorgio a Cremano (Napoli)]] and died on [[February 1]], [[1919]] in [[Napoli]]) was an Italian military and politician, who was the colonial governor/commissioner of [[Italian Somaliland]] from 1897 to 1898.
==Life==
Giorgio Sorrentino was born near [[Napoli]] in 1847 and went to a Navy school in 1862, being promoted to " guardia-marina" (assistant captain) in 1866.
[[File:Italo-Somali- War.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Lafole massacre]]
Giorgio Sorrentino was a captain of the Italian Navy who was appointed "Commissioner" of the Italian [[Banadir|Benadir]] possessions (later called [[Italian Somalia]]). He was only nominally in charge of the Italian colony, because all the administrative activities were done by Emilio Dulio, the manager of the private company "Societa' per il Benadir". http://www.persee.fr/doc/efr_0000-0000_1... Sorrentino in Benadir (in Italian). p 317] Dulio was the next colonial commissioner on May 25, 1898 and was named "first governor" of the Italian colony the next year.
[[File:Italian battleship Ruggiero di Lauria.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The ironclad ''Ruggiero di Lauria'' was commanded by Giorgio Sorrentino]]
When consul Antonio Cecchi on November 1896 was killed with other 85 Italians and [[Eritrean Ascari]] in Lafolè, near [[Mogadishu]], Giorgio Sorrentino was sent in the area and attacked in retaliation the villages of Nimo e Gezira.
He was able to control the area of the Benadir since then: because of this accomplishment he was appointed "Royal Commissioner" in 1897.
In 1898 Sorrentino returned to Italy and later was commander of the [[Italian ironclad Ruggiero di Lauria|ironclad battleship Ruggero di Lauria]].
Sorrentino retired to Napoli, where in 1912 published ''Ricordi del Benadir'' https://books.google.it/books?id=8OfE9gR... Bollettino della Società africana d'Italia (from p 62)] about his memories when he was governing the Benadir.
He died in 1919, receiving full military honors.
{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Emilio Dulio]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Italian Governor of Somaliland|years=1897–1898}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Emilio Dulio]]}}
{{s-end}}
==Bibliography==
* {{Cite news|author=Marco Scardigli|title=Il provinciale d'Africa. Il Benadir e l'epistolario di Emilio Dulio (1885-1903)|publisher=Studi Piacentini|date=1995|pages=201–257}}
* {{Cite book|title=Le questioni del Benadir|author=Gustavo Chiesi|author2=Ernesto Travelli|publisher=Bellini |location=Milan|year=1904}}
* {{Cite book|title=Italia d'oltremare. Storie dei territori italiani dalla conquista alla caduta|author=Vanni Beltrami|publisher=Edizioni Nuova Cultura|location=Rome|year=2011|ISBN=9788861347021|ref=Beltrami}}
==Notes==
==See also==
*[[Italian Somalia]]
*[[Banadir|Benadir]]
{{Italian Governors of Eritrea and Somaliland}}
{{Somalia italiana (Colonia)}}
[[Category:Italian Somaliland]]
[[Category:20th-century Italian politicians]]
[[Category:Italian colonial governors and administrators]]
=================================================
FRANCESCO SAVERIO CAROSELLI
{{ Infobox Officeholder
| name =Francesco Saverio Caroselli
| image=
| imagesize=
| caption=
|order1= [[List of colonial governors of Italian Somaliland|Italian Governor of Somalia]]
| term_start1= 1937
|term_end1 = 1940
| predecessor1=[[Ruggiero Santini]]
| successor1=[[Gustavo Pesenti]]
| birth_date= 1887|3|12
|birth_place =[[Roma]]
| death_date= 1967|12|30
| death_place= [[Zagarolo]] (Roma)
| nationality= Italian
|party =
| footnotes=
}}
'''Francesco Saverio Caroselli''' (born on [[March 12]], [[1887]] in [[Roma]] and died on [[December 30]], [[1967]] in [[Zagarolo]] near Roma) was an Italian diplomat and politician, who was the colonial governor of [[Italian Somaliland]] from 1937 to 1940. http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se...(Dizionario-Biografico)/+&cd=4&hl=it&ct=clnk&gl=it Treccani: Francesco Saverio Caroselli (in Italian)]
==Life==
Having completed classical studies in [[Italy]]'s capital, Caroselli enrolled in the faculty of jurisprudence and in 1909 graduated with full marks. Since young he showed sympathies for the liberal [[Risorgimento]] ideals. In 1912, while the Libyan war was still underway, he was called to work as a lawyer in the "Ministero delle Colonie" (Colonies Ministry) at the time of his constitution.
From 1912 to the fall of [[Fascism]] in 1943, without any interruption, Caroselli remained working at the Colonies Ministry, profiting from his vast legal culture and pursuing, by rank, all the career of a colonial official until he reached the top level with the task of [[List of colonial governors of Italian Somaliland|"Governor of Italian Somalia"]].
In 1917 he went to work for the "Ministero delle colonie" in [[Tripoli]] ([[Italian Libya]]) and in 1919 was a member of the Italian delegation at the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Peace Conference of Paris]], promoting the maintenance of the London agreements of 1915. But -because these agreement were not maintained and Italy practically received nearly nothing from the dismemberment of the German & Ottoman empires- Caroselli remained hit by what he said was an "humiliation to Italy". As a consequence he joined the Fascism of [[Benito Mussolini]], who condemned the "farce" of Versailles and advocated a revisionist policy.
After the unfortunate mission in Paris, in the summer of 1920 he was sent to Somalia, first as secretary of governor [[Carlo Riveri]], then as commissioner in [[Barawa|Brava]] and [[Chisimaio]]. Over the years, in direct contact with the most disadvantaged people among the Italian colonies, he learned the difficult art of administering the indigenous people, working as an "humane" official. Transferred to [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]] in 1928, he stayed there for two years as a director in the local government. In 1931 he was destined for the second time in Somalia with the prestigious and onerous assignment of "Secretary General" of the colony.
In 1931 he published in Rome his most important book, ''Ferro e fuoco in Somalia'' (Iron and Fire in Somalia), with which he reconstructed the events of Muḥammad ibn Abdullāh Hassān, the poet and Somali guerrilla leader who attempted, for more than twenty years between 1899 and 1921, to fight the coalition armies of [[Great Britain]], [[Italy]] and [[Ethiopia]]. As a result of extensive and accurate searches, in the Italian archives and on site, the book remains to date one of the few tools to understand the so called [[Mad Mullah]].
Caroselli wrote also in those years: ''Le vicende monetarie nell'Eritrea e nella Somalia'' (Roma, 1933) and ''Scritti coloniali'' (Bologna, 1941).
From December 15, 1937 until June 11, 1940 Caroselli was Governor of Italian Somalia. From 1937 under Caroselli new roads such as the "Imperial Road" from Mogadishu to Addis Abeba were constructed in the Somalian region, as were new schools, hospitals, ports and bridges. New railways were also completed and improved, such as the famous [[Mogadishu-Villabruzzi Railway]] (Italian: "Ferrovia Mogadiscio-[[Villaggio Duca degli Abruzzi]]"). [[Mogadishu under Italian rule|Mogadiscio]] became under governor Caroselli a modern city, where the Italians were nearly half of the population.
For example, the main Italian newspaper of Mogadiscio and the Italian colonies, ''Il Littoriale'', http://dlib.coninet.it/bookreader.php?&a... Il Littoriale on the Circuit of Mogadiscio at page 5 (in Italian)] reported that on mid-August 1938 was done the first car race [[Mogadiscio circuit|circuit of Mogadiscio]]: on August 15 the Governor Francesco Saverio Caroselli flagged the start of a car race followed by many thousands in the "Corso Vittorio Emanuele" (actual "Somalia Boulevard") of Somalia's capital, where there were the main stands. On Mogadiscio streets many Somalis enjoyed enthusiastically to the first car race in their country.It was followed even by a motorcycle race, done with 250 cc and 350 cc category.
Caroselli as governor made his colony also one of the most developed in all [[Africa]] in terms of the standard of living of the colonists and of the local inhabitants, mainly in the urban areas. Caroselli additionally improved the school system in Somalia, allowing for the first time that the local Somalis could study not only in elementary schools and so get training in special technical schools.
In July 1940 Caroselli left Somalia and returned to Italy. In 1942 was the supervisor for the return to Italy of thousands of Italian civilians from the Allied conquered Somalia & Eritrea, with four Italian ships under Red Cross authority.
He married Anna Zezza after [[WW2]] and had a daughter. He retired to live in his villa in Zagarolo, not far away from the outskirts of Roma, where Caroselli died in December 1967.
Somalis would acknowledge the merits of governor Caroselli by attributing him, in the 1960s, the highest honor of the [[Democratic Republic of Somalia]].
{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Ruggiero Santini]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Italian Governor of Somaliland|years=1937–1940}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Gustavo Pesenti]]}}
{{s-end}}
==Bibliography==
* {{Cite book|title=Italia d'oltremare. Storie dei territori italiani dalla conquista alla caduta|author=Vanni Beltrami|publisher=Edizioni Nuova Cultura|location=Rome|year=2011|ISBN=9788861347021|ref=Beltrami}}
==Notes==
==See also==
*[[Italian Somalia]]
{{Italian Governors of Eritrea and Somaliland}}
{{Somalia italiana (Colonia)}}
[[Category:Italian Somaliland]]
[[Category:20th-century Italian politicians]]
[[Category:Italian colonial governors and administrators]]
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THE LEVANT- The temple was begun in the last quarter of the 1rst century B.C., and was nearing completion in the final years of Nero's reign (37-68 A.D.). the Great Court Complex of the temple of Jupiter, with its porticoes, exedrae, altars and basins, was built in the 2nd century A.D. Construction of the so-called temple of Bacchus was also started about this time.
The Propylaea and the Hexagonal Court of the Jupiter temple were added in the 3rd century under the Severan Dynasty (193-235 A.D.) and work was presumably completed in the mid-3rd century. The small circular structure known as the Temple of Venus, was probably finished at this time as well. When Christianity was declared an official religion of the Roman Empire in 313 A.D., Byzantine Emperor Constantine officially closed the Baalbeck temples. At the end of the 4th century, the Emperor Theodosius tore down the altars of Jupiter's Great Court and built a basilica using the temple's stones and architectural elements. The remnants of the three apses of this basilica, originally oriented to the west, can still be seen in the upper part of the stairway of the Temple of Jupiter. Near the Temple of Venus are the remains of "The Temple of the Muses", dating from the beginning of the 1st century A.D.
http://www.ahlebanon.com/images/PDF/Spri... Amphorae in Roman Lebanon (Paul Reynolds)
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http://books.stonebooks.com/history/soma... Attacco italiano in "French & British Somalia" (OTTIMO & DETTAGLIATO!)
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ITALIANS IN TURKEY
[[Image:Galata tower istanbul.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Galata Tower]], built in 1348 by the [[Republic of Genoa]] in [[Constantinople]] and actual symbol of the Italian levantine{{citation needed|date=November 2015}}]]
'''Italians of Turkey''' (called also "Italian levantines" and in [[Italian language|Italian]]: "Italo-levantini") are Italians who have lived or are actually living in [[Turkey]], who are mainly descendants from Genoese and Venetian colonists in the [[Levant]] during the [[Middle Ages]] http://www.festivaletteraturadiviaggio.i... The "Levantini" (in Italian)]. They are not the [[Levantines (Latin Christians)|Christian Levantines]], related to [[Catholicism]] in the Levant, because the Italian levantines are related only to Italy and are not all Christians.
==Characteristics==
The name "Italo-Levantine" is additionally applied to people of [[Italy|Italian]] (especially [[Venice|Venetian]] and [[Genoa|Genoese]]) origin, but even with some [[France|French]] or other [[Southern Europe|Euro-Mediterranean]] roots, who have lived in [[Istanbul]], [[İzmir]] and other parts of [[Anatolia]] in [[Turkey]]. Italian Levantines have roots even in the eastern [[Mediterranean]] coast (the Levant, particularly in present-day [[Lebanon]] and [[Israel]]) since the period of the [[Crusades]] and the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] empire. A small group came from [[Crimea]] and the Genoese colonies in the [[Black sea]], after the [[Fall of Constantinople]] in 1453.
The majority of the original Italian Levantines in modern Turkey are descendants of traders/colonists from the [[maritime republics]] of the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] (such as the [[Republic of Venice]], the [[Republic of Genoa]] and the [[Republic of Pisa]] or of the inhabitants of the [[Crusader states]], especially the French/Italian Levantines in [[Lebanon]], [[Israel]] and [[Syria]]) who got special concessions called ''Capitolazioni'' from the Ottoman sultans in the 16th century. http://www.levantineheritage.com/histor3... Levantine historical heritage]
In the 2010s only 500 of the Italians in Turkey are descendants from the original Italian Levantines, while more than 3000 (the great majority) are of recent emigration since the [[Risorgimento|unification of Italy]] in 1861.
==Italian Communities in Turkey==
At the beginning of the struggle for the independence of Italy -in the mid 1800s- a lot of Italians came to Turkey because of money but for political reasons too: the "[[Carbonari]] were escaping from Italy to safer places and Istanbul was one of them. These Italians were welcomed by the original community of the Italian Levantines living mostly in Galata since the Middle Ages.
{{Quote|''There were more than 40,000 Catholic Italians in Istanbul at the turn of the 20th century, a figure which not only included the descendants of the local Genoese and Venetian merchants who lived here since the Byzantine and early Ottoman periods, but also the numerous Italian workers and artisans who came to the city from Italy during the 19th century.''Mavi Boncuk }}
Until 1933- 1935 there were approximately 40.000 Italians in Turkey but after a Turkish law in these years, only around 3.500- 4.000 people were allowed to stay there.
[[File:Haydarpasa campus general.jpg|thumb|420px|[[Marmara University]] Haydarpaşa Campus in Istanbul, which was originally built as the ""Imperial College of Medicine (''Mekteb-i Tıbbiye-i Şahane'') between 1895 and 1900 by Italian architect [[Raimondo D'Aronco]], one of the most famous Italians in Turkey]]
Actually there are two big communities of Italians of Turkey: one in Istanbul and the other in [[Izmir]]. At the end of the 19th century there were nearly 6,000 levantines of Italian roots in the second. http://www.giustiniani.info/italianiasmi... Frangini: Italiani in Smirne/Izmir (in Italian)] They came mainly from the genoese island of [[Chios]]. http://www.levantineheritage.com/testi56... Latin migration from Chios]
The community reached more than 15,000 members during [[Kemal Ataturk|Ataturk]]'s times, but in the 1950s was reduced to a few hundreds, according to Italian Levantine writer Giovanni Scognamillo. http://www.levantineheritage.com/testi35... Interview to Scognamillo]
They continue to live in [[Istanbul]] (mostly in the districts of [[Galata|Karaköy]], [[Beyoğlu]] and [[Nişantaşı]]), and İzmir (mostly in the districts of [[Karşıyaka]], [[Bornova]] and [[Buca]]. Nowadays Italians in Turkey are moreover merchants, sales representatives,
supervisors, teachers; really well integrated in this country. Actually in the 2010s all over Turkey
there are more than 3.000 Italians whereof around 2.400 in Istanbul. http://www.academia.edu/7061169/Italian_... Italian community in Istanbul, by M. Marcella]
Most [[Latin rite]] [[Roman Catholicism in Turkey|Catholics in Turkey]] are Levantines of mainly Italian background.
==Notable people==
{{Quote|''There were famous names such as the composers and conductors Giuseppe Donizetti, and Callisto Guatelli, as well as many architects, including Giulio Mongeri, Vitaliano Poselli, Piero Arigoni and painters, such as Bellini, Fausto Zonaro and Leonardo de Mango.The Italian architect who probably influenced the city's 19th century architecture the most was Raimondo D'Aronco, a celebrity in Istanbul at the time. Serving for 16 years as a kind of state architect under Sultan Abdülhamid II, he designed many public buildings such as the Ministry of Agriculture, the "Medical College", and the "Tophane Fountain", as well as dozens of summer residences (Köşks) across the city'' M. Marcella}}
Famous people of the present-day Italian levantine community in Turkey include:
[[File:Raimondo Tommaso D'Aronco.jpg|thumb|Architect Raimondo Tommaso D'Aronco]]
* [[Raimondo Tommaso D'Aronco]], who was a very famous architect in Istanbul. He was the chief palace architect to the Ottoman Sultan Abdülhamid II in Constantinople for 16 years.
* Sir [[Alfred Biliotti]], who joined the British foreign service and eventually rose to become one of its most distinguished consular officers in the late 19th century. Biliotti was also an accomplished archaeologist who conducted important excavations at sites in the Aegean and [[Anatolia]].
* Livio Missir di Lusignano. Historian. His masterpiece is ''Les anciennes familles italiennes de Turquie''.
* [[Giuseppe Donizetti]], musicist. He was Instructor General of the Imperial [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Music at the court of Sultan [[Mahmud II]] http://www.musicaltimes.co.uk/archive/02... Giuseppe Donizetti Pasha]
* [[Giovanni Scognamillo]], writer. He composed "Memorie di Beyoğlu di un Levantino" in 1989. http://arsiv.ntvmsnbc.com/news/458504.as... NTV-MSNBC: "Giovanni Scognamillo ile sinema üzerine" (in Turkish)]
* Count [[Abraham Camondo]]. He was a Jewish [[Turkey|Turkish]]-[[Italy|Italian]] financier and philanthropist, and the patriarch of the [[Camondo family]].
==See also==
*[[Levantines (Latin Christians)]]
*[[Italian Lebanese]]
*[[Republic of Genoa]]
*[[Republic of Venice]]
*[[Galata]]
*[[Italian diaspora]]
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
==Bibliography==
* Consorti, A., ''Vicende dell’italianità in Levante, 1815-1915'' in: Rivista Coloniale, anno XV.
* Franzina, Emilio. ''Storia dell'emigrazione italiana''. Donzelli Editore. Roma, 2002 ISBN 88-7989-719-5
* Missir di Lusignano, Livio. ''Due secoli di relazioni italo-turche attraverso le vicende di una famiglia di italiani di Smirne: i Missir di Lusignano''. "Storia contemporanea", (4) pp. 613–623. Università di Bologna. Bologna, 1992.
* Pannuti, Alessandro. ''Les Italiens d’Istanbul au XXe siècle : entre préservation identitaire et effacement''. Université de Paris III – Sorbonne Nouvelle. Parigi, 2004
* Pongiluppi, Francesco. ''La Rassegna Italiana Organo degli Interessi Italiani in Oriente. Giornale Ufficiale della Camera di Commercio Italiana di Costantinopoli'', Edizioni Isis, Istanbul, 2015.
{{Italian diaspora}}
[[Category: Italian diaspora]]
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http://www.storiainrete.com/2801/rassegn... INTRESSANTISSIMO!!!
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http://www.hotel-biser.com/index.php?opt... STORIA DELL'ISOLA DI PAGO IN DALMAZIA
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MAPPA PRINCIPATO SALERNO=DUCATO PUGLIA -CALABRIA
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ITALIAN CONCESSIONS AND FORTS IN CHINA (WIKIWAND CACHE: http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se... )
Concessions and forts of Italy in China are the commercial and military concessions & fortifications that the Kingdom of Italy had in different Chinese localities until WWII.
History
Italy in the first half of the 20th century has had concessions and fortifications in Peking, Tientsin, Shanghai, Shan Hai Kuan, Ta Ku, Amoy and Hankow. Since 1925 they were defended mainly by the "Battaglione Italiano in Cina" (Battaglione San Marco) and by some Italian Navy ships, like the gunboats "Carlotto" and Caboto" (later substituted by the minelayer "Lepanto").
The small Italian area inside the 1900 Peking Legation Quarter
They were ruled by "Consoli" (Governors), all resident in Tientsin:
Cesare Poma (1901–1903)
Giuseppe Chiostri (1904–1906)
Oreste Da Vella (1907–1911)
Vincenzo Fileti (1912–1919)
Marcello Roddolo (1920–1921)
Luigi Gabrielli di Quercita (1921–1924)
Guido Segre (1925–1927)
Luigi Neyrone (1928–1932)
Filippo Zappi (1933–1938)
Ferruccio Stefenelli (1939–1943)
There was even the Treaty Port in Beihai (southern China), that was allowed to have a small area for Italian commerce.[1]
In 1932...the Italian shipping company "Lloyd Triestino" opened a new service linking Italy to Shanghai by scheduling on that route two modern trans-atlantic vessels, the "Conte Biancamano" and "the Conte Rosso" (which immediately set a speed world record of only 23 days during the first voyage). With this new service, supported by those of other companies employed in the trade of various goods and products, the economic exchange between Italy and China reached such good levels to alarm Great Britain and France. Alberto Rosselli [2]
The Italian possessions in China enjoyed a relatively good economic development with huge Italian-Chinese commerce in the 1920s and mainly in the 1930s.
Peking Legation Quarter
Italian troops occupied a section of the Peking "Legation Quarter" in 1900. Indeed the Eight-Nation Alliance of which Italy belonged, at the end of the Battle of Peking, obtained the right to station troops to protect their legations in China's capital by the terms of the Boxer Protocol.
The Legation Quarter was encircled by a wall and all Chinese residents in the area were ordered to relocate away. Sealed from its immediate environment, the Legation Quarter became a city within the city exclusively for foreigners and many Chinese nationalists resented the Quarter as a symbol of foreign dominance. Italy had this small concession until 1943.
Tientsin Italian concession
Main article: Italian concession of Tientsin
Main square of Italian Tientsin
On 7 September 1901, a concession in Tientsin (that consisted approximately of half a square kilometer - or 51.42 ha.[3]) was ceded to the Kingdom of Italy by the Qing Dynasty of China.[4] On 7 June 1902, the concession was taken into Italian possession and administered by an Italian consul: the first was Cesare Poma and the last (in 1943) was Ferruccio Stefenelli. Along with other foreign concessions, the Italian concession lay on the Pei Ho, southeast of the city centre.[5]
In 1917 China terminated the leases of Germany and Austria-Hungary concessions. The districts were converted into "Special Areas" with a separate administration from the rest of Tientsin. But Italy requested the Austrian concession after WWI: it was obtained only in June 1928 and soon returned to Chinese authorities,[6] when the Second Special Area (the one of former Austrian concession) was in danger of war and occupation during the China civil war.
In 1935 the total population was 6,261, of which 5,725 Chinese and 536 foreigners including 392 Italians, according to historian Pistoiese.[7] He even wrote that the concession in those years experienced huge improvements and assumed "the role of showcase of Italian art" with rich urban developments. As stated by Woodhead, in 1934 "The Italian concession ... was becoming the most popular centre for the palatial residences of retired Chinese militaries and politicians".[8]
In the late 1930s the Italian concession of Tientsin and the consulates of Shanghai, Hankow and Beijing lived a quite peaceful period. Italian Tientsin enjoyed a small economic boom, fueled by rich Chinese who moved to live in the Italian area escaping the Japanese invasion of China. But WWII changed everything.
During World War II, the Italian concession in Tientsin had a garrison of approximately 600 Italian troops on the side of the Axis powers. On 10 September 1943, when Italy signed an armistice with the Allies, the concession was occupied by the Imperial Japanese Army.
Italian concession in the Shanghai International Settlement
The flag of the Shanghai International Settlement, showing even the Italian one
After WWI the Kingdom of Italy maintained troops in an area of Shanghai, that was used as commercial concession inside the Shanghai International Settlement (S.I.S.). This settlement was wholly foreign-controlled, with staff of all nationalities, including British, Americans, Danes, Germans and Italians.
Italian concession in the S.I.S. (borders in yellow)
In reality, the British held the largest number of seats on the Council and headed all the Municipal departments. The only department not chaired by a Briton was the "Municipal Orchestra", which was controlled by an Italian.
The International Settlement maintained its own fire-service, police force (the Shanghai Municipal Police), and even possessed its own military reserve in the Shanghai Volunteer Corps.
Following some disturbances at the British concession in Hankow in 1927, the defences at Shanghai were augmented by a permanent battalion of the British Army, which was referred to as the Shanghai Defence Force and a contingent of US Marines. Other armed forces would arrive in Shanghai: the French Concession had a defensive force of Annamite troops, the Italians also introduced their own marines, as did the Japanese (whose troops eventually outnumbered the other countries' many times over).
In ‘Old Shanghai’, there were specific areas with a high concentration of Italian economic activities (in the International Settlement: Kiukiang Road; Kiangse Road; crossroads between Nanking Road and Szechuen Road; Bubbling Well Road), areas with Italian residences (French Concession), other suburban areas with Italians (Zikawei; in this case, they were priests). Moreover, Italians were involved in specific economic sectors (primarily, silk): as the textile sector was developed mainly in Lombardy at that time, most of the expatriate Italian managers and supervisors in Shanghai mills came from this Italian region.Stefano Piastra [9]
In the late 1930s was reinforced the military presence in the small area of Shanghai (that was next to the American concession and north of the French concession) controlled by the Italians. The Italian Navy stationed in the Shanghai port periodically some ships like the cruisers Trento and Montecuccoli during the Japanese invasion of China.[10] In 1947 the Peace Treaty forced Italy to renounce to it with article 26, that stated: "(Italy) agrees to the reversion of the said Settlements (at Shanghai and Amoy) to the Administration and control of the Chinese Government".
Forts in Shan Hai Kuan & in Ta-Ku
From 1900 until the late 1930s, the Italians even held small forts like the Forte di Shan Hai Kuan[11] near the Great Wall of China in Manchuria[12] and the Forte nordoccidentale in Ta-Ku.[13] The one in Ta-Ku (called "N.W fort of Ta-Ku") was held together with the British for a couple of years.[14]
Commercial Concessions in Hankow and in Amoy
Italian consulate in the 1912 Hankow concessions
In Hankow since the 1900 was located an Italian consulate, that later was enlarged in order to have a small commercial concession.
Hankow was the center of catholic missions and had many Italian priests and nuns who were protected by Italian troops in the 1920s and early 1930s (in the late 1920s nearly 40% of the Italian civilians in China were religious personnel of the Roman Catholic Church[15]).
Another small commercial area under Italian control was in Amoy (Xiamen), after WWI.[16] Amoy's European settlements (like the small Italian consulate) were concentrated on the islet of Gulangyu off the main island of actual Xiamen in the region of Hong Kong. Today, Gulangyu is known for colonial architecture, with some examples of the Italian one.[17]
In the early 1930s only the small consulate of Hankow remained under Italian control.
After 1940
When started WWII Italy had only the Tientsin concession under direct control, while remained a garrison in the Shanghai international settlement, in the fort of Shan Hai Kuan and in the Legation of Peking.
In 1940 the soldiers of the Battaglione San Marco were stationed in the remaining areas controlled by Italy: nearly 200 were in Shanghai, 180 in Tientsin, 25 in Shan Hai Kuan and 15 in Peking. They were helped by the marines and sailors of the Italian Navy stationed in Tientsin.[18]
After September 1943 -when Italy surrendered to the Allies- started a very difficult period for the Italians in China. Japanese forces took control of the Italian possessions in China, after some fightings (like in the legation of Peking, and with the scuttle in Shanghai port of the ships "Carlotto" and Caboto").
Italy agrees to the cancellation of the Lease from the Chinese Government under which the Italian Concession at Tientsin was granted......Italy renounces in favor of China the rights accorded to Italy in relation to the International Settlements at Shanghai and Amoy, and agrees to the reversion of the said Settlements to the Administration and control of the Chinese Government. Articles 25 & 26 of 1947 Peace Treaty.([19])
Finally, on 10 February 1947, by virtue of the peace treaty with Italy, all the Italian concessions and fortifications were formally ceded by Italy to Chiang Kai-shek's Republic of China.
=================================
A L I S O (reperibile anche qui, con foto: https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/s...(Roman_Fort_%2526_Vicus)+&cd=13&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us )
{{Infobox castrum
| name = Aliso (Roman Fort & Vicus)
| image = Roemermuseum model 01.jpg
| image_size =
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| caption = Aliso (model), with the huge 2 floors "Principia"
| alt_names = ''Aliso''
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| built_during_reign_of = [[Augustus]]
| founded = ca. 11 BC
| abandoned = 16 AD
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| name = Aliso (Roman Fort & Vicus)
| image = Roemermuseum model 01.jpg
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| alt_names = ''Aliso''
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| founded = ca. 11 BC
| abandoned = 16 AD
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| commanders =
| legions = [[Legio XIX]]
| cohorts =
| alae =
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| numberi =
| legions = [[Legio XIX]]
| cohorts =
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| numberi =
| events =
| province =
| capital_of = [[Germania (Roman province)]]
| admin_unit_1 =
| admin_unit_2 =
| limes =
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| links =
| capital_of = [[Germania (Roman province)]]
| admin_unit_1 =
| admin_unit_2 =
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| coordinates = {{Coord|51|40|11.8|N|7|15|18.2|E|type:landmark_region:DE-BY|display=title}}
| altitude_m =
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| map = Germany
| map_alt =
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| map = Germany
| map_alt =
| map_caption =
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| place_name =
| location_town = Haltern
| location_county =
| location_state =
| location_country = Germany
| iso_region = DE
| location_town = Haltern
| location_county =
| location_state =
| location_country = Germany
| iso_region = DE
| ref:UK:OSNG =
| ref:RO:LMI =
| ref:RO:RAN =
| ref:UNESCO =
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| discovery_year =
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}}
'''Aliso (Roman Fort and Vicus)''' was a military and civilian settlement in ancient [[Germany]], built by [[Augustus]] (near actual [[Haltern]]) when he wanted to create the [[Germania (Roman province)|Roman province of Germania]].
| discovery_year =
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| controlled_by =
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'''Aliso (Roman Fort and Vicus)''' was a military and civilian settlement in ancient [[Germany]], built by [[Augustus]] (near actual [[Haltern]]) when he wanted to create the [[Germania (Roman province)|Roman province of Germania]].
==History==
No Roman fortress on [[Germany]]'s soil gained so much fame and is still as mysterious as the Roman camp "Aliso". This Roman fortification seems inseparable from the occupation efforts of the Romans east of the [[Rhine river]]. Especially during the event of the [[Publius Quinctilius Varus|Varus]] defeat at Teutoburg, this camp took on a supporting role.
{{Quote|''The legionary fortress Aliso was named after the river at which it was built, the Elison. To be specific Cassius Dio reports about the construction of a legionary fortress at the river Elison: "Drusus accordingly conceived a scorn of them in his turn and fortified a stronghold against them at the point where the Lupia and the Eliso unite, and also another among the Chatti on the bank of the Rhine." (Cassius Dio, Roman History, 54.32.4). '' http://alisonensis.de/EN/3%20Military%20... Alisonensis]}}
The Roman province of Germania extended from the [[Rhine river]] & [[Danube river]] as far north as the [[Wadden Sea|Wadden sea]] and as far east as the [[Elbe river]] https://books.google.com/books?id=_62dCw... Lindsay Powell: Germans vesus Romans] and Aliso was the administrative capital.
The initial foundation of the Marching Camp is suggested by [[Cassius Dio]] Lucius Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LIV, 33, during the [[Germania]]'s occupation campaign of the year [[11 BC]] by [[Drusus]] http://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/m... Drusus, the hero of Rome]. The foundation of the legionary Fort could have happened some years later, following the close of the nearby Camp of Oberaden (near actual [[Oberaden]]): at [[8 BC]]. The creation of a small civilian settlement (called "[[Vicus]]") probably happened following the campaigns of [[Marcus Vinicius (consul 19 BC)|Marcus Vinicius]] of [[1 AD]].
The end of the Aliso Fort was almost certainly after the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest|Teutoburg battle]] in [[9 AD]], but archaeological evidences suggest that the civilian "Vicus" survived until 16 AD. Additionally it seems that the Roman Castrum was rebuilt and used for a couple of years by [[Germanicus]] around [[12 AD]]Cornelius Tacitus. Annales I, 59.
==Characteristics==
[[Image:Legionslager Haltern Principia.png|thumb|right|200px| The ''Principia'' (main castrum building) in Aliso; first period]]
[[Image:Legionslager Haltern Principia.png|thumb|right|200px| The ''Principia'' (main castrum building) in Aliso; first period]]
The Roman Aliso corresponds to a series of Roman military camps in [[Haltern am See]], Germany's [[Recklinghausen]] region. They constitute a set of 6 different sites built by the Roman army at the time of the Emperor [[Augustus]], as part of the project of occupation of [[Germania]] and its transformation into the Roman province.
The complex represents the administrative center of the [[Germania (Roman province)|new roman province of Germania]]. It is located along the [[Lippe River]] on its northern shore at a distance of about 70 km from [[Xanten|Castra Vetera]] and 130 km from Anreppen. Modern scholars believe that the six sites so far discovered had:
* a military function, with the aim of controlling the important [[Lippe (river)|Lippe river]].
* the administrative center of the new province of Germany as well as an important commercial square, flanked by large and small Roman burial sites.
* a military function, with the aim of controlling the important [[Lippe (river)|Lippe river]].
* the administrative center of the new province of Germany as well as an important commercial square, flanked by large and small Roman burial sites.
{{Quote|''The prominent site at Haltern on the Lippe river was discovered more than a hundred years ago with excavations still in progress. Excavations began in 1899 with discoveries proving important for the history of the Augustan age. Military presence: a number fortifications were found along with evidence of longer occupation, namely a main street flanked by large and small Roman burial sites. The interior setup and number of officer's buildings in the main camp suggest that it had some sort of administrative function as well as being the winter quarters of a legion''. Grane, Thomas Grane, Thomas. "The Roman Empire and Southern Scandinavia - a Northern Connection" p. 20}}
The most important of the six sites is the one related to the Fort (of nearly 20 hectares), that successfully resisted the attacks after the Varus defeat and so stopped the possible invasion of Roman Gallia.
Aliso had a small port http://www.livius.org/pictures/germany/h... Port of Aliso] on the Lippe river, that connected the fortifications with [[Xanten|Castra Vetera]] (the main base of the Roman [[Classis Germanica]]): it was the easternmost location that could be easily reached by big Roman ships inside central Germania (and this was an important factor in the growth of the Fort & Vicus). Indeed the river Lippe has been used as an infrastructure in Roman times. For the Romans the river was a gateway to [[Magna Germania]], running from the river Rhine to the region around [[Paderborn]]. The watercourse was used for transport of supplies, so along the banks of the Lippe many former Roman camps can be found. https://www.google.com/maps/d/viewer?mid... Overview about the Roman camps]
In the last 200 years many of these camps have been identified, above all this Aliso camp which is likely to be the former headquarter of the imperial prince [[Tiberius]]. The distance between the camps is about a one-day walk of the troops, which is almost 30 km (20 mi). Today’s identified Roman camps are: [[Olfen]], [[Xanten]], Haltern/Aliso, [[Oberaden]], Holsterhausen, Anreppen and Beckinghausen.
===The legionary base of Aliso and the "Vicus": administrative seat of the new province of [[Germania (Roman province)|Germania]]===
The first full archaeological research was done in 1901, by the archaeologists Friedrich Koepp, Friedrich Philippi and Carl Schuchhardt.
[[Image:Haltern dintorni jpg.jpg|thumb|left|400px|Map of Aliso near the Lippe river]]
The first investigation started from the double moat present around the camp, where both ditches were 6 meters wide and deep 2.5 meters deep. Inside the ditches there was an embankment and a palisade that enclosed an area of 16.3 hectares, then expanded along the east side of the field for another 2 acres of surface. The area of the new rectangular field with beveled corners now measures more than 18.3 hectares (560 x 380 m). It also had 4 wide doors, between 7 and 10 meters high.
[[Image:Haltern dintorni jpg.jpg|thumb|left|400px|Map of Aliso near the Lippe river]]
The first investigation started from the double moat present around the camp, where both ditches were 6 meters wide and deep 2.5 meters deep. Inside the ditches there was an embankment and a palisade that enclosed an area of 16.3 hectares, then expanded along the east side of the field for another 2 acres of surface. The area of the new rectangular field with beveled corners now measures more than 18.3 hectares (560 x 380 m). It also had 4 wide doors, between 7 and 10 meters high.
The subsequent excavations that occurred before the [[First World War]] revealed: all four main roads in the castrum, namely ''Via Principalis'', ''Via Praetoria'', ''Via Decumana'' and ''Via Quintana''. The first was 30 meters wide, the second 45 meters, while the other two were wide up to 20 meters. Parallel to the palisade ran ''Via Sagularis''. http://www.livius.org/site/assets/files/... Detailed map of Aliso fort]
Some buildings were later investigated, such as the ''Principia'' administrative center, the commander building (''Praetorium''), the [[Tribune]] and [[Centurion]] dwellings, the Military Shops (''Contubernium''), the Military Hospital (''Valetudinarium''), the Warehouses and the Laboratories of a potter.
This fortification was part of a series of strong auxiliary and legionnaires [[castra]] along the Lippe river, from the Rhine until Anreppen. But Aliso, however, also covered the role of administrative center of the new Roman province of Germany. The area of the fortifications suggests that 6-7 [[Cohort (military unit)|cohorts]] (of [[Legio XIX]]) could be accommodated, as well as a few "Auxilia" contingents on horseback, possibly placed in the nearby fort of Annaber.
{{Quote|''Aliso (now Haltern) was founded....Here, however, there are characteristics that exclude a purely military destination: the high number above the average of the so-called centurion and tribune houses, as well as the presence of front porches, indicate a civil use, in any case very little compatible with a situation of open belligerence....In addition, the tombs built in front of Aliso's main towers do not look like hurried burials, as if they were carried out during a military mission, but served as long-lasting memory sites for the dead. Those who built such tombs left the assumption that they could continue to visit these burial grounds for a long time. This means that the camp had to be for a long time a housing center not only for military but also for civilians'' Werner Eck; University of Bologna http://storicamente.org/eck_augusto_germ... Werner Eck: Germania of Augustus]}}
The Romans believed that the countryside along the river Lippe was a safe possession of their empire. This is suggested by the fact that they built [[Roman tomb|tombs]] in this area http://www.livius.org/pictures/germany/h... Roman tombs in Aliso]. These tombs were evidently built for a resident population who wanted to honor their deaths for generations. In the XX century were discovered numerous tombs of the Augustan era on a 500-foot long and 45 meters wide strip, along the south-east corner of the Roman castrum and near the "[[Canaba]]" Vicus. Indeed Aliso played an important role in the administration of the subjected territories, because the camp had too many large houses not for military use. Probably the "Vicus" in 9 AD -when Aliso was attacked by [[Arminius]]- had a population of nearly one thousand inhabitants, with many women and children.
It is likely that at least some Roman civil servants, responsible for tax and similar activities, lived in Aliso. Furthermore, the [[Auxilia]] troops were mainly Gallo-Romance soldiers with their families, who settled in the Aliso Canaba/Vicus and probably remained in the area after the Roman withdrawal in 16 AD http://alisonensis.de/EN/1%20Magna%20Ger... Gallo-Romance settlers in Germania]
== Gallery ==
File:RoemermuseumHaltern005.JPG|Two floors "Principia" (model)
File:RoemermuseumHaltern004.JPG|Walls near the Lippe river (model)
File:RoemermuseumHaltern016.JPG|Port of Aliso (model)
File:2016-08-16 Haltern Hölzerne Befestigung 16.jpg|Wooden fortifications with ditches
File:2016-08-16 Haltern Hölzerne Befestigung 02.jpg|Wooden Gate
File:Roemermuseum arrowheads.jpg|Haltern Museum: Arrowheads & Gladius
File:Roemermuseum bronze oil lamp.jpg|Haltern Museum: Bronze oil lamp
File:2009-07 haltern imperium 07.jpg|Haltern Museum: Statue
File:Roemermuseum Groma.jpg|Haltern Museum: Groma surveying
File:Roemermuseum kiln.jpg|Haltern Museum: Kiln
File:Roemermuseum buckles and metal fittings.jpg|Haltern Museum:Buckles & metal fittings
File:Roemermuseum military equipment.jpg|Haltern Museum: Military equipment
File:Roemermuseum tools.jpg|Haltern Museum: Tools
File:Roemermuseum weapons.jpg|Haltern Museum: Weapons
File:RoemermuseumHaltern004.JPG|Walls near the Lippe river (model)
File:RoemermuseumHaltern016.JPG|Port of Aliso (model)
File:2016-08-16 Haltern Hölzerne Befestigung 16.jpg|Wooden fortifications with ditches
File:2016-08-16 Haltern Hölzerne Befestigung 02.jpg|Wooden Gate
File:Roemermuseum arrowheads.jpg|Haltern Museum: Arrowheads & Gladius
File:Roemermuseum bronze oil lamp.jpg|Haltern Museum: Bronze oil lamp
File:2009-07 haltern imperium 07.jpg|Haltern Museum: Statue
File:Roemermuseum Groma.jpg|Haltern Museum: Groma surveying
File:Roemermuseum kiln.jpg|Haltern Museum: Kiln
File:Roemermuseum buckles and metal fittings.jpg|Haltern Museum:Buckles & metal fittings
File:Roemermuseum military equipment.jpg|Haltern Museum: Military equipment
File:Roemermuseum tools.jpg|Haltern Museum: Tools
File:Roemermuseum weapons.jpg|Haltern Museum: Weapons
==Notes==
==Bibliography==
* Grane, Thomas. ''The Roman empire and Southern Scandinavia - a northern connection'' University of Copenhagen. Copenhagen, 2009 ( http://research.ku.dk/search/?pure=files... ])
* Siegmar von Schnurbein: ''Die römischen Militäranlagen bei Haltern. Bericht über die Forschungen seit 1899'' (= ''Bodenaltertümer Westfalens.'' Heft 14) Aschendorff, Münster 1974 (2. Aufl. Münster 1981, {{ISBN|3-402-05117-6}}).
* Rudolf Aßkamp: ''Haltern.'' In: ''2000 Jahre Römer in Westfalen.'' Mainz 1989, {{ISBN|3-8053-1100-1}}
* Johann-Sebastian Kühlborn: ''Der augusteische Militärstützpunkt Haltern.'' In: Johann-Sebastian Kühlborn (Hrsg.), ''Germaniam pacavi. Germanien habe ich befriedet.'' Münster 1995
* Johann-Sebastian Kühlborn: ''Das augusteische Hauptlager von Haltern.''In. ''Krieg und Frieden. Kelten, Römer, Germanen.'' Primus-Verlag, Darmstadt 2007
* Jacob Schneider: ''Die römischen Militärstrassen an der Lippe und das Castell Aliso : nach eigenen Localforschungen dargestellt''. Düsseldorf, 1878 ( http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hbz:0... Digital] of Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek Düsseldorf)
* Grane, Thomas. ''The Roman empire and Southern Scandinavia - a northern connection'' University of Copenhagen. Copenhagen, 2009 ( http://research.ku.dk/search/?pure=files... ])
* Siegmar von Schnurbein: ''Die römischen Militäranlagen bei Haltern. Bericht über die Forschungen seit 1899'' (= ''Bodenaltertümer Westfalens.'' Heft 14) Aschendorff, Münster 1974 (2. Aufl. Münster 1981, {{ISBN|3-402-05117-6}}).
* Rudolf Aßkamp: ''Haltern.'' In: ''2000 Jahre Römer in Westfalen.'' Mainz 1989, {{ISBN|3-8053-1100-1}}
* Johann-Sebastian Kühlborn: ''Der augusteische Militärstützpunkt Haltern.'' In: Johann-Sebastian Kühlborn (Hrsg.), ''Germaniam pacavi. Germanien habe ich befriedet.'' Münster 1995
* Johann-Sebastian Kühlborn: ''Das augusteische Hauptlager von Haltern.''In. ''Krieg und Frieden. Kelten, Römer, Germanen.'' Primus-Verlag, Darmstadt 2007
* Jacob Schneider: ''Die römischen Militärstrassen an der Lippe und das Castell Aliso : nach eigenen Localforschungen dargestellt''. Düsseldorf, 1878 ( http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hbz:0... Digital] of Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek Düsseldorf)
==See also==
* [[Germania (Roman province)]]
* [[Roman camp, Marktbreit|Markbreit]]
* [[Waldgirmes Forum|Waldgirmes]]
* [[Magna Germania]]
* [[Xanten|Castra Vetera]]
* [[Germania (Roman province)]]
* [[Roman camp, Marktbreit|Markbreit]]
* [[Waldgirmes Forum|Waldgirmes]]
* [[Magna Germania]]
* [[Xanten|Castra Vetera]]
{{Roman Forts in Germania}}
[[Category:Germania (Roman province)]]
[[Category:Former populated places in Germany]]
[[Category:Roman fortifications in Germany]]
[[Category:Roman sites in Germany]]
[[Category:Roman towns and cities in Germany]]
=====================================================[[Category:Former populated places in Germany]]
[[Category:Roman fortifications in Germany]]
[[Category:Roman sites in Germany]]
[[Category:Roman towns and cities in Germany]]
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