tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5081439197632204782024-03-13T20:18:16.154-07:00MEMORIESmappista59http://www.blogger.com/profile/17629549463392207787noreply@blogger.comBlogger7125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-508143919763220478.post-79093541003370207442019-09-20T10:54:00.002-07:002022-04-04T09:51:26.564-07:00MORE MEMORIES 5<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px;"><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;">PAGUS AUGUSTI (ROMAN PHOENICIA) (written in march 2022 en. wikipedia)</span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;">[[File:Roman Berytus district.png|thumb|right|450px|Map showing the "Berytus district" under emperor Claudius, with the possible area of Pagus Augusti numbered 2-12]]</span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;">'''Pagus Augusti''' was a settlement of [[Roman legion|legio]] veterans in Roman Phoenicia. It was created by emperor [[Augustus]] in the central-northern hills over the [[Beqaa valley]].</span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;">==History==</span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;">In the first century, after the Roman conquest of Phoenicia, the emperor Augustus settled some veterans of his legions in what is now central [[Lebanon]]. Most of the veterans settled in [[Berytus]], but a few moved to colonize the fertile Beqaa valley. These few hundred created the so-called </span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;">"Augustus Pagus" or "Pagus Augusti".</span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;">Indeed from the 1st century BC the Bekaa valley served as a source of grain for the [[Roman province]]s of the [[Levant]] and even for the same [[Rome]] (today the valley makes up to 40 percent of Lebanon's [[arable land]]): Roman colonists created there even a "country district" with Pagus Augustus, where are located the famous [[Roman Niha temples]] with latin inscriptions. This district reached the [[Kadisha valley]] in the north Lebanon<ref>In the Aassi Hauqqa cave -near [[Hawqa]] and the "Cedar Forest" of UNESCO- have been found vestiges of Roman presence</ref>, where the [[Maronites]] took refuge in the eight century<ref>[https://twitter.com/TSerhal/status/1170217708039888896/photo/1 Kadisha valley map]</ref>.</span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;">{{Blockquote|''Of special interest is the material from Niha, in the Beqa valley, where a series of inscriptions in Latin records the existence of a sanctuary of the Syrian Goddess of Niha’, Hadaranes, or Atargatis. One of those mentions the "Pagus Augustus", presumably an association of Latin-speaking Roman citizens which will have been settled there at the time of the foundation of the Roman colony. At this sanctuary some evidence of social integration has been detected. The sanctuary preserved its indigenous character, and the gods did not receive Graeco-Roman names. In contrast to the sanctuary at Heliopolis itself, the priests and prophetesses were peregrini, but the inscriptions also mention at least six Roman citizens and their relatives. A sanctuary nearby is identified by a dedication in Latin to the god Mifsenus.''Benjamin Isaac<ref>Benjamin Isaac."Latin in cities of the Roman Near East". Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, 2017</ref>}}</span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;">The language -according to historians like Fergus Millar- was Latin: in the area of the Augustus Pagus (around [[Hosn Niha]]) there it is an inscription in Latin on behalf of the emperor to the "Dea Suria Nihatena".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=IA-YlZqHv90C&pg=PA282&lpg=PA282&dq=pagus+augustus+in+lebanon&source=bl&ots=-Oq3C7So5a&sig=ACfU3U2T9oq140U7bKZx6cL6RRV0RRzJ-A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjp2bzq-un2AhVGmeAKHf4fBB84FBDoAXoECCcQAw#v=onepage&q=pagus%20augustus%20in%20lebanon&f=false F. Millar."The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337". Pagus Augustus; p. 282]</ref></span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;">When the spread of [[Christianity]] hit pagan Heliopolis (actual Baalbeck) with its huge temples, all the pagan Roman colonists from there took refuge in the area of Pagus Augusti.</span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;">This Pagus lasted some centuries until the Arab conquest of the region in the seventh century. Actually some villages exist in the area: the most important is Niha, where can be seen the remains of roman temples.<ref>[https://books.openedition.org/ifpo/docannexe/image/1456/img-9.jpg Image of how was the Upper Great Temple of Hosn Niha]</ref></span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;">==See also==</span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;">* [[Roman Phoenicia]]</span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;">* [[Berytus]]</span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;">* [[Hosn Niha]]</span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;">* [[Roman Niha temples]]</span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;">==Notes==</span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;"><references/></span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;">==Bibliography==</span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;">*J.-P. Rey-Coquais, ‘Des montagnes au désert: Baetocécé, le Pagus Augustus de Niha, la Ghouta à l’Est de Damas’, in E. Frézouls (ed.), Sociétés urbaines, sociétés rurales dans l’Asie Mineure et la Syrie hellénistiques et romaines, Actes du colloque organisé à Strasbourg (novembre 1985) (Strasbourg, 1987), 191–216, esp. 198–207, pls. II–IV, 1</span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;">*Mann, J.C. ''[http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1348920/1/336598.pdf The settlement of veterans in the Roman Empire]'' London University. London, 1956</span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;">*Millar F. ''The Roman Near East: 31 BC-AD 337'' (Carl Newell Jackson Lectures). Harvard University Press. Harvard, 1995</span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;">*Mommsen, Theodore. ''The Provinces of the Roman Empire from Caesar to Diocletian''. Press Holdings International. New York, 2004. {{ISBN|9781410211675}}</span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;">{{Roman Archaeological sites in Beirut & Lebanon}}</span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;">{{Archaeological sites in Lebanon}}</span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;">[[Category:Roman sites in Lebanon]]</span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;">[[Category:Lebanon in the Roman era]]</span></span></div></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 20px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><br /></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 20px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
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<a href="https://www.academia.edu/10219060/Aperçus_of_the_History_of_Balkan_Romanity" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font: 12px verdana, "Times New Roman", Arial, sans-serif; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="https://www.academia.edu/10219060/Aperçus_of_the_History_of_Balkan_Romanity">https://www.academia.edu/10219060/Aperç...</a></div>
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URBANIZACION LA FLORIDA</div>
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{| cellpadding="1" style="float:right; border:1px solid #88a; background:#f7f8ff; padding:5px; font-size: 95%; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em; width:250px"<br />
|+'''Urbanización La Florida'''<br />
|colspan=2|<br />
|-<br />
| bgcolor="#c6c6c6" align="center" colspan="2" | [[Archivo:Urbanización Los Caobos, Luis Roche, 1949.jpg|thumb|400px|"La Florida" fue construida a lado de "Los Caobos", a los pies del Avila]]<br />
|-<br />
|País||[[Venezuela]]<br />
|-<br />
|Entidad||[[Distrito Capital (Venezuela)|Distrito Capital]]<br />
|-<br />
|Municipio||[[Municipio Libertador de Caracas|Libertador]]<br />
|-<br />
|Superficie||10 km<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
|Población||align right|casi 40.000 hab.(2009)<br />
|-<br />
|Página web||align right| <a href="http://www.caracas.gov.ve/" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font: 12px verdana, "Times New Roman", Arial, sans-serif; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://www.caracas.gov.ve/">http://www.caracas.gov.ve/</a> Alcaldía de Libertador]<br />
|}</div>
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La '''Urbanización La Florida''' es una lujosa urbanización situada en la [[Parroquia El Recreo (Caracas)|Parroquia El Recreo]] del [[Municipio Libertador de Caracas|Municipio Libertador]] al este de [[Caracas]] y es un importante foco financiero, comercial, turístico y cultural dentro de la ciudad. Mapa ( <a href="https://www.google.es/maps/place/La+Florida,+Caracas,+Venezuela/" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font: 12px verdana, "Times New Roman", Arial, sans-serif; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="https://www.google.es/maps/place/La+Florida,+Caracas,+Venezuela/">https://www.google.es/maps/place/La+Flor...</a>])</div>
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== Características ==</div>
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Es una de las zonas comerciales y residenciales más importantes de Caracas. <a href="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:aS2iJSB9mjwJ:www.scielo.org.ve/pdf/te/v19n52/art05.pdf+&cd=54&hl=es&ct=clnk&gl=es" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font: 12px verdana, "Times New Roman", Arial, sans-serif; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:aS2iJSB9mjwJ:www.scielo.org.ve/pdf/te/v19n52/art05.pdf+&cd=54&hl=es&ct=clnk&gl=es">http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se...</a> Historia del desarrollo de Caracas] Se encuentra rodeada -a grandes rasgos- al norte por la "Alta Florida", al este por "El Country Club" y "[[Altamira (Caracas)|Altamira]]", al sur por "[[Bulevar de Sabana Grande|Sabana Grande]]" y al oeste por "San Bernardino", "Los Caobos" y el "Casco Central de Caracas". A dos escasos kms se encuentra la [[Plaza Venezuela]] y el puente sobre la [[Autopista Francisco Fajardo|autopista Fajardo]] hacia la [[Universidad Central de Venezuela]].</div>
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La Urbanización La Florida tiene muy buenas comunicaciones, gracias al hecho de estar ubicada entre la "Cota Mil" y la "Avenida Libertador" y de estar atravesada por la "Avenida Andres Bello" y la "Avenida Las Palmas". Hay dos estaciones del "[[Metro de Caracas|Metro]]" caraqueño a medio km de distancia, cerca de la "[[Plaza Venezuela (metro de Caracas)|Plaza Venezuela]]" y de la "[[Sabana Grande (metro de Caracas)|Calle Real de Sabana Grande]]".</div>
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== Historia ==</div>
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Originariamente el área donde hoy se levanta la Urbanización La Florida era una Hacienda cafetalera. En la época de [[Juan Vicente Gómez|Gómez]] empezó la edificación de algunas casas y edificios cerca del [[Río Guaire]] en lo que hoy es la parte superior de [[Sabana Grande]] al lado de la "Avenida Libertador".</div>
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En 1946 fue creada la "Comisión Nacional de Urbanismo", la cual propuso el "Plan regulador de Caracas" de 1951 como evolución y ampliación del "Plan Monumental de Caracas" de principios de siglo. Este nuevo plan incorporó un grupo de ideas modernas (escuelas de [[Le Corbusier]] y de “los Racionalistas”), trazando las grandes avenidas y autopistas actuales de Caracas. La zona de La Florida fue establecida como ''Residencial de quintas de 500 metros cuadrados o más''. Según Martín FrechillaPlanos, Planes y Proyectos para Venezuela, de Martín Frechilla ( <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Tb396l6um0cC&pg=PA301&lpg=PA301&dq=Mart%C3%ADn+Frechilla+en+caracas&source=bl&ots=N_YD7EG2ct&sig=7C_zpsgNWy6NFY1BHx8vQoZOIz4&hl=en&sa=X&ei=tGo6VY2EOoGdgwTnsYHgBw&ved=0CGMQ6AEwDw#v=onepage&q=Mart%C3%ADn%20Frechilla%20en%20caracas&f=false" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font: 12px verdana, "Times New Roman", Arial, sans-serif; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=Tb396l6um0cC&pg=PA301&lpg=PA301&dq=Mart%C3%ADn+Frechilla+en+caracas&source=bl&ots=N_YD7EG2ct&sig=7C_zpsgNWy6NFY1BHx8vQoZOIz4&hl=en&sa=X&ei=tGo6VY2EOoGdgwTnsYHgBw&ved=0CGMQ6AEwDw#v=onepage&q=Mart%C3%ADn%20Frechilla%20en%20caracas&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=Tb396l...</a> Urbanismo europeo en Caracas]) en esta zonificación la Urbanización La Florida quedó en la zona o comunidad N° 4 con San Bernardino, El Bosque y Sabana Grande: fue poblada por la creciente burguesía rica.</div>
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El magnate Roche la desarrolló, creando uno de los mejores "Clubs" <a href="http://mariafsigillo.blogspot.com/2012_06_01_archive.html" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font: 12px verdana, "Times New Roman", Arial, sans-serif; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://mariafsigillo.blogspot.com/2012_06_01_archive.html">http://mariafsigillo.blogspot.com/2012_0...</a> El Club La Florida] de la sociedad pudiente caraqueña. Actualmente en esos terrenos se levanta la monumental ''Iglesia de la Chiquinquirá''. <a href="https://ssl.panoramio.com/photo/79864707" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font: 12px verdana, "Times New Roman", Arial, sans-serif; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="https://ssl.panoramio.com/photo/79864707">https://ssl.panoramio.com/photo/79864707</a> Foto de la Iglesia de Chiquinquirá. En el lado izquierdo de la foto se nota la Urbanización La Florida (y Alta Florida) a los pies del Avila]</div>
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{{Quote|''Uno de los atractivos de La Florida fue su Club, con su inmensa piscina y donde se realizaron numerosos campeonatos de natación. Con el tiempo el club dio paso al Instituto Escuela y posteriormente el terreno lo adquirieron los padres capuchinos, orden que erigió en ese lugar la monumental iglesia de la Chiquinquirá y el colegio San Antonio.'' Jose Jacobi <a href="http://www.automotriz.net/historia/la-florida.html" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font: 12px verdana, "Times New Roman", Arial, sans-serif; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://www.automotriz.net/historia/la-florida.html">http://www.automotriz.net/historia/la-fl...</a> La Florida: Una urbanización a 7 minutos de la Plaza Bolívar]}}</div>
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Parece (aunque hay otras opiniones) que el nombre le fue dado por la esposa italiana de Luis Roche, Beatrice, que era amante de las flores y quería una urbanización llena de flores, que en italiano se dice "florida" (con acento en la "o"): en efecto la propaganda inicial de la urbanización en construcción indicaba que era "un jardín de Caracas". <a href="http://www.gustavopierral.net/?p=15389" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font: 12px verdana, "Times New Roman", Arial, sans-serif; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://www.gustavopierral.net/?p=15389">http://www.gustavopierral.net/?p=15389</a> Un jardín en Caracas]<br />
[[Archivo:Iglesia de La Chiquinquira 2000 000.jpg|thumb|right|250px|La Iglesia de la Chiquinquirá se levanta donde existía el "Club La Florida"]]<br />
A principios de los años sesenta la Urbanización La Florida empezó a llenarse de edificios de lujo y estaba poblada principalmente por europeos ([[Italo-venezolanos|Italianos]], [[Ibero-venezolano|Españoles-Portugueses]] y [[Historia de los judíos en Venezuela|Judíos de Europa centro-oriental]]).{{cita web|url=http://researchomnia.blogspot.com/2012_02_01_archive.html|título=Estudio sobre los aspectos étnico-somáticos de los venezolanos en 1981}} La presencia de Italianos y sus descendientes era muy numerosa hasta los años ochenta y noventa, al punto de que en la parte alta de la urbanización se encuentra el único colegio oficialmente italiano de Venezuela: el "Agustin Codazzi". <a href="http://www.mantovaninelmondo.com/Associazione/notizie/2004/venezuela10.htm" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font: 12px verdana, "Times New Roman", Arial, sans-serif; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://www.mantovaninelmondo.com/Associazione/notizie/2004/venezuela10.htm">http://www.mantovaninelmondo.com/Associa...</a> Comunicado 2 (en italiano)] <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Asyit5bgSI" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font: 12px verdana, "Times New Roman", Arial, sans-serif; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Asyit5bgSI">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Asyit5b...</a> Video de Navidad en el Codazzi]</div>
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Actualmente tiene cerca de 40.000 habitantes, siendo una de las urbanizaciones de Caracas con mas verde por habitante. La parte superior de la urbanización, que se llama ''San Rafael de la Florida'', <a href="https://ssl.panoramio.com/photo/64788459" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font: 12px verdana, "Times New Roman", Arial, sans-serif; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="https://ssl.panoramio.com/photo/64788459">https://ssl.panoramio.com/photo/64788459</a> Foto de la iglesia de San Rafael de la Florida] ha sido declarada "vinculada" y no se permiten edificios: es la única que ha quedado inalterada -con quintas muy bellas- desde los tiempos de Luis Roche. Un promotor de esta acción conservacionista fue el presidente [[Jaime Lusinchi]] (que vivía desde joven en una de estas quintas).</div>
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== Notas ==</div>
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== Bibliografía ==<br />
* Almandoz, Arturo. ''Urbanismo europeo en Caracas (1870-1940)''. "Fundación para la Cultura Urbana (# 53)". Ed. Equinoccio. Caracas, 2006 ISBN 980655356X<br />
* Carballo Perichi, C. (1991), ''Los últimos días de aquella de los techos rojos, o los ‘planes’ antes del ‘plan’''; en AAVV. "El Plan Rotival. La Caracas que no fue 1939-1989. Un plan urbano para Caracas". Caracas: UCV, Instituto de Urbanismo, pp. 49-72.<br />
* Polanco Alcántara, Tomás. ''Historia de Caracas''. Ed. Academia Nacional de la Historia. Caracas, 1995<br />
* Díaz Sejias, Pedro. ''Caracas, la gentil: biografía de una ciudad''. editorial [[El Nacional (Venezuela)|El Nacional]]. Caracas, 2005</div>
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== Vease también ==<br />
* [[Caracas]]<br />
* [[Parroquia El Recreo (Caracas)]]<br />
* [[Altamira (Caracas)]]<br />
* [[Los Palos Grandes]]<br />
* [[Las Mercedes (Caracas)|Las Mercedes]]</div>
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[[Categoría:Distrito metropolitano de Caracas]]<br />
[[Categoría:Urbanizaciones de Caracas]]<br />
[[Categoría:Caracas]]<br />
[[Categoría:Municipio Libertador (Caracas)]]<br />
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GOBERNACION DE SOMALIA</div>
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[[File:Coat of arms of Italian Somaliland governorate.svg|thumb|right|200px|Escudo del ''Governorato della Somalia'']]</div>
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La '''Gobernación de Somalia''' (''Governorato della Somalia'', en [[Idioma italiano|italiano]]) fue una de las 6 provincias, en las cuales se subdividía el [[África Oriental Italiana]], como parte del [[Imperio colonial italiano|Imperio Italiano]]. </div>
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==Datos generales==</div>
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Corresponde, en gran medida al territorio ocupado por la actual [[Somalia]], más una parte correspondiente al sur de la actual [[Etiopía]] (región de [[Ogaden]]). </div>
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El territorio existió desde 1936 hasta 1941, con una población de casi 1.200.000 habitantes y con capital administrativa en [[Mogadishu]]. En 1936, la capital tenia una población 50.000 habitantes, de lo cuales casi 20.000 eran [[Italianos]]. <a href="http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/1/Santoianni_Progettazione_Architettonica.pdf" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font: 12px verdana, "Times New Roman", Arial, sans-serif; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/1/Santoianni_Progettazione_Architettonica.pdf">http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/1/Santoia...</a> Italian arquitecture in Somalia (in Italian)] </div>
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== Subdivisiones ==</div>
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La Gobernación de Eritrea estaba formada por los Comisariados (oficialmente llamados ''Commissariati'' en italiano) de:</div>
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*Commissariato dell'Alto Giuba<br />
*Commissariato del Basso Giuba<br />
*Commissariato dell'Alto Scebeli<br />
*Commissariato del Basso Scebeli<br />
*Commissariato della Migiurtinia<br />
*Commissariato di Mogadiscio<br />
*Commissariato del Mudugh<br />
*Commissariato del Nogal</div>
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== Gobernadores ==</div>
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* 22 May 1936 - 24 May 1936: Angelo De Ruben<br />
* 24 May 1936 - 15 December 1937: Ruggiero Santini<br />
* 15 December 1937 - 11 June 1940: Francesco Saveno Caroselli<br />
* 11 June 1940 t - 31 December 1940: Gustavo Pesenti<br />
* 31 December 1940 - 9 March 1941: Carlo De Simone</div>
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==Notas==</div>
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== Véase también ==<br />
* [[Historia de Somalia]]<br />
* [[Imperio de Etiopía]]<br />
* [[Organización territorial del África Oriental Italiana]]<br />
* [[Africa Oriental Italiana]]</div>
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==Bibliografía==<br />
* ''Annuario Generale 1938-XVI , Consociazione Turistica Italiana, [[Milano]], [[1938]]''</div>
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[[Categoría:África Oriental Italiana]]<br />
[[Categoría:Historia de Somalia]]</div>
<b></b><i></i><u></u><sub></sub><sup></sup><strike></strike><br />mappista59http://www.blogger.com/profile/17629549463392207787noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-508143919763220478.post-12844895197621334732019-09-20T10:49:00.002-07:002019-09-20T10:53:08.517-07:00MORE MEMORIES 4================================<br />
<a href="https://www.moduscc.it/i-blog/la-little-italy-di-tianjin-in-cina-17094-030516/" target="_blank" title="https://www.moduscc.it/i-blog/la-little-italy-di-tianjin-in-cina-17094-030516/">https://www.moduscc.it/i-blog/la-little-...</a> Articolo su Tientsin italiana con video del 1936(OTTIMO)<br />
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VITTORIO D'AFRICA<br />
'''Vittorio d'Africa ''' was a small town in southern [[Italian Somalia]], created by Italian colonists in the 1920s. <a href="http://images.delcampe.com/img_large/auction/000/263/923/923_001.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://images.delcampe.com/img_large/auction/000/263/923/923_001.jpg">http://images.delcampe.com/img_large/auc...</a> Map showing Vittorio d'Africa (green area was the farm concessions)]<br />
==History==<br />
The [[Genale Dam|Genale dam]] on the river [[Shebelle]], together with an extensive network of canals, was built in the south of [[Somalia]] in the late 1920s. It was strongly promoted by [[Cesare Maria De Vecchi]] -Italian governor of [[Italian Somalia]] from 1924 to 1928- in order to provide water for irrigation of a vast territory of 20000 hectares between [[Genale Dorya|Genale]], [[Merca]] and Vittorio d'Africa, to be given in concession to [[Italian Somalians|colonists]].<br />
One hundred of those colonists created in the south of the Genale concessions a small city named "Vittorio d'Africa", that had a population of nearly 1200 inhabitants in 1940. It was located 11 kms from [[Merca]]. The city was linked to the [[Port of Merca]] by a [[decauville]] railway <a href="http://www.internetculturale.it/jmms/iccuviewer/iccu.jsp?id=oai%3Awww.internetculturale.sbn.it%2FTeca%3A20%3ANT0000%3ARM0255_DIG_2234&mode=all&teca=MagTeca+-+ICCU" target="_blank" title="http://www.internetculturale.it/jmms/iccuviewer/iccu.jsp?id=oai%3Awww.internetculturale.sbn.it%2FTeca%3A20%3ANT0000%3ARM0255_DIG_2234&mode=all&teca=MagTeca+-+ICCU">http://www.internetculturale.it/jmms/icc...</a> Decauville Station], used to transport the huge production of bananas of the farms around Vittorio d'Africa <a href="http://www.postcardman.net/somalia/257566.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.postcardman.net/somalia/257566.jpg">http://www.postcardman.net/somalia/25756...</a> Aerial view of some "banana farms"].<br />
In 1929 was created in the city a special processing building (called "sgranatoio" in [[Italian language|Italian]]) where the [[cotton]] produced in the concessions was selected before the shipping to Italy. Given the importance of the area it was created, from the administrative point of view, the ''Vicecommissariato di Genale'' with Vittorio d'Africa as capital, where some industrial activities were focused also for the processing & shipping of agricultural products. <a href="https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/6b/27/84/6b2784154d17f9ecb08800a0674b95f5.jpg" target="_blank" title="https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/6b/27/84/6b2784154d17f9ecb08800a0674b95f5.jpg">https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736...</a> Foto of "sgranatoio" building in Vittorio d'Africa] <br />
During [[WW2]] in Vittorio d'Africa was done by the Italians the last battle against the British army before the Allied attacked [[Mogadiscio]] in 1941: because of this fight the small city suffered heavy damages. After the war all the Italians moved away and the farm production dwindled, reducing the city to a kind of [[ghost town]]. <br />
Actually is growing in the area of the disappeared Vittorio d'Africa a small village of Somalis, called ''Shalam boot''.<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* De Vecchi di Val Cismon, Cesare. ''Relazione sul progetto di Bilancio della Somalia Italiana per l'esercizio finanziario 1927-1928''.<br />
* Tripodi, Paolo. ''The Colonial Legacy in Somalia''. St. Martin's P Inc. New York, 1999.<br />
* <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gfg12XlAIqo" target="_blank" title="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gfg12XlAIqo">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gfg12XlA...</a> Video showing some colonists of Vittorio d'Africa in 1938 (in Italian)]<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Genale Dam]]<br />
*[[Mogadiscio]]<br />
*[[Genale Dorya|Genale]]<br />
*[[Villabruzzi]]<br />
*[[Italian Somalia]]<br />
{{Somalia italiana (Colonia)}}<br />
[[Category:Populated places in Lower Shebelle]]<br />
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<a href="http://www.ssmaritime.com/sitmar0.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.ssmaritime.com/sitmar0.htm">http://www.ssmaritime.com/sitmar0.htm</a> CATELVERDE (con foto cabina passeggeri ed oblo'.....ricordi, ricordi, ricordi.....)<br />
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<a href="http://www.corriere.it/salute/cards/addominali-esercizi-giusti-avere-pancia-piatta-senza-mal-schiena/contrazione-isometrica-addome.shtml" target="_blank" title="http://www.corriere.it/salute/cards/addominali-esercizi-giusti-avere-pancia-piatta-senza-mal-schiena/contrazione-isometrica-addome.shtml">http://www.corriere.it/salute/cards/addo...</a> esercizi per ridurre pancia senza mal di schiena<br />
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[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-782-0013-35, Agedabia, Soldaten in Ortschaft.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Litoranea Balbo at [[Ajdabiya]], showing Italian and German soldiers nearby]]<br />
The '''Litoranea Balbo''', or "Via Balbia", was a highway running the entire length of the coast in the colony of [[Italian Libya]].<br />
==History== <br />
The Litoranea (or Via) Balbia was created in 1937G. Pini, La rete stradale dell’Impero in “Africa Italiana”, dicembre 1939, n. 12. It was used to improve the economy and viability of the Italian colony of Libya. At the end it was useful for the AXIS attacks on [[Egypt]] in 1940.<br />
The road was built from [[Tunisia]]'s border to [[Egypt]] 's border and was continued in 1940 by the [[Via della Vittoria]] inside western Egypt.<br />
When was created was fully asphalted and with gas stations every 40 kms. Near the cities was enlarged to allow emergency stops. At the center of Litoranea Balbo (at the limit between [[Italian Cyrenaica|Cyrenaica]] and [[Italian Tripolitania|Tripolitania]]) there was the [[Marble Arch (Libya)|Arch of Fileni]], ordered by [[Mussolini]] as a symbol of his colonial expansions.<br />
In the central section of the Litoranea Balbo was supposed to be built -bordering the road- the new railway connecting [[Tripoli]] and [[Benghazi]]. But only a few dozen kms were created of this railroad, because [[WWII]] stopped the construction.<br />
==Notes==<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Via della Vittoria]]<br />
* [[Italian Libya]]<br />
* [[Marble Arch (Libya)]]<br />
{{Italian Libya}}<br />
[[Category:Italian Libya]]<br />
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<a href="http://archive.archaeology.org/1107/features/beirut_lebanon_urban_archaeology.html" target="_blank" title="http://archive.archaeology.org/1107/features/beirut_lebanon_urban_archaeology.html">http://archive.archaeology.org/1107/feat...</a> REBUILDING BEIRUT (Roman walls evidences, etc...)<br />
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<strong>ROMANS AND NUBIA</strong><br />
[[File:Amun Tempel Barkal SW.jpg|thumb|right|400px|The Amu temple in [[Napata]] was destroyed by the Romans in 22 BC]]<br />
'''Romans and Nubia''' was a relationship and interaction that lasted nearly seven centuries, from the first century BC to the sixth century AD.<br />
==History==<br />
Nubia is an historical region around the [[Nile]] river, just south of Egypt, that actually is called [[Sudan]]. Before Roman times there was in Nubia the [[Kingdom of Kush|Kingdom of Meroe]], that flourished together with the civilization of ancient Egypt.<br />
[[Rome]]'s conquest of [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] led to border skirmishes and incursions by [[Meroë]] beyond the [[Roman empire|Roman borders]]. In 23 BC the Roman governor of Egypt, [[Gaius Petronius|Publius Petronius]], to end the Meroitic raids, invaded Nubia in response to a Nubian attack on southern Egypt, pillaging the north of the region and sacking Napata (22 BC) before returning home. In retaliation, the Nubians crossed the lower border of Egypt and looted many statues (among other things) from the Egyptian towns near the first cataract of the Nile at Aswan. Roman forces later reclaimed many of the statues intact, and others were returned following the peace treaty signed in 22 BC between Rome and Meroe. One looted head though, from a statue of the emperor [[Augustus]], was buried under the steps of a temple.{{cite web|url=http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/gr/b/bronze_head_of_augustus.aspx|title=Bronze head of Augustus|publisher=[[British Museum]]|year=1999|accessdate=2008-06-14}}<br />
In "[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti|The Deeds of the Divine Augustus]]," Augustus claims that "a penetration was made as far as the town of Napata, which is next to Meroe..."Augustus, "The Deeds of the Divine Augustus," ''Exploring the European Past: Texts & Images'', Second Edition, ed. Timothy E. Gregory (Mason: Thomson, 2008), 119.<br />
Meroe eventually settled down to a healthy trading relationship with Rome and the [[Mediterranean]]. However, the Kingdom of Meroe began to fade as a power by the 1st or 2nd century AD, sapped by the war with Roman Egypt, the decline of its traditional industries{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/3chapter4.shtml |title="Nubia", ''BBC World Service'' |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2012-09-06}} and the increasingly destructive attacks from the [[Blemmyes]].<br />
Indeed at the end of the 2nd century AD, the [[Nobatae]] occupied the Nile's west bank in northern Kush. They are believed to have been one of several well-armed bands of horse- and camel-borne warriors who sold their vagility to the Meroitic Population for protection; eventually they intermarried and established themselves among the Meroitic people as a military aristocracy. Until nearly the 5th century, Rome subsidized the Nobatae and used Meroe as a buffer between Egypt and the Blemmyes. Meanwhile, the old Meroitic kingdom contracted because of the expansion of the powerful [[Ethiopic]] [[Kingdom of Aksum]] to the east. By AD 350, King [[Ezana of Axum]] had captured and destroyed Meroe city, ending the kingdom's independent existence, and conquering its territory into modern-day northern Sudan.<br />
==Rome's Client State?==<br />
Nubia was never dominated by the Romans, but in [[Augustus]] times there was a possible "Client State" of Rome in northern Nubia.<br />
Indeed [[Strabo]] describes a war with the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] in the 1st century BC. After the initial victories of [[Kandake]] (or "Candace") [[Amanirenas]] against [[Roman Egypt]], the [[Kushites]] of northern [[Nubia]] were defeated and [[Napata]] sacked. <a href="http://afraf.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/XXVIII/CIX/55.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://afraf.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/XXVIII/CIX/55.pdf">http://afraf.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/repr...</a> Arthur E. Robinson, "The Arab Dynasty of Dar For (Darfur): Part II", ''Journal of the Royal African Society'' (Lond). XXVIII: 55-67 (October, 1928)] Remarkably, the destruction of the capital of Napata was not a crippling blow to the Kushites and did not frighten Candace enough to prevent her from again engaging in combat with the Roman military. Indeed, it seems that [[Gaius Petronius|Petronius's]] attack might have had a revitalizing influence on the kingdom. Just three years later, in 22 BC, a large Kushite force moved northward with intention of attacking Qasr Ibrim. Alerted to the advance, Petronius again marched south and managed to reach Qasr Ibrim and bolster its defences before the invading Kushites arrived. Although the ancient sources give no description of the ensuing battle, we know that at some point the Kushites sent ambassadors to negotiate a peace settlement with Petronius and possibly accept a status like "Client State" of Rome. By the end of the second campaign after other years of fighting, however, Petronius was in no mood to deal further with the Kushites.{{r|jackson2002}}{{rp|149}} The Kushites succeeded in negotiating a peace treaty on favourable terms. and trade between the two nations increased.{{r|jackson2002}}{{rp|149}}<br />
It is possible that the Roman emperor [[Nero]] planned another attempt to fully conquer Kush before his death in 68 AD.{{cite book | title=At Empire's Edge: Exploring Rome's Egyptian Frontier | publisher=Yale University Press | author=Jackson, Robert B. | year=2002 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=pkBctdZcn84C&printsec=frontcover | isbn=0300088566}}{{rp|150-151}} Kush began to fade as a power by the 1st or 2nd century AD, sapped by the war with the Roman province of Egypt and the decline of its traditional industries. <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/1624_story_of_africa/page90.shtml" target="_blank" title="http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/1624_story_of_africa/page90.shtml">http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specia...</a> The Story of Africa| BBC World Service]<br />
In Nubia Christianity began to gain over the old phaoronic religion since the first contacts with Roman Christians, and by the mid-sixth century AD the Kingdom of Kush/Meroe was dissolved substituted by the kingdoms of [[Makuria]], [[Nobadia]], and [[Alodia]].<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Edwards, David N. (2004). ''The Nubian Past''. London: Routledge. pp. 348 Pages. ISBN 0-415-36987-8.<br />
*Leclant, Jean (2004). ''The empire of Kush: Napata and Meroe''. London: UNESCO. pp. 1912 Pages. ISBN 1-57958-245-1.<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[History of Sudan]]<br />
* [[Roman Egypt]]<br />
* [[Gaius Petronius]]<br />
{{Territories with limited Roman Empire occupation & presence}}<br />
[[Category:Ancient Rome]]<br />
[[Category:Nubia]]<br />
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<a href="http://books.google.it/books?id=U7tUzTUYK6kC&pg=PA141&dq=Valerio+Festo++nel+sahara&hl=it&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4#v=onepage&q=Valerio%20Festo%20%20nel%20sahara&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.it/books?id=U7tUzTUYK6kC&pg=PA141&dq=Valerio+Festo++nel+sahara&hl=it&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4#v=onepage&q=Valerio%20Festo%20%20nel%20sahara&f=false">http://books.google.it/books?id=U7tUzTUY...</a><br />
<a href="http://www.google.com/search?q=roman+coins+in+jutland&hl=en&ei=Cz3TUbH3GKet0AGIlIGQCA&start=20&sa=N&biw=1024&bih=723" target="_blank" title="http://www.google.com/search?q=roman+coins+in+jutland&hl=en&ei=Cz3TUbH3GKet0AGIlIGQCA&start=20&sa=N&biw=1024&bih=723">http://www.google.com/search?q=roman+coi...</a> Jutland in Roman era<br />
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<strong>ROMA EXPEDITIONS TO LAKE CHAD AND WESTERN BLACK AFRICA</strong><br />
[[File:Trans-Saharan routes early.svg|thumb|250px|Map of the main areas explored]]<br />
'''Roman expeditions to lake Chad and western black Africa''' were the first explorations done by [[Roman Empire|Romans]] into sub-saharan Africa.<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
These explorations were carried out in conjunction with the creation of the [[Roman limes]] in North Africa.<br />
After the consolidation of Roman power in the [[Mediterranean]] Africa, between [[146 BC]] and [[42 BC]], a friction began with the warlike nomadic tribes of the [[Garamantes]], who lived in the current region of [[Fezzan]], a large area of the [[Sahara Desert]] associated with the current [[Libya]]. The Garamantes lived from [[trade]] and were intermediaries between the sub-Saharan region (present-day states of [[Niger]], [[Chad]], [[Sudan]], [[Mali]], [[Burkina Faso]] , [[Benin]]) and the Greek Mediterranean possessions in [[Cyrenaica]] and [[Carthage]] (which was replaced by [[Rome]] at the end of [[Third Punic War]] as the main economic power in the region).<br />
Since the duty tax that these nomads imposed on goods in transit was increasingly burdensome, Roman traders asked and obtained a sort of "punitive expedition" against the Garamantes. [[Garama]] was the capital of the kingdom of the Garamantes and corresponds to today's city of [[Ger]], known to both the Greeks and the Romans from the chronicles of the historians [[Herodotus]], [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] and [[Tacitus]]. The aim of this expedition done in 19 BC by consul Balbus was the Roman conquest of this city, the elimination of the fees payable to the nomads of the Sahara, as well as the possible conquest of the caravan routes by the Romans.<br />
Another expedition was done some years later by [[Gaius Suetonius Paulinus]]: in [[41 AD]] he went to what is now southern [[Maroc]] (former [[Spanish Sahara]]) and [[Mauretania]]. Indeed he reached the northern area of the [[Senegal river]] and probably the western Niger river's affluents.<br />
Furthermore lake Chad was reached by two roman expeditions: the one of Septimius Flaccus in [[50 AD]], followed a few years later by the one of Julius Maternus.<br />
==History==<br />
There were four Roman expeditions in western Africa and lake Chad, under the leadership of Balbus, Paullinus, Flaccus and Maternus:<br />
* ''Balbus expedition''.<br />
In [[19 BC]] [[Lucius Cornelius Balbus the Younger|Lucius Cornelius Balbus]] defeated the [[Garamantes]], and on March 27 in that year received the honor of a triumph, which was then for the first time granted to one who was not a Roman citizen by birth (and for the last time to a private individual, until the triumph of [[Belisarius]] in 534). He later built a [[Museo Nazionale Romano#Crypta Balbi|magnificent theatre]] at Rome, which was dedicated on the return of Augustus from [[Gaul]] in 13 BC{{harvnb|Chisholm|1911|loc=Balbus}} cites [[Dio Cassius]] liv. 25; [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]], ''Nat. Hist.'' xxxvi. 12. 60.<br />
According to Plinius this expedition started with the conquest of [[Gadames]] and later of Rapsa, actual [[Ghat]]. After the conquest of [[Garama]] and surrounding area, Plinius wrote that the Roman legionaries went further south to the [[Tassili]] mountains: the [[Legio III Augusta]] of Cornelius Balbus reached the oasis of Bistra in southern [[Algeria]], and then reached Alasi ([[Abalessa]] in the [[Ahaggar]]) and Balsa (actual Ilezy), until some rivers then existing (but now disappeared) like the Dasibari river. According to the scholar [[Henri Lhote]], Balbus probably used the old "road of carts", an old caravan route on the east side of the Bahr Attla, the "Atlantis sea", named even in the [[Bible]]. Along this road there are some stone inscription showing the Garamantes charriots. The Romans then crossed the Tamanrasset area on the actual border between Algeria and [[Niger]], and reached the [[river Niger]] near actual [[Gao]] after crossing the caravan center of [[Tadmekka|Tabemekka]] (in [[Mali]]). Some roman coins have been recently discovered in the Mali northern region, confirming this expedition Roman objects are, indeed, found in the Sahara, and, significantly, along the western caravan route. Numerous Roman artifacts have been found at the Garamantes’ capital of Germa in the Fezzan. There is evidence of Roman style irrigation being introduced and for at least some Garamantes adopting a sedentary and a town, if not urban, lifestyle. Most striking is the large Roman-syle mausoleum found there, evidence either of Roman presence or of Romanization of the elite. Between Germa and Ghat in the Hoggar have been found Roman ceramics, glass, jewelry and coins dating from the 1st to the 4th centuries. Farther down the route, at the oasis of Abelessa, is the site known locally as the Palace of Tin Hinan. There is a charming local legend about it, but it seems to have been a fortress, in one room of which was found the skeletal remains of a woman, along with a number of Late Roman objects, including a lamp, a golden bracelet and a 4th century coin. Finally, there was a cache of Roman coins found recently at Timissao, only 600 kilometers from the Niger river.Jonathan Roth. San Jose State University.<br />
* ''Paulinus expedition''.<br />
In the year [[41 AD]] Suetonius Paulinus went to roman [[Mauretania]] as ''[[legatus legionis]]'' to suppress a revolt. He was the first Roman to cross the [[Atlas Mountains]], and [[Pliny the Elder]] quotes his description of the area in his ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]''.<br />
{{Quote|''In the year 41 AD Suetonius Paulinus, afterwards Consul, was the first of the Romans who led an army across Mount Atlas. At the end of a ten days' march he reached the summit,—which even in summer was covered with snow,—and from thence, after passing a desert of black sand and burnt rocks, he arrived at a river called Gerj...he then penetrated into the country of the Canarii and Perorsi, the former of whom inhabited a woody region abounding in elephants and serpents, and the latter were Ethiopians, not far distant from the Pharusii and the river Daras (modern river Senegal)''The journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, Vol. 1-10. Royal Geographical Society (Great Britain). page 7<br />
}}<br />
Gaius Suetonius Paulinus with his expedition south of the Atlas mountains was one of the first European explorers of [[Sahara]]n Africa. Indeed from the first century after Christ there are evidences (coins, fibulas) of Roman commerce and contacts in Akjoujt and Tamkartkart near Tichit in actual Mauritania.<br />
*''Flaccus expedition''.<br />
During Augustus times [[lake Chad]] was a huge lake and two Roman expeditions were done in order to reach it: [[Septimius Flaccus]] and [[Julius Maternus]] reached the "lake of ippopotamus" (as was called the lake Chad by [[Ptolemy|Claudius Ptolomeus]]). They moved from coastal [[Tripolitania]] and passed near the [[Tibesti]] mountains. Both did their expeditions trough the [[Garamantes]] territories, and were able to leave a small garrison on the "lake of ippopotamus and rhinoceros" after 3 months of travel in desert lands.<br />
Ptolemy wrote that in [[50 AD]] Septimius Flaccus did his expedition in order to retaliate against nomad raiders who attacked [[Leptis Magna]], and reached [[Sebha]] and the territory of [[Aozou]]. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=LY5Lmc-To7cC&pg=PA26&lpg=PA26&dq=Julius+Maternus&source=bl&ots=c_B-BRikfW&sig=kJPT8BjjIZRqah3j22Dg4Sn7Erw&hl=en&ei=-dz5S_GWFoH6lweK45CFCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CCgQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Julius%20Maternus&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.com/books?id=LY5Lmc-To7cC&pg=PA26&lpg=PA26&dq=Julius+Maternus&source=bl&ots=c_B-BRikfW&sig=kJPT8BjjIZRqah3j22Dg4Sn7Erw&hl=en&ei=-dz5S_GWFoH6lweK45CFCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CCgQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Julius%20Maternus&f=false">http://books.google.com/books?id=LY5Lmc-...</a> Septimius Flaccus] He then reached the rivers Bahr Ergig, [[Chari River|Chari]] and [[Logone River|Logone]] in the lake Chad area, described as the "land of Ethiopes" (or black men).<br />
*''Maternus expedition''.<br />
Ptolomeus even wrote that around [[90 AD]] Julius Maternus did a mainly commercial expedition. From the [[Sirte]] gulf he reached the Oasis of [[Cufra]] and the Oasis of Archei, then arrived to the river [[Bahr Salamat]] and [[Bahr Aouk]], near the actual [[Central African republic]]. He went back to Rome with a rhinoceros with two horns, that was showed in the Colosseum.<br />
===Valerius Festus===<br />
Some historians believe that there was even a fifth Roman expedition to sub-saharan west Africa: the one of Valerius Festus.<br />
Indeed Plinius wrotePlinius the Elder. "Naturalis Historia", V, 5.36 that in [[70 AD]] a legatus of the [[Legio III Augusta]] named Festus repeated the Balbus expedition toward the Niger river. He went to the eastern [[Hoggar Mountains]] and the entered the [[Air Mountains]] until the [[Gadoufaoua]] plain (full of dinosaur fossils). Gadoufaoua (Touareg for “the place where camels fear to go”) is a site in the [[Tenere]] desert of [[Niger]] known for its extensive [[fossil]] graveyard, where remains of ''[[Sarcosuchus imperator]]'', popularly known as [[SuperCroc]], have been found. Festus finally arrived to the area were now there it is [[Timbouctou]]. But a few academics -like Fage- think that he only reached the [[Ghat, Libya|Ghat]] region in southern Libya <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ZTNTz3POoZUC&pg=PA286&lpg=PA286&dq=valerius+festus+in+libya&source=bl&ots=qU8iIgxt6t&sig=oHRF_f5ZWp2NL5kR-7yCCttZu74&hl=en&sa=X&ei=JEnUUd7dEILC0gG4vYCAAQ&ved=0CC0Q6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q=valerius%20festus%20in%20libya&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.com/books?id=ZTNTz3POoZUC&pg=PA286&lpg=PA286&dq=valerius+festus+in+libya&source=bl&ots=qU8iIgxt6t&sig=oHRF_f5ZWp2NL5kR-7yCCttZu74&hl=en&sa=X&ei=JEnUUd7dEILC0gG4vYCAAQ&ved=0CC0Q6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q=valerius%20festus%20in%20libya&f=false">http://books.google.com/books?id=ZTNTz3P...</a> Valerius Festus], near the border with southern [[Algeria]] and Niger (however it is possible that a few "explorers" of his legionaries reached the Niger river, like happened in the [[Roman exploration of the Nile river sources|Nile river exploration]] done under [[Nero emperor]]).<br />
==Note==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Coleman De Graft-Johnson, John. ''African glory: the story of vanished Negro civilizations''. Black Classic Press. New York, 1986 ISBN 0933121032<br />
* Fage, J.D. ''The Cambridge History of Africa'', Volume 2 (from 500 B.C. to A.D. 1050). Publisher Cambridge University Press, 1978. ISBN 0521215927<br />
* Mattern, Susan. ''Rome and the enemy: imperial strategy in the principate''. University of California Press. San Francisco, 2002 ISBN 0520236831<br />
* Miller, J. Innes. ''The Cinnamon Route in the Spice Trade of the Roman Empire''. University Press. Oxford, 1996 ISBN 0-19-814264-1<br />
* Murphy, Trevor (2004). ''Pliny the Elder's Natural History: the Empire in the Encyclopedia''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199262888.<br />
* Ramosino, Laura Cotta. ''Plinio il Vecchio e la tradizione storica di Roma nella Naturalis historia''. Edizioni del'Orso. Alessandria, 2004. ISBN 8876946950.<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Roman empire]]<br />
* [[Exploration of Africa]]<br />
* [[Roman exploration of the Nile river sources]]<br />
{{Territories with limited Roman Empire occupation & presence}}<br />
[[Category:Ancient Rome]]<br />
[[Category:Roman Empire]]<br />
[[it:Spedizione romana verso il lago Ciad]]<br />
====================================================<br />
<strong>TINGIS</strong><br />
(IMAGE: Ruins of Tingis)<br />
Tingis (current Tangier in Morocco) was an important Roman Colonia in Berber north-western Africa. Tingis gave the name to Mauretania Tingitana, a province of the Roman Empire of which Tingis was the capital.<br />
Contents [hide]<br />
1 History<br />
2 Notes<br />
3 Bibliography<br />
4 See also<br />
History[edit]<br />
The commercial Phoenician city of Thingis (Τιγγίς in Ancient Greek), came under Roman rule in the course of the 2nd century BC (146 BC). Later Tingis grew in importance first as a free city under Augustus, and then as a colony under Claudius who made Tingis capital of Mauritania "Tingitana" of Hispania.<br />
Indeed around 40 B.C. the city was a Roman Municipium [1] and later, according to Tacitus ([2]), under Caligula the former province of Mauretania was divided in Mauretania Caesariensis and Mauretania Tingitana, with Tingis capital of the second. Because of this new administrastive role, Tingis in 42 AD [3] was elevated by emperor Claudius to the highest city-level with the name Colonia Claudia Caesarea Tingi [4]<br />
Since then Tingis grew in importance and in the fourth century Tingis was the main Roman city of Mauretania Tingitana, bypassing Volubilis after that city remained south of the Roman limes and no more protected by the roman legions. The city in those years enjoyed huge development and importance, reaching 20,000 inhabitants (all fully romanized and mostly Christians).<br />
Tingis was famous in the Roman empire because of the fishing conserve industry. Under Septimius Severus were built two roman roads from Tingis: one on the Atlantic coast until Sala Colonia and the second in the mountainous interior toward Volubilis.[5]<br />
Icon of Saint Marcellus located in the Russian Orthodox Church of Rabat<br />
The Christian history of Tingis started during the second half of the first century, under emperor Claudius rule. Originally, the city was part of the larger province of Mauretania Caesariensis, which included much of Northern Roman Africa. Later the area was subdivided, with the eastern part keeping the former name and the newer part receiving the name of Mauretania Tingitana. It is not known exactly at what period there may have been an episcopal see at Tangier in ancient times, but in the early Middle Ages Tangier was used as a titular see (i.e., an honorific fiction for the appointment of curial and auxiliary bishops), placing it in Mauretania Tingitana. For the historical reasons given above, one official list of the Roman Curia places the see in Mauretania Caesarea.<br />
Towards the end of the third century, Tangier was the scene of the martyrdom of Saint Marcellus of Tangier,[6] mentioned in the Roman Martyrology on 30 October, and of St. Cassian, mentioned on 3 December. Indeed according to tradition, the martyrdom of St Marcellus took place on 28 July 298 at Tingis (Tangier). During the Emperor Diocletian's reform of Roman governmental structures in 296 AD, Mauretania Tingitana became part of the Diocese of Hispaniae, with capital Tingis. Since then and for all the fourth century, Tingis enjoyed a huge commercial development.<br />
In the fifth century AD, Vandals conquered and occupied Tingis around 425 AD and from there swept across Roman North Africa.<br />
A century later (between 534 and 682 AD), Tingis fell back to the Eastern Roman empire, before coming under Arab (Umayyad) control in 702 AD. Under Byzantine rule, Tingis was fortified and inside these walls was built a Christian church, but the economy shrank as stated by reduced local emission of coins found.[7] Due to its Christian past, it is still a titular see of the Roman Catholic Church.<br />
In 706 AD Moussa Ibn Noussair started organizing the invasion of Spain from Tingis and nearby Septem. Since then Tingis, reduced to a small city, remained -with the new name of Tangier- under Moslem Arab control for centuries, even if a small Christian community survived until the tenth century.<br />
Notes[edit]<br />
1.Jump up ^ Cass. Dio XLVIII 45.3<br />
2.Jump up ^ Ann. suppl. IX, 29<br />
3.Jump up ^ Tangier histoire (in French)<br />
4.Jump up ^ Ptol. IV, 1<br />
5.Jump up ^ Mueden Rachid: "Las colonias y municipios de la Mauretania Tingitana" Section: Tingis<br />
6.Jump up ^ Marcellus of Tingis<br />
7.Jump up ^ Cravioto Enrique: Roman coins in northern Mauretania Tingitana ( [1] )<br />
Bibliography[edit]<br />
Abensur, Philip. Tanger, entre Orient et Occident, photos, cartes postales anciennes et documents d'archives Éditions Alan Sutton. Paris, 2009 ISBN 2849108855<br />
Cravioto, Enrique. La circulación monetaria alto-imperial en el norte de la Mauretania Tingitana. Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha. Cuenca, 2007<br />
Ponsich, Michel. Recherches archéologiques à Tanger et dans sa région. Editions du C.N.R.S.. Paris, 1970<br />
Rachid, Mueden. Las colonias y municipios de la Mauretania Tingitana (Tingis, Zilis, Lixus, Banasa, Thamusida, Sala, Volubilis) University of Sevilla. Sevilla, 2010( <a href="http://0-hera.ugr.es.adrastea.ugr.es/tesisugr/19709298.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://0-hera.ugr.es.adrastea.ugr.es/tesisugr/19709298.pdf">http://0-hera.ugr.es.adrastea.ugr.es/tes...</a> )<br />
See also[edit]<br />
Portal icon Berbers portal<br />
Portal icon Ancient Rome portal<br />
Mauretania Tingitana<br />
Roman 'Coloniae' in Berber Africa<br />
Christian Berbers<br />
Septem<br />
Lixus<br />
Iulia Valentia Banasa<br />
Iulia Constantia Zilil<br />
Iulia Campestris Babba<br />
Tamuda<br />
Thamusida<br />
Rusadir<br />
Volubilis<br />
Sala Colonia<br />
Roman roads in Morocco<br />
Romano-Berber cities in Roman Africa<br />
Related articles<br />
Regnum Maurorum et Romanorum (Volubilis) ·<br />
Romano Berber states (Caesarea) ·<br />
Christian Berbers (Capsa) ·<br />
Roman colonies in Berber Africa (Leptis Magna)<br />
Categories: Roman towns and cities in Morocco<br />
Mauretania Tingitana<br />
Archaeological sites in Morocco<br />
Berber history<br />
Ancient Rome<br />
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------<br />
Giovanni Iacono: “Gela. Le operazioni dei Reparti italiani nella battaglia del 10-11 luglio 1.943”<br />
(edito dall’autore, Ragusa 2008, formato A5, pp. 155, euro 13.)<br />
<a href="http://www.lambadoria.it/stampa/libri%20associazione/Giovanni%20Iacono%20-%20Gela%201943%20" target="_blank" title="http://www.lambadoria.it/stampa/libri%20associazione/Giovanni%20Iacono%20-%20Gela%201943%20">http://www.lambadoria.it/stampa/libri%20...</a>(sintesi%20Libreria%20Militare).pdf<br />
GIOVANNI IACONO:<br />
Dopo la Campagna di Sicilia, avvenuta nel luglio-agosto del 1943, si è largamente diffusa la tesi secondo<br />
la quale l’Esercito aveva “tradito”. Tesi ripresa da quasi tutti gli autori italiani e stranieri, secondo i quali i<br />
soldati italiani si erano arresi agli Alleati senza colpo ferire o quasi. La ricerca dell’autore, basata su<br />
materiale dell’Archivio dell’Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore Esercito, nonché su testimonianze di<br />
civili del luogo, mira a confutare tale tesi, in quanto nel settore specificatamente trattato nell’opera le<br />
diserzioni furono una parte insignificante.<br />
Tra l’11 e il 13 maggio le truppe alleate sferrarono l’offensiva finale in Tunisia, che portò alla resa della<br />
5^ armata corazzata tedesca del Gen. von Arnim e della 1^ armata italiana del Gen. Messe. Subito dopo<br />
iniziarono i preparativi per procedere all’invasione della Sicilia (Operazione “Husky”). La stesura<br />
definitiva del piano d’invasione prevedeva che i settori di sbarco dell’VIII armata britannica e della VII<br />
armata americana si sviluppassero quasi senza soluzione di continuità sulla cuspide meridionale<br />
dell’isola, su un fronte quasi continuo di circa 170 chilometri; la data e l’ora per lo sbarco venne fissata<br />
per il 10 luglio alle ore 02.45.<br />
L’intera operazione fu preceduta da un’intensa attività di intelligence, che si avvalse anche del supporto<br />
di noti personaggi mafiosi italo-americani, sfruttando i contatti che il Naval Intelligence americano aveva<br />
intrapreso con Lucky Luciano già nel 1942 per far fronte ai continui sabotaggi che avvenivano sulla costa<br />
occidentale degli Stati Uniti. Infatti, fin dai primi mesi del 1943 furono infiltrati in Sicilia degli agenti,<br />
che si aggiravano soprattutto nei pressi delle località costiere che sarebbero state interessate dagli sbarchi,<br />
allo scopo di raccogliere quante più informazioni possibili (numerose sono le testimonianze di abitanti<br />
della città di Gela, che vennero a contatto con costoro). Non a caso, infatti, parecchi boss della mafia<br />
vennero nominati sindaci dal Col. Charles Poletti, capo dell’AMGOT in Sicilia (uno dei casi più eclatanti<br />
fu quello di don Calogero Vizzini, capo assoluto della mafia in Sicilia, che per i servigi prestati fu<br />
nominato colonnello onorario dell’esercito degli Stati Uniti, nonché sindaco di Villalba).<br />
Gli Alleati iniziarono le operazioni per l’invasione della Sicilia con un nutrito lancio di truppe<br />
paracadutiste dietro le linee costiere.<br />
Nella notte tra il 9 e 10 luglio 1943 gli Alleati attuarono il più grande sbarco anfibio mai tentato fino ad<br />
allora, impiegando nel solo settore di costa compreso tra la città di Gela e Scoglitti (Sicilia sud-orientale),<br />
580 navi da guerra e da sbarco, oltre a 1124 mezzi anfibi, che sbarcarono due intere Divisioni (la 1^ a<br />
Gela e la 45^ a Scoglitti, per un totale di circa 40.000 uomini suddivisi in circa 27 battaglioni).<br />
L’urto iniziale fu sostenuto da 5 battaglioni delle unità costiere (XVIII Brigata costiera), che opposero<br />
una strenua resistenza, ma prima dell’alba furono ridotti al silenzio dal fuoco delle artiglierie navali.<br />
La reazione dei Comandi italiani fu immediata. Già alle 05.00 del 10 luglio il Gruppo mobile “E”, di<br />
stanza a Niscemi, mosse al contrattacco; riuscì a penetrare fin dentro l’abitato di Gela, ma a causa del<br />
fuoco delle artiglierie navali, avendo subito ingenti perdite e non potendo proseguire l’attacco, alle 11.00<br />
il gruppo mobile ripiegò verso l’aeroporto di Ponte Olivo.<br />
Vista l’inefficacia di questi contrattacchi il Gen. Guzzoni ordinò che l’intera Div. Goering e la Div.<br />
Livorno conducessero un attacco coordinato l’indomani mattina alle ore 06.00 contro la testa di sbarco di<br />
Gela. La Div. Livorno doveva muovere ad ovest della SS 117, mentre la Div. Goering con i suoi 82<br />
panzer del modello III e IV e 17 carri Tigre ad Est della predetta strada (vedi Tavola n. 10-11).<br />
Il contrattacco pianificato per il giorno 11 luglio, venne condotto nel seguente modo:<br />
1. Divisione Livorno:<br />
- la colonna d’attacco di sinistra arrivò in posizione solamente all’alba. L’inizio dell’attacco era<br />
previsto per le ore 06.00, preceduto da dieci minuti di preparazione di artiglieria e da un<br />
contemporaneo attacco aereo. Alle 11.00 circa gli americani ripiegarono dentro Gela, e il III/34°,<br />
appena si fu riordinato si spinse ancora in avanti, fino all’ingresso dell’abitato (vedi Tavola n.12).<br />
- La colonna d’attacco di destra iniziò l’attacco in direzione di Gela alle 07.30. Alle 10.30 circa il<br />
reparto esploratori aveva raggiunto il passaggio a livello della rotabile Butera – Gela, mentre le<br />
Compagnie avanzate erano all’altezza del km 28 della stessa rotabile. Nel primo pomeriggio la<br />
colonna subì un violento contrattacco da parte dei rangers americani, che accerchiarono i reparti<br />
avanzati. I due battaglioni furono quindi bersagliati nuovamente dall’artiglieria e da attacchi aerei;<br />
cercarono disperatamente di rompere l’accerchiamento, resistendo fino alle 15.30 circa (vedi<br />
Tavola n. 13).<br />
2. Divisione Goering:<br />
- Alle 06.00 la colonna di sinistra, iniziava l’attacco raggiungendo facilmente la foce del Dirillo e<br />
da lì Senia Ferrata, seguendo la linea ferroviaria costiera che da Vittoria portava a Gela.<br />
- La colonna di destra partì da Ponte Olivo solo alle 07.45, in quanto il Battaglione carri era arrivato<br />
in posizione solo a quell’ora, a causa dei problemi riscontrati nell’attraversamento delle strette<br />
stradine dell’abitato di Niscemi.<br />
- Alle 08.00 partì la colonna centrale, che superata la resistenza opposta dalle truppe alleate a Case<br />
Priolo si diresse su Case Spinasanta, per poi ricongiungersi con la colonna di destra nella piana del<br />
Signore, arrivando a circa 1000 metri dalla spiaggia.<br />
Alle 11.00 la Divisione Goering aveva superato a sinistra Senia Ferrata, al centro Case Spinasanta e a<br />
destra Case Aliotta; i carri armati sembravano inarrestabili (vedi Tavola n. 11). Tra le fila nemiche si<br />
vissero attimi di disperazione; molti ormai pensavano che la testa di sbarco fosse perduta. Fu proprio a<br />
quell’ora, alle 11.00 circa, che il comando della VI Armata intercettò un messaggio in chiaro, attribuito al<br />
gen. Patton, in cui si diceva di sotterrare i materiali sulle spiagge e prepararsi al reimbarco.<br />
Tuttavia proprio quando la situazione sembrava ormai volgere totalmente a favore delle truppe dell’Asse,<br />
ecco che fecero la loro comparsa aerei tattici americani che attaccarono le immediate retrovie italotedesche.<br />
Contemporaneamente una colonna corazzata con 250 paracadutisti comandati dal col. Gavin,<br />
provenienti dal settore di Scoglitti, attaccò sul fianco ed alle spalle la colonna di sinistra della Goering.<br />
Alle 14.00 le colonne di destra e centrale, dopo essere state decimate dal fuoco delle artiglierie navali, e<br />
sotto la crescente minaccia dei reparti provenienti da Scoglitti e dai mezzi corazzati che gli americani<br />
erano riusciti a far sbarcare su Gela, iniziarono il ripiegamento sulle basi di partenza.<br />
A fine giornata le perdite delle forze italo-tedesche furono notevoli. La Div. Livorno aveva perso la sua<br />
capacità offensiva a causa delle ingenti perdite subite, infatti in totale tra morti, feriti, prigionieri e<br />
dispersi aveva perso 214 ufficiali e 7000 tra sottufficiali e truppa su un totale di 11.400 uomini.<br />
La Divisione Goering aveva perso 30 ufficiali e 600 tra sottufficiali e truppa su un totale di 8739, mentre<br />
dei 99 carri impiegati ne furono messi fuori combattimento 43.<br />
Durante queste tragiche giornate gli uomini della 45^ Div. americana si macchiarono di crimini di guerra.<br />
Tra le prime vittime vi fu il podestà di Biscari, Giuseppe Mangano ed alcuni civili.<br />
Questi con la moglie, il figlio quattordicenne ed il fratello (ufficiale medico del Regio Esercito) stava<br />
lasciando il paese a bordo della propria auto, per recarsi a Vittoria seguendo la SS 115. Arrivati all’altezza<br />
del casello ferroviario sulla Gela-Vittoria vengono fermati da una pattuglia americana. Il podestà chiede<br />
che vengano rispettate le norme internazionali riguardanti l’esodo delle popolazioni civili dalle zone di<br />
guerra, ma venne malmenato assieme agli altri che facevano parte del gruppetto. Gli americani allora,<br />
notando che indossava la camicia nera, spianarono le armi, fecero avanzare gli uomini lungo una stradina<br />
di campagna e li fucilarono. Il figlio quattordicenne del podestà dopo aver visto fucilare il padre, afferrato<br />
un sasso si scagliò contro i soldati americani, ma venne ferito a morte con un colpo di baionetta alla<br />
guancia sinistra. Le vittime di questo atto inaudito furono dodici. Il corpo del fratello del podestà non<br />
venne mai ritrovato.<br />
Nella giornata dell’11 luglio, dopo aspri combattimenti, gli americani conquistarono l’aeroporto.<br />
Proprio quel giorno accadde uno dei più gravi misfatti commessi dagli uomini della 45^ Divisione<br />
americana, rimasto fino all’anno scorso sconosciuto all’opinione pubblica. La vicenda è raccontata da un<br />
testimone oculare, il giornalista Alexander Clifford. Clifford era al seguito delle truppe della 45°<br />
Divisione, quando, durante le fasi della battaglia per la conquista dell’aeroporto di Comiso, vide che 60<br />
prigionieri italiani appena catturati, vennero fatti scendere da un camion e uccisi con una mitragliatrice.<br />
Dopo pochi minuti la stessa scena si ripeteva con 50 prigionieri tedeschi.<br />
Nella notte tra l’11 e il 12 luglio intanto la Divisione Livorno assumeva lo schieramento a ridosso delle<br />
alture che dominano la piana di Gela.<br />
Alle 07.30 del 12 luglio, gli americani, dopo aver occupato facilmente l’aeroporto di Ponte Olivo, si<br />
dirigevano verso Niscemi.<br />
Intanto il Gen. Guzzoni, considerando l’eccessivo logorio delle truppe e la sproporzione delle forze<br />
riconobbe che sarebbe stato impossibile effettuare ulteriori azioni offensive, per cui dispose per un nuovo<br />
schieramento per fronteggiare le minacce provenienti da sud, con la Div. Goering al centro<br />
sull’allineamento Caltagirone – Grammichele – Vizzini, e la Livorno a destra tra Mazzarino e S. Michele<br />
di Ganzeria.<br />
Nel settore di Scoglitti e Ragusa, gli americani continuavano l’avanzata, e rastrellavano i reparti italiani<br />
rimasti isolati; tra questi, alle 11.00 si arrendeva l’ultimo presidio del 123° Reggimento costiero a Scicli.<br />
All’incirca alla stessa ora la 1^ Divisione di fanteria canadese, dopo aver sopraffatto l’ultima resistenza<br />
dei reparti della 206^ Divisione costiera, aveva occupato Modica e catturato il comando della Divisione.<br />
Alle 14.00, visto che gli americani avevano occupato le località di Niscemi, Biscari e Chiaramonte Gulfi,<br />
il XVI C.A. ordinò alla Goering di mantenere le posizioni stabilite il giorno prima, mentre dispose<br />
affinché la Divisione Livorno arretrasse il suo schieramento e, facendo perno sulle posizioni di bivio<br />
Gigliotto e S. Michele di Ganzeria, occupasse le posizioni di P. Armerina, Varco Ramata e Bellia, in<br />
modo da spostare la sua fronte verso ovest per proteggere il fianco destro del C. A..<br />
In serata i vari reparti iniziavano il ripiegamento, sennonché i reparti schierati a Butera, verso le 23.00<br />
mentre iniziavano il movimento, furono oggetto di bombardamento aereo e navale. Contemporaneamente<br />
numerose pattuglie nemiche giungevano fin sotto le posizioni tenute dagli uomini della Livorno. In questi<br />
frangenti si palesò nuovamente la ferocia di alcuni soldati americani nei confronti di prigionieri di guerra<br />
dell’Asse; infatti diverse sono le testimonianze di fucilazioni sommarie di soldati italiani che si erano<br />
arresi, probabilmente perché scambiati per soldati tedeschi, in quanto gli uomini della Livorno vestivano<br />
l’uniforme da deserto come quest’ultimi.<br />
In serata la divisione Goering cominciava ad occupare le posizioni sull’allineamento Vizzini,<br />
Grammichele e Caltagirone.<br />
Il gruppo mobile “H” durante tutta la giornata del 13 venne sottoposto anch’esso al fuoco dell’artiglieria<br />
nemica. Verso le 22.00 riceveva dal Gen. Mariscalco l’ordine di ripiegare, insieme con i reparti della<br />
difesa fissa, su Caltagirone. Alle 23.00, sotto un intenso bombardamento d’artiglieria, il gruppo mobile<br />
iniziava il movimento, lasciando la compagnia fucilieri e la compagnia mitraglieri della difesa fissa come<br />
retroguardia.<br />
Già dalla mattina del 13 le avanguardie del 180° Gruppo Tattico Reggimentale americano erano arrivate<br />
nella zona di Piano Stella (a pochi chilometri dall’aeroporto di Biscari) e rastrellavano l’area per<br />
bonificarla da eventuali presenze di soldati dell’Asse. Qui vennero fucilati diversi civili, come raccontato<br />
dal signor Giuseppe Ciriacono, all’epoca ancora tredicenne, unico testimone oculare.<br />
L’indomani, 14 luglio, il 180° Gruppo Tattico Reggimentale americano, dopo aspri combattimenti,<br />
riusciva a conquistare l’aeroporto di Biscari. Furono catturati diversi prigionieri. Al Serg. West fu<br />
consegnato un gruppo di 37 prigionieri, col compito di scortarli nelle retrovie. Fatti togliere ai prigionieri<br />
le camicie e le scarpe, per impedire che scappassero, furono fatti incamminare lungo la strada per Biscari.<br />
Poco dopo, furono fucilati. Poche ore dopo l’assassinio dei 37 prigionieri da parte del Serg. West, il Cap.<br />
Compton ordinò l’esecuzione di altri 36 prigionieri di guerra italiani.<br />
Anche i soldati tedeschi, allora alleati, si macchiarono in quei giorni di crimini di guerra.<br />
Il primo di questi crimini fu perpetrato il 12 luglio nella cittadina di Canicattì. Nel primo pomeriggio, le<br />
forze americane provenienti da Licata si trovavano sulle alture attorno al paese, e pressavano le truppe<br />
tedesche che ivi si erano arroccate. I tedeschi iniziavano quindi le operazioni di ripiegamento; durante<br />
questa fase, alcuni soldati tedeschi, passando vicino all’ingresso di un rifugio antiaereo, videro un gruppo<br />
di persone che esultavano per l’imminente arrivo delle truppe americane. Aprirono il fuoco per punire<br />
quelle persone, uccidendone sei, tra cui due giovani di 18 e 19 anni.<br />
Il 15 luglio due militari del 76° Reggimento fanteria Napoli, mentre ripiegavano su Palagonia, sentirono<br />
nei pressi di Scordia una raffica provenire da un’abitazione. Si avvicinarono, e videro tre soldati tedeschi<br />
che stavano gettando in un pozzo i corpi di due donne. Indignati intervennero, e prima che i tedeschi<br />
potessero reagire, li uccisero. Nella casa trovarono un uomo che disse loro che quei tedeschi erano da<br />
cinque giorni a casa sua, durante i quali, avevano approfittato della moglie e della figlia.<br />
Il Gen. Guzzoni, per rinforzare lo schieramento sulla piana di Catania ordinò, nella notte tra il 14 ed il 15,<br />
che le Divisioni Livorno, Goering e perfino la Sizilien, che nel frattempo era giunta nella zona di<br />
Caltanissetta, si portassero sul margine occidentale della piana.<br />
Durante la notte sul 16 venivano completati i movimenti retrogradi delle due Divisioni.<br />
I rumori della battaglia si erano allontanati definitivamente da Gela, in quanto il fronte si era spostato in<br />
avanti. Gli eserciti alleati, a causa anche della manovra di ripiegamento per linee successive attuata dal<br />
Gen. Guzzoni, impiegarono altri 31 giorni per la conquista dell’isola (vedi Tavole n. 23 e 24 ).<br />
Infatti, solamente la sera del 16 agosto 1943 fu occupata l’ultima linea di ripiegamento sull’allineamento<br />
Divieto – M. Antennamare – Moleti. Durante la notte furono traghettati gli ultimi reparti tedeschi e i<br />
reparti costieri presenti ancora sull’isola (operazione LEHRGANG). Tale operazione si dimostrò un vero<br />
successo, al pari di quello conseguito dagli inglesi a Dunkerque, in quanto nonostante il nemico avesse il<br />
pieno dominio del cielo e del mare, i tedeschi, riuscirono a far passare in Calabria 39.569 militari,<br />
compresi 4.444 feriti, 9605 autoveicoli, 47 carri armati, 94 pezzi di artiglieria, 1.100 tonnellate di<br />
munizioni, 970 tonnellate di carburanti e 15.700 tonnellate di altro materiale.<br />
All’alba del 17 agosto le avanguardie della 3^ Divisione americana entravano a Messina. Qualche ora<br />
dopo fecero il loro ingresso nella città le avanguardie inglesi.<br />
Dopo 38 giorni di combattimenti la situazione delle truppe di entrambe le parti risultava quindi essere la<br />
seguente: gli italiani lamentavano 4.678 morti, 116.681 prigionieri e 36.072 dispersi (tra questi sono da<br />
considerare sia i disertori, sia un numero imprecisato di morti inumati in fosse comuni sui campi di<br />
battaglia). I tedeschi invece lamentavano 4.325 morti, 5.523 prigionieri e 4583 dispersi.<br />
In campo alleato gli americani ebbero 2.811 morti, 6.470 feriti, 598 prigionieri e 88 dispersi, mentre gli<br />
inglesi ebbero 2.721 morti, 7.939 feriti e 2.644 tra prigionieri e dispersi.<br />
Alla luce di quanto detto finora, è doveroso trarre delle conclusioni. Il comportamento dei reparti italiani<br />
durante questa campagna, è stato molto discusso. Molti autori, sia italiani che stranieri, tenendo conto del<br />
fatto che le truppe dell’asse in Sicilia erano in egual numero se non superiori rispetto a quelle alleate,<br />
affermarono che fu solo grazie al comportamento poco decoroso e incompetente dei soldati italiani e<br />
soprattutto dei loro comandanti, che gli alleati riuscirono a conquistare la Sicilia in “appena” 38 giorni.<br />
Questi autori però si limitarono ad un’analisi molto superficiale della situazione delle forze in campo in<br />
Sicilia. Infatti, considerando solo il settore interessato dallo sbarco vero e proprio (da Licata a Siracusa),<br />
qui si trovavano circa 97.000 uomini, compresi anche i reparti costieri, mentre gli alleati nei primi giorni<br />
dello sbarco ne impiegarono 160.000, ed avevano il dominio assoluto dell’aria e del mare.<br />
Quindi, avendo una simile superiorità in uomini, mezzi e materiali, il dominio assoluto dell’aria e del<br />
mare, ci si dovrebbe invece meravigliare che abbiano impiegato 38 giorni a conquistare la Sicilia.<br />
Non dobbiamo infatti dimenticare che, come ci ricorda il Faldella nella sua opera, la Polonia era stata<br />
conquistata dai tedeschi in soli 29 giorni, e la Francia che disponeva di tutte le sue forze armate al<br />
completo, oltre all’appoggio di numerosi reparti forniti dagli inglesi, in soli 40 giorni.<br />
Per quanto riguarda nello specifico la situazione della campagna di Sicilia, è vero che il fenomeno delle<br />
diserzioni fu più cospicuo rispetto al lecito e che numerosi soldati (soprattutto siciliani) si arresero senza<br />
combattere, per fare rientro presso i loro paesi, preoccupati della sorte delle loro famiglie. Ma per fare un<br />
esame più obiettivo possibile, dobbiamo cercare di comprendere il perché di questo comportamento, e per<br />
far ciò dobbiamo calarci nei panni di quei soldati e considerare dal loro punto di vista la situazione che si<br />
trovarono ad affrontare.<br />
I soldati delle Div. costiere, in gruppi di 30-35 dovevano controllare uno o due di chilometri di costa, e si<br />
trovarono a dover fronteggiare un dispiegamento di forze enormemente più grande di loro (per esempio la<br />
1^ div. canadese, forte di 16.000 uomini sbarcò su un settore di spiaggia di soli 8 chilometri), che avevano<br />
il dominio incontrastato dell’aria e del mare, con armi inadeguate, per cui venne meno in loro quella<br />
saldezza morale necessaria in queste occasioni (non tutti la possediamo, e credo che in una situazione<br />
simile molti avrebbero vacillato, ma questo fa parte della componente umana).<br />
Per quanto riguarda specificatamente il settore di cui abbiamo trattato, furono una parte insignificante,<br />
rispetto alle forze presenti nella zona, coloro che si arresero senza combattere, ma al contrario, furono<br />
invece numerosi gli atti di eroismo compiuti dagli uomini dei reparti costieri e mobili in quei frangenti,<br />
che, nonostante avessero la netta sensazione di aver perso ancora prima di iniziare a combattere scelsero<br />
comunque di compiere fino in fondo il loro dovere di soldati, fino ad arrivare a sacrificare la propria vita<br />
per difendere quell’estremo lembo della propria Patria che era la Sicilia, “siciliani compresi”.<br />
Il comportamento dei soldati americani, come abbiamo avuto modo di vedere, non fu sempre improntato<br />
all’umanità e al rispetto delle leggi di guerra, come siamo sempre stati abituati a pensare. Certo, prima<br />
c’era la guerra fredda, per cui determinati episodi era opportuno non divulgarli, per non incrinare i<br />
rapporti interni alla Nato, ma adesso che sono di dominio pubblico, a livello mondiale (anche in Italia da<br />
qualche anno a questa parte), sarebbe il caso di rivedere un po’ la storiografia ufficiale, anche perché<br />
quelli commessi in Sicilia da alcuni soldati americani, furono dei veri e propri crimini di guerra, e come<br />
tali andavano tutti perseguiti.<br />
Per quanto attiene i rapporti con i soldati tedeschi, da fonti ufficiali, risulta che questi avevano avuto fin<br />
da subito dei problemi con la popolazione siciliana. Fieri per natura i siciliani non vedevano di buon<br />
occhio i tedeschi, che si comportavano come se fossero i padroni di tutto (non furono infrequenti i casi di<br />
furti, rapine od omicidi commessi da soldati tedeschi prima e dopo lo sbarco alleato). Una cosa che mi ha<br />
lasciato particolarmente sorpreso, durante la trattazione di questo lavoro è stata quella di venire a<br />
conoscenza di stragi commesse dai tedeschi in Sicilia addirittura prima dell’8 settembre, quando l’Italia<br />
era ancora un paese alleato della Germania a tutti gli effetti. In Italia si è data da sempre ampia risonanza<br />
a livello nazionale solamente alle stragi di civili commesse dai tedeschi dopo l’8 settembre.<br />
Ricordare questi eventi e tramandarli alle generazioni future, é un dovere morale per onorare la memoria<br />
di quei soldati, spesso dimenticati, che sacrificarono la propria vita per mantenere fede al giuramento<br />
prestato, difendere la Patria. .<br />
===========================================<br />
<a href="http://www.citta-nostra.it/jugoslavia.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.citta-nostra.it/jugoslavia.pdf">http://www.citta-nostra.it/jugoslavia.pd...</a> ( Maria Pasquinelli)<br />
=======================================<br />
<a href="http://books.google.fr/books?id=4DZf-RBtZ7IC&pg=PA26&dq=roger+II+mahdia+1148&hl=fr&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=roger%20II%20mahdia%201148&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.fr/books?id=4DZf-RBtZ7IC&pg=PA26&dq=roger+II+mahdia+1148&hl=fr&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=roger%20II%20mahdia%201148&f=false">http://books.google.fr/books?id=4DZf-RBt...</a><br />
Storia dei Normanni in Africa<br />
==================================<br />
VARI:<br />
A) <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=dEeprIp2kfoC&pg=PA4&dq=italiani+in+honduras+nel+1900&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4#v=onepage&q=italiani%20in%20honduras%20nel%201900&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.com/books?id=dEeprIp2kfoC&pg=PA4&dq=italiani+in+honduras+nel+1900&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4#v=onepage&q=italiani%20in%20honduras%20nel%201900&f=false">http://books.google.com/books?id=dEeprIp...</a> Italiani in Centroamerica)<br />
B) <a href="http://www.archive.org/stream/lemigrazioneital00brenuoft/lemigrazioneital00brenuoft_djvu.txt" target="_blank" title="http://www.archive.org/stream/lemigrazioneital00brenuoft/lemigrazioneital00brenuoft_djvu.txt">http://www.archive.org/stream/lemigrazio...</a> Emigrazione italiana prima del 1915)<br />
===============================================================<br />
Chi era Tito?<br />
<a href="http://www.lastampa.it/2013/10/21/esteri/jovanka-ed-i-segreti-di-tito-RBCqbTEWdyT98iIZotnOnN/pagina.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.lastampa.it/2013/10/21/esteri/jovanka-ed-i-segreti-di-tito-RBCqbTEWdyT98iIZotnOnN/pagina.html">http://www.lastampa.it/2013/10/21/esteri...</a><br />
==========================================<br />
Jackson ( <a href="http://www.archive.org/stream/dalmatiaquarnero01jackuoft#page/n5/mode/2up" target="_blank" title="http://www.archive.org/stream/dalmatiaquarnero01jackuoft#page/n5/mode/2up">http://www.archive.org/stream/dalmatiaqu...</a> ) : Dalmatian maritime neolatin cities (Citta marittime di Dalmazia). The old Latin, or Roman, population, however Recovery<br />
sadly it was crushed and weakened by this irrup- Roman<br />
tion, did not disappear, nor did it lose its identity paUtiea.<br />
and become merged in the ranks of the conquerors.<br />
When the first shock was over, the<br />
Romans either returned to their old towns or<br />
founded new ones, where they managed to live<br />
in a state between independence and vassalage<br />
till they became strong enough in time to take<br />
care of themselves. Zara soon rose again from<br />
its ruin, the fugitives from Epidaurus settled on<br />
an isolated rock not far from their ancient home<br />
and founded the city of Ragusa, and the unhappy<br />
Salonitans, not daring to return as yet to the<br />
ruins of their old capital, crept back to the mainland<br />
in reduced numbers, and found a refuge<br />
within the impregnable walls of the deserted<br />
villa of Diocletian, which has grown into the<br />
modem Spalato. The fate of Trail on the mainland<br />
and of the island towns of Arbe Veglia<br />
and Ossero in the Quarnero during this general<br />
catastrophe is obscure, but we find them in the<br />
tenth century still peopled by Roman citizens and<br />
==Italian 1st Somalian Division==<br />
Italian 1st Somalian Division<br />
1st Somalian Division<br />
Active 1940–1941<br />
Country Italy<br />
Branch Italian Army<br />
Type Infantry<br />
Size Division<br />
Nickname 101 Divisione Somala<br />
Engagements World War II<br />
1st Somalian Division , called even "101 Divisione Somala", was a Somalian colonial division of the Italian Regio Esercito during WWII.<br />
Contents [hide]<br />
1 History<br />
2 Notes<br />
3 Bibliography<br />
4 See also<br />
History[edit]After June 1940, when the Kingdom of Italy declared war to the Allies, in the Italian Somalia was created the "101 Divisione Somala" with Somalian soldiers. Initially were enrolled a few soldiers of some colonial Brigades[1] that had fought even in the conquest of Ethiopia in 1936. But soon -in order to reach the amount of soldiers required for a standard Italian division[2]- were recruited new colonial soldiers who were trained by Italian NCO, even during the construction of a small new "decauville" railway between Villabruzzi and the Ethiopian frontier.<br />
At the end of 1940 the "1st Somalian Division" -commanded by general Carnevali- was sent to defend the Juba river in western Somalia, because the Italians were waiting a British attack from Kenya.<br />
The 101st Colonial Division under Brigadier-General Italo Carnevali held the much longer Dugiuma-Dolo sector, and the bulk of his infantry (the 73rd, 74th and 76th Colonial Battalions) was initially concentrated round Bardera, with the 191st Colonial Battalion near Lugh Ferrandi and the 192nd in the Dolo area.Neil Orphen<br />
In the first days of February 1941 the British attacked the Juba front and after heavy fighting the 101 Divisione Somala was half destroyed: General De Simone -commander in chief of all Italian Somalia- ordered the division's retreat toward Ethiopia. General Baccari substituted general Carnevali, who was sick and wounded in combat.<br />
The 101st Colonial Division, originally ordered to fall back on Callafo, south of Gabredarre, had been given fresh radio instructions by the "Comando Superiore", rerouting their columns to Neghelli. The rest of General de Simone's forces were ordered to fall back on Harar. General Baccari's command, with bombing demoralizing the Native troops, was in a state of dissolution. By the time they reached Dolo, 101st Colonial Divisional Headquarters, with three batteries of 77 mm guns and three of 65 mm, had lost all their Native personnel.Neil Orphen<br />
While in southern Ethiopia, the Division was dismantled on March 7 when the few surviving brigades reached Harar.<br />
Notes[edit]Jump up ^ Italian Colonial Brigades in 1940 A.O.I.<br />
Jump up ^ An Italian Division during WWII had 7000 soldiers<br />
Bibliography[edit]Neil Orphen. East African and Abyssinian Campaigns. South African Army. Johannesburg, 1970<br />
See also[edit]Italian Somalia<br />
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Italian_1st_Somalian_Division&oldid=578781285"<br />
Categories: Divisions of Italy in World War II<br />
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<a href="http://www.vlahoi.gr/vlahs.asp" target="_blank" title="http://www.vlahoi.gr/vlahs.asp">http://www.vlahoi.gr/vlahs.asp</a> I vlachs di Veria Ottimo (per mese giugno 2015 di il mio weblog aromuno)<br />
<a href="http://iamaromanian.tomaenache.ro/#poster" target="_blank" title="http://iamaromanian.tomaenache.ro/#poster">http://iamaromanian.tomaenache.ro/#poste...</a> Primo film su aromuni<br />
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( <a href="http://www.fga.it/uploads/media/Gli_italiani_nella_societa_peruviana.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.fga.it/uploads/media/Gli_italiani_nella_societa_peruviana.pdf">http://www.fga.it/uploads/media/Gli_ital...</a> Gli italiani nel Peru )<br />
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<a href="http://www.macedoniantruth.org/forum/showthread.php?t=1622&page=17" target="_blank" title="http://www.macedoniantruth.org/forum/showthread.php?t=1622&page=17">http://www.macedoniantruth.org/forum/sho...</a> Excerpts about Vlachs in the Balkans, Serbia/Macedonia<br />
<a href="https://archive.org/stream/antiquarianresea00evan/antiquarianresea00evan_djvu.txt" target="_blank" title="https://archive.org/stream/antiquarianresea00evan/antiquarianresea00evan_djvu.txt">https://archive.org/stream/antiquarianre...</a> testo da poter copiare<br />
( testo completo: <a href="http://archive.org/stream/antiquarianresea00evan/antiquarianresea00evan_djvu.txt" target="_blank" title="http://archive.org/stream/antiquarianresea00evan/antiquarianresea00evan_djvu.txt">http://archive.org/stream/antiquarianres...</a> ;ed immagine completa con sezioni III e IV: <a href="https://archive.org/stream/antiquarianresea00evan#page/n5/mode/2up" target="_blank" title="https://archive.org/stream/antiquarianresea00evan#page/n5/mode/2up">https://archive.org/stream/antiquarianre...</a> )<br />
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<a href="http://www.latinitas.altervista.org/doc/007.doc" target="_blank" title="http://www.latinitas.altervista.org/doc/007.doc">http://www.latinitas.altervista.org/doc/...</a> dal latino al neolatino<br />
==============================<br />
<a href="http://rbedrosian.com/Downloads/Bouchier_Syria_Roman_Province.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://rbedrosian.com/Downloads/Bouchier_Syria_Roman_Province.pdf">http://rbedrosian.com/Downloads/Bouchier...</a> Roman Province of Syria<br />
===============================<br />
<a href="http://romandanes.blogspot.com/2006/08/denmark-and-roman-empire.html" target="_blank" title="http://romandanes.blogspot.com/2006/08/denmark-and-roman-empire.html">http://romandanes.blogspot.com/2006/08/d...</a><br />
Roman Denmark/Jutland<br />
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<a href="http://www.afroditacionchin.ro/Immagini/Studiletterari_Venezia.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.afroditacionchin.ro/Immagini/Studiletterari_Venezia.pdf">http://www.afroditacionchin.ro/Immagini/...</a> Istrorumeni xIl mio weblog aromuno di marzo2014<br />
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<a href="http://www.google.es/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=web&cd=13&ved=0CDgQFjACOAo&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dlib.si%2Fstream%2FURN%3ANBN%3ASI%3ADOC-YQD7PYSS%2Fe4206b8e-2ed1-467e-856b-faf0af289fa2%2FPDF&ei=GaUOU4ySOaby2QWi5YGYAg&usg=AFQjCNHGWdyaCuSTQjaY_Im2VKAae9zFWg" target="_blank" title="http://www.google.es/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=web&cd=13&ved=0CDgQFjACOAo&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dlib.si%2Fstream%2FURN%3ANBN%3ASI%3ADOC-YQD7PYSS%2Fe4206b8e-2ed1-467e-856b-faf0af289fa2%2FPDF&ei=GaUOU4ySOaby2QWi5YGYAg&usg=AFQjCNHGWdyaCuSTQjaY_Im2VKAae9zFWg">http://www.google.es/url?sa=t&rct=j&...</a> Scritto in sloveno con mappe sui vlachs intorno a Trieste<br />
=========================================<br />
<a href="http://www.annapizzuti.it/public/nellajugoslaviaoccupata.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.annapizzuti.it/public/nellajugoslaviaoccupata.pdf">http://www.annapizzuti.it/public/nellaju...</a> Ebrei nel Governatorato di Dalmazia (vi si trova una mia mappa!!!)<br />
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<a href="http://forum.axishistory.com/viewtopic.php?f=65&t=102421" target="_blank" title="http://forum.axishistory.com/viewtopic.php?f=65&t=102421">http://forum.axishistory.com/viewtopic.p...</a> Shanghai international settlements in red, italian sector #4 on map<br />
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<a href="http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/antaf_0066-4871_1984_num_20_1_1105" target="_blank" title="http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/antaf_0066-4871_1984_num_20_1_1105">http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/pre...</a> Scritto accademico sui Romano-berberi regni, con mappa<br />
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<a href="http://www.tarifit.info/pdfbooks/thisholyseed.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.tarifit.info/pdfbooks/thisholyseed.pdf">http://www.tarifit.info/pdfbooks/thishol...</a> Storia del cristianesimo in nord africa (ottimo sui Berberi)<br />
==========================================<br />
<a href="http://www.archivodelafrontera.com/author/esmeralda/" target="_blank" title="http://www.archivodelafrontera.com/author/esmeralda/">http://www.archivodelafrontera.com/autho...</a> Articoli in spagnolo su alcune citta della Numidia romana<br />
==============================================<br />
<a href="http://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid%3A16c6f24d-74ad-41f8-8015-c5e9e968ccbc/datastreams/ATTACHMENT1" target="_blank" title="http://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid%3A16c6f24d-74ad-41f8-8015-c5e9e968ccbc/datastreams/ATTACHMENT1">http://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid%3A16c6f...</a> Oxford academic history-study on roman bizantine africa <br />
===============================================<br />
<a href="http://www.lastampa.it/2014/04/30/economia/ecco-la-mappa-del-reddito-italiano-i-pi-ricchi-vivono-a-milano-e-roma-BqfB9RFwoZAQHAuNKrGjBO/pagina.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.lastampa.it/2014/04/30/economia/ecco-la-mappa-del-reddito-italiano-i-pi-ricchi-vivono-a-milano-e-roma-BqfB9RFwoZAQHAuNKrGjBO/pagina.html">http://www.lastampa.it/2014/04/30/econom...</a> Mappa sui comuni italiani REDDITO2013<br />
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Vari dallo spagnolo su Africa romana:<br />
1) <a href="http://www.google.es/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=9&ved=0CGAQFjAI&url=http%3A%2F%2Focw.uv.es%2Fartes-y-humanidades%2Flas-provincias-romanas%2F4.pdf&ei=zrx6U5-" target="_blank" title="http://www.google.es/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=9&ved=0CGAQFjAI&url=http%3A%2F%2Focw.uv.es%2Fartes-y-humanidades%2Flas-provincias-romanas%2F4.pdf&ei=zrx6U5-">http://www.google.es/url?sa=t&rct=j&...</a><br />
KMcmCqgbq04KwBA&usg=AFQjCNHyV-ukmCWiA6-oFJQgVS4xCVWiFQ Provincias africanas (ciudades)<br />
2) <a href="http://books.google.es/books?id=aVumkcrI-KAC&pg=PA35&lpg=PA35&dq=capsa+en+africa+romana&source=bl&ots=qXXJr4yazc&sig=KdyP_9aqwwsng1n79hmTUdnKoC8&hl=es&sa=X&ei=zrx6U5-KMcmCqgbq04KwBA&ved=0CE0Q6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=capsa%20en%20africa%20romana&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.es/books?id=aVumkcrI-KAC&pg=PA35&lpg=PA35&dq=capsa+en+africa+romana&source=bl&ots=qXXJr4yazc&sig=KdyP_9aqwwsng1n79hmTUdnKoC8&hl=es&sa=X&ei=zrx6U5-KMcmCqgbq04KwBA&ved=0CE0Q6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=capsa%20en%20africa%20romana&f=false">http://books.google.es/books?id=aVumkcrI...</a> Veteranos en Africa romana<br />
3) <a href="http://www.google.es/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=10&ved=0CGYQFjAJ&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bcmediterranea.org%2Ftanger-tetouan%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2FL'Africa_romana_17_Pastor-Munoz-pp.405-16.pdf&ei=zrx6U5-KMcmCqgbq04KwBA&usg=AFQjCNEwZFruX3bKDoaKppTq_WMphVU-kw" target="_blank" title="http://www.google.es/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=10&ved=0CGYQFjAJ&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bcmediterranea.org%2Ftanger-tetouan%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2FL'Africa_romana_17_Pastor-Munoz-pp.405-16.pdf&ei=zrx6U5-KMcmCqgbq04KwBA&usg=AFQjCNEwZFruX3bKDoaKppTq_WMphVU-kw">http://www.google.es/url?sa=t&rct=j&...</a> Africa romana<br />
4 <a href="http://www.academia.edu/1106135/Africa._Le_province_africane_occidentali._Analisis_de_la_implantacion_romana_a_traves_del_registro_funerario_en_las_provincias_norteafricanas_el_sustrato_libiopunico" target="_blank" title="http://www.academia.edu/1106135/Africa._Le_province_africane_occidentali._Analisis_de_la_implantacion_romana_a_traves_del_registro_funerario_en_las_provincias_norteafricanas_el_sustrato_libiopunico">http://www.academia.edu/1106135/Africa._...</a><br />
5) <a href="http://arthurkevinmackinly.blogspot.com/2013/08/el-africa-bizantina-parte-i.html" target="_blank" title="http://arthurkevinmackinly.blogspot.com/2013/08/el-africa-bizantina-parte-i.html">http://arthurkevinmackinly.blogspot.com/...</a> El Africa bizantina (interessante la sezione finale, sui neolatini sopravvissuti fino al Rinascimento)<br />
6) <a href="http://ancientworldonline.blogspot.com/2012/08/open-access-journal-africa-romana.html" target="_blank" title="http://ancientworldonline.blogspot.com/2012/08/open-access-journal-africa-romana.html">http://ancientworldonline.blogspot.com/2...</a> Open access Journal Africa romana (molti ottimi articoli di "scholars")<br />
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<a href="http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/BURLAT/17*.html" target="_blank" title="http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/BURLAT/17*.html">http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Ro...</a> Testo in inglese sule fortificazioni byzantine nella loro Africa, tra Capsa e Cesarea.<br />
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<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=pIkmvKB8OlsC&pg=PA121&lpg=PA121&dq=christians+of+Gef%C3%A0ra&source=bl&ots=wq6i_ZLi8O&sig=hdNYBH-szy0dBcioINSxoJwYl_k&hl=en&sa=X&ei=EwyFU4bLO9GEqga474LYAw&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=christians%20of%20Gef%C3%A0ra&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.com/books?id=pIkmvKB8OlsC&pg=PA121&lpg=PA121&dq=christians+of+Gef%C3%A0ra&source=bl&ots=wq6i_ZLi8O&sig=hdNYBH-szy0dBcioINSxoJwYl_k&hl=en&sa=X&ei=EwyFU4bLO9GEqga474LYAw&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=christians%20of%20Gef%C3%A0ra&f=false">http://books.google.com/books?id=pIkmvKB...</a> Cristiani di Gefara in Tripolitania (in italiano, scritto di Boccassini? su cimitero di En Gila vicino Oea-Tripoli)<br />
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<a href="http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=njp.32101065414573;view=1up;seq=54" target="_blank" title="http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=njp.32101065414573;view=1up;seq=54">http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nj...</a> "Colonie romane", di Ettore De Ruggiero (scrittore del Dizionario epigrafico di antichita' romane)<br />
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<a href="http://books.google.it/books?id=3gQbIhDjkqkC&pg=PA170&dq=fossa+regia+africa&hl=it&source=gbs_selected_pages&cad=2#v=onepage&q=fossa%20regia%20africa&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.it/books?id=3gQbIhDjkqkC&pg=PA170&dq=fossa+regia+africa&hl=it&source=gbs_selected_pages&cad=2#v=onepage&q=fossa%20regia%20africa&f=false">http://books.google.it/books?id=3gQbIhDj...</a> Africa proconsolare e "Fossa Regia", con riferimenti a Leptis Magna<br />
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<a href="http://www.google.es/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=16&ved=0CFUQFjAFOAo&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.march.es%2Frecursos_web%2Fculturales%2Fdocumentos%2Fconferencias%2FPP3044.pdf&ei=tSePU7KuJoqKqgaX_YHQCg&usg=AFQjCNHZPRgvZjii-Ostt_5ot8Zn5-ohSQ" target="_blank" title="http://www.google.es/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=16&ved=0CFUQFjAFOAo&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.march.es%2Frecursos_web%2Fculturales%2Fdocumentos%2Fconferencias%2FPP3044.pdf&ei=tSePU7KuJoqKqgaX_YHQCg&usg=AFQjCNHZPRgvZjii-Ostt_5ot8Zn5-ohSQ">http://www.google.es/url?sa=t&rct=j&...</a> Leptis Magna: la ciudad del emperador Septimius MAPS & Photos<br />
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<a href="https://www.yumpu.com/et/document/view/6306435/ghirza-la-vallee-aux-mausolees" target="_blank" title="https://www.yumpu.com/et/document/view/6306435/ghirza-la-vallee-aux-mausolees">https://www.yumpu.com/et/document/view/6...</a> ghirza (GERISA)<br />
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<a href="http://edl.revues.org/113?lang=en" target="_blank" title="http://edl.revues.org/113?lang=en">http://edl.revues.org/113?lang=en</a> Anfiteatro di Zilil in Mauretania tingitana<br />
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<a href="http://www.casademelilla.es/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=117%3Amelilla-su-entorno-e-historia-1&Itemid=95&lang=es&limitstart=11" target="_blank" title="http://www.casademelilla.es/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=117%3Amelilla-su-entorno-e-historia-1&Itemid=95&lang=es&limitstart=11">http://www.casademelilla.es/index.php?op...</a> Storia di Melilla -Rusadir<br />
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<a href="http://www.academia.edu/1476824/Military_building_techniques_in_Mauretania_Tingitana_the_use_of_mortar_and_rubble_at_Thamusida_Sidi_Ali_ben_Ahmed_Morocco_" target="_blank" title="http://www.academia.edu/1476824/Military_building_techniques_in_Mauretania_Tingitana_the_use_of_mortar_and_rubble_at_Thamusida_Sidi_Ali_ben_Ahmed_Morocco_">http://www.academia.edu/1476824/Military...</a> Thamusida: tecniche di costruzione del forte romano<br />
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<a href="http://www.google.es/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&ved=0CC8QFjAB&url=http%3A%2F%2Fe-spacio.uned.es%2Ffez%2Feserv.php%3Fpid%3Dbibliuned%3AETFSerieII-2006-2007-19-20-7F480140%26dsID%3DDocumento.pdf&ei=N1meU6vzN4bE8AHr-4HACQ&usg=AFQjCNEF8iOM9FKi2TtOvqulnQ0RWB6umg" target="_blank" title="http://www.google.es/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&ved=0CC8QFjAB&url=http%3A%2F%2Fe-spacio.uned.es%2Ffez%2Feserv.php%3Fpid%3Dbibliuned%3AETFSerieII-2006-2007-19-20-7F480140%26dsID%3DDocumento.pdf&ei=N1meU6vzN4bE8AHr-4HACQ&usg=AFQjCNEF8iOM9FKi2TtOvqulnQ0RWB6umg">http://www.google.es/url?sa=t&rct=j&...</a> Monetazione romana in Mauretania Tingitana<br />
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<a href="http://www.bible-history.com/maps/romanempire/Mauritania-Tingitana.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.bible-history.com/maps/romanempire/Mauritania-Tingitana.html">http://www.bible-history.com/maps/romane...</a> Ottimo articolo sulla Mauretania Tingitana e Cesarea (lista nomi roman coloniae)<br />
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<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k1047539/f286.image" target="_blank" title="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k1047539/f286.image">http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k10...</a> Leo Africanus: Anfa (Casablanca) romana<br />
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0-hera.ugr.es.adrastea.ugr.es/tesisugr/19709298.pdf Mueden Rachid: las colonias y municipios de la Mauretania Tingitana (Tingis, Zilis, Lixus, Banasa, Thamusida, Sala, Volubilis)<br />
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Marcos%20Perez,%20Alvaro%20-%20septem_bizantina... historia de Ceuta (ottimo)<br />
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<a href="http://arthurkevinmackinly.blogspot.com/2013/08/el-africa-bizantina-parte-iii-2.html" target="_blank" title="http://arthurkevinmackinly.blogspot.com/2013/08/el-africa-bizantina-parte-iii-2.html">http://arthurkevinmackinly.blogspot.com/...</a> El Africa bizantina (una dozzina di capitoli)<br />
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<a href="https://archive.org/stream/extinctionofchr00holm/extinctionofchr00holm_djvu.txt" target="_blank" title="https://archive.org/stream/extinctionofchr00holm/extinctionofchr00holm_djvu.txt">https://archive.org/stream/extinctionofc...</a> last christian churches extinction in Africa (in English:GOOD!)<br />
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<a href="http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=110&ved=0CGEQFjAJOGQ&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.qattara.it%2Fdeserto%2520egiziano_files%2Fdecline_human.pdf&ei=RYSrU9KOO5OXqAb-x4GIDg&usg=AFQjCNFZ_UJAB2Fg97k0e45-0X9WJL2gkw" target="_blank" title="http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=110&ved=0CGEQFjAJOGQ&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.qattara.it%2Fdeserto%2520egiziano_files%2Fdecline_human.pdf&ei=RYSrU9KOO5OXqAb-x4GIDg&usg=AFQjCNFZ_UJAB2Fg97k0e45-0X9WJL2gkw">http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j...</a> Decline of north Africa since Rome's fall<br />
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<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ZTNTz3POoZUC&pg=PA272&dq=albulae+mauretania&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=albulae%20mauretania&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.com/books?id=ZTNTz3POoZUC&pg=PA272&dq=albulae+mauretania&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=albulae%20mauretania&f=false">http://books.google.com/books?id=ZTNTz3P...</a> Cambridge enc.Africa (transaharan travels + Altava information)<br />
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<a href="http://eprints.uniss.it/5861/1/Ruiu_M_Cohors_II_Sardorum_ad.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://eprints.uniss.it/5861/1/Ruiu_M_Cohors_II_Sardorum_ad.pdf">http://eprints.uniss.it/5861/1/Ruiu_M_Co...</a> Altava history (in italiano)<br />
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<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=rfDpA2cbB0cC&dq=altava+in+roman++mauretania&source=gbs_navlinks_s" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.com/books?id=rfDpA2cbB0cC&dq=altava+in+roman++mauretania&source=gbs_navlinks_s">http://books.google.com/books?id=rfDpA2c...</a> Staying roman (in roman Africa)<br />
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<a href="http://www.instoria.it/home/province_romane_mauretania.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.instoria.it/home/province_romane_mauretania.htm">http://www.instoria.it/home/province_rom...</a> OTTIMO! Provincia Mauretania (da rivista Historia in italiano)<br />
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etheses.dur.ac.uk/9282/1/9282_6213-vol1.PDF?UkUDh:CyT Mauretania Cesariensis (OTTIMA TESI IN INGLESE)<br />
( <a href="http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CB0QFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fetheses.dur.ac.uk%2F9282%2F1%2F9282_6213-vol1.PDF%3FUkUDh%3ACyT&ei=SMS0U8ibIMKF8AGRrYGgCw&usg=AFQjCNE8mbLOqegXyF7GJC7DxeottsIRCg&bvm=bv.70138588,d.b2U" target="_blank" title="http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CB0QFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fetheses.dur.ac.uk%2F9282%2F1%2F9282_6213-vol1.PDF%3FUkUDh%3ACyT&ei=SMS0U8ibIMKF8AGRrYGgCw&usg=AFQjCNE8mbLOqegXyF7GJC7DxeottsIRCg&bvm=bv.70138588,d.b2U">http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j...</a> )<br />
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( <a href="http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=18&ved=0CEgQFjAHOAo&url=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.uniss.it%2F6494%2F1%2FMastino_A_Severi_nel_Nord_Africa.pdf&ei=fhW2U92NNZGcyASd_IH4BQ&usg=AFQjCNF1KpFzc3xp0uY1eRENPmeL0GQQ-w" target="_blank" title="http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=18&ved=0CEgQFjAHOAo&url=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.uniss.it%2F6494%2F1%2FMastino_A_Severi_nel_Nord_Africa.pdf&ei=fhW2U92NNZGcyASd_IH4BQ&usg=AFQjCNF1KpFzc3xp0uY1eRENPmeL0GQQ-w">http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j...</a> ) L'Africa dei Severi: O T T I M O !!!! (in italiano)<br />
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<a href="http://jahiliyyah.wordpress.com/cartes-geographiques/" target="_blank" title="http://jahiliyyah.wordpress.com/cartes-geographiques/">http://jahiliyyah.wordpress.com/cartes-g...</a> Jahiliyyah (ignoranza) Ottime Mappe. Storie dell'Africa romana esposte dal punto di vista di un algerino <br />
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<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=hQLfCZiWBt8C&pg=PA180&dq=Henri+Lhote+abalessa&hl=en&sa=X&ei=4cC5U9v2EtOZqAbv_4HgCQ&ved=0CCgQ6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q=Henri%20Lhote%20abalessa&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.com/books?id=hQLfCZiWBt8C&pg=PA180&dq=Henri+Lhote+abalessa&hl=en&sa=X&ei=4cC5U9v2EtOZqAbv_4HgCQ&ved=0CCgQ6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q=Henri%20Lhote%20abalessa&f=false">http://books.google.com/books?id=hQLfCZi...</a> Libro di Henri Lhote che spiega come Abalessa nell'Ahaggar algerino secondo lui era fortificazione romana<br />
<a href="http://www.planetabenitez.com/IOI/historias-32.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.planetabenitez.com/IOI/historias-32.htm">http://www.planetabenitez.com/IOI/histor...</a> Tin Hinan foto<br />
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<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=mTQOBYXIEaMC&pg=PA163&dq=oasis+de+cydamus&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=oasis%20de%20cydamus&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.com/books?id=mTQOBYXIEaMC&pg=PA163&dq=oasis+de+cydamus&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=oasis%20de%20cydamus&f=false">http://books.google.com/books?id=mTQOBYX...</a> informazione su Cydamus (Gadames) e dintorni in Libia (in francese)<br />
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<a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0067270X.2012.727614#tabModule" target="_blank" title="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0067270X.2012.727614#tabModule">http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1...</a> Libro su rotte transahariane in epoca romana (OTTIMO)<br />
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<a href="http://books.google.it/books?id=HnxyAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA218&lpg=PA218&dq=Flavia+Domitilla+maggiore&source=bl&ots=0n0PTdvYNO&sig=ai0lwJ6MlGWalG3Ofge7oU7dFgM&hl=it&sa=X&ei=-9HLU_OrIOOV8QHQr4HwBg&ved=0CG0Q6AEwEA#v=onepage&q=Flavia%20Domitilla%20maggiore&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.it/books?id=HnxyAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA218&lpg=PA218&dq=Flavia+Domitilla+maggiore&source=bl&ots=0n0PTdvYNO&sig=ai0lwJ6MlGWalG3Ofge7oU7dFgM&hl=it&sa=X&ei=-9HLU_OrIOOV8QHQr4HwBg&ved=0CG0Q6AEwEA#v=onepage&q=Flavia%20Domitilla%20maggiore&f=false">http://books.google.it/books?id=HnxyAgAA...</a> Vespasiano (moglie Flavia Domitilla da Sabratha)<br />
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ARTICOLO SU CONQUISTA SOMALIA BRITANNICA: "Bollettino ufficiale di Guerra" # 78 dell' Agosto 1940<br />
L'attacco ebbe inizio nel pomeriggio del giorno 11, preceduto ed accompagnato dall'azione dell'aviazione che, agli ordini del generale di brigata aerea Collalti, agiva con ondate successive di bombardieri sugli apprestamenti difensivi nemici e con incursioni di cacciatori mitraglianti sui campi dell'aviazione nemica. L'avversario sfruttando gli apprestamenti difensivi opponeva però tenace e valida resistenza con il fuoco, con il contrattacco, con bene organizzate azioni di artiglieria.<br />
La nostra azione riprendeva il giorno 12 e continuava accanita nei giorni 13 e 14. Malgrado le difficoltà opposte dal clima e dal terreno manovrando sagacemente, concentrando gli sforzi alle ali, le nostre truppe valorose, con il valido appoggio dell'artiglieria e i ripetuti bombardamenti aerei, progredivano metodicamente travolgendo successivi e muniti ordini di difesa avversaria. Il giorno 15, previo violento bombardamento aereo seguito da precisa preparazione di artiglieria, la XV brigata alla nostra ala destra conquistava di slancio gli ultimi capisaldi nemici a cavallo della rotabile per Lafaruk: nel solo caposaldo n. 1 venivano fatti prigionieri 13 ufficiali ed altri militari inglesi e nel suo interno si contavano oltre 200 morti di un battaglione rhodesiano. Contemporaneamente, alla sinistra la II brigata, travolti gli ultimi centri di resistenza del nemico, ne avvolgeva l'ala destra. A notte gli inglesi ripiegavano lasciando sul terreno centinaia di morti e nelle nostre mani numerosi prigionieri ed ingente quantità di materiale, fra cui artiglierie. Dopo quattro giorni di lotta accanita il sistema difensivo inglese era così completamente travolto. Terza fase: dal 16 al 19 agosto. Superata in tal modo la principale posizione difensiva del nemico, le nostre truppe proseguivano nella loro avanzata: XV brigata su Lafaruk, fiancheggiata a sinistra dalla XIII e a destra dal gruppo delle bande Bertello, con il compito di avvolgere le difese da esse investite; in riserva le brigate LXX e XIV. L'aviazione continuava a conservare il predominio del cielo proteggendo le sottostanti colonne, bombardava e volgeva in fuga rinforzi nemici accorrenti, infliggendo loro sensibilissime perdite ed iniziava un sistematico bombardamento delle navi da carico e da guerra che il nemico faceva affluire nel porto di Berbera. Una nostra colonna autocarrata, costituita con elementi di volontari tratti da tutte le forze armate, da un battaglione di Camicie nere e da uno indigeno, agli ordini del luogotenente generale Passerone, partita da Zeila raggiungeva nel frattempo Bulhar, lungo la strada costiera che da Zeila conduce a Berbera. Il gruppo de Simone presto urtava presso Lafaruk con il secondo sistema difensivo anch'esso munitissimo di reticolati, trincee e caverne, sul quale avevano ripiegato le truppe sconfitte e dove erano affluiti gli ultimi rinforzi disponibili nel territorio della colonia. Il 18 agosto anche tale ultimo baluardo inglese, investito frontalmente ed avvolto alle ali, veniva sfondato. Battaglioni indiani con accaniti contrattacchi, cercavano invano di liberarsi della pressione dei nostri, per poi fuggire in direzione di Berbera. Il generale Nasi lanciava allora verso Berbera la colonna motorizzata già predisposta per lo sfruttamento del successo e costituita con unità della polizia A. I., mentre gli inglesi, in disordinata fuga, dopo l'inutile prodezza di incendiare la parte europea di Berbera, si sforzavano di mettersi in salvo sull'ultima nave da guerra rimasta in porto, ripetutamente bombardata dalla nostra aviazione. Il 19 le nostre truppe entravano in Berbera. Durante le operazioni abbiamo catturato alcune centinaia di automezzi e di armi automatiche, numerose artiglierie e carri armati, ingenti quantità di munizioni, di viveri e di materiale del genio e di sanità. Nelle nostre mani sono inoltre rimasti qualche centinaio di prigionieri delle truppe regolari e tutte le truppe somale, ammontanti a circa un migliaio di uomini. Tali truppe erano state impiegate per proteggere l'imbarco degli inglesi e abbandonate poi alloro destino<br />
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<a href="http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/565" target="_blank" title="http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/565">http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/565</a> Kasbah di Algeri (UNESCO)<br />
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<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=8N0_AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA307&lpg=PA307&dq=chullu+roman+colonia&source=bl&ots=undWHMne9i&sig=bBaL_6IWYrMyhYvX2_wqkuGc1ns&hl=en&sa=X&ei=sS3ZU4ThL4WfyATYqoHwDg&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBTg8#v=onepage&q=chullu%20roman%20colonia&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.com/books?id=8N0_AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA307&lpg=PA307&dq=chullu+roman+colonia&source=bl&ots=undWHMne9i&sig=bBaL_6IWYrMyhYvX2_wqkuGc1ns&hl=en&sa=X&ei=sS3ZU4ThL4WfyATYqoHwDg&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBTg8#v=onepage&q=chullu%20roman%20colonia&f=false">http://books.google.com/books?id=8N0_AAA...</a> Confederazione di Cirta ( Chullu, ecc..)<br />
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<a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0006%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DC%3Aentry+group%3D6%3Aentry%3Dcirta" target="_blank" title="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0006%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DC%3Aentry+group%3D6%3Aentry%3Dcirta">http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text...</a> Perseus: confederazione Cirta..... Chullu...<br />
{{The town of Cirta had become a Roman colony, probably as early as the time of Sittius. At the beginning of the 2d c. it was the capital of a curious administrative district, one of those anomalies common to the administrative history of Africa. It was the capital of the confederation of the IV colonies, the three others being Rusicade, Chullu, and Milev. Its magistrates and municipal assembly were those of the confederation. On the other hand, Cirta itself possessed castella distributed throughout the area of the High Plains and to the N of the region: Castellum Mastarense, Elephantum, Tidditanorum, Cletianis, Thibilis, Sigus, etc. After the dissolution of this confederation, Cirta recovered its role as a capital when it headed Numidia Cirtenses (created under Diocletian) and, later, all of Numidia. At that time it changed its name to Constantina in honor of the emperor who restored it to its splendor after a siege undertaken by the usurper Domitius Alexander.Constantine was an important center of the Christian community as early as the 3d c. It became the chief town of an ecclesiastical district and was an important city until the end of antiquity. Although many ancient cities disappeared during the Arab Middle Ages, Constantine survived.}} INSERIRE IN CIRTA/WIKI A FIANCO MAPPA<br />
<a href="http://jahiliyyah.files.wordpress.com/2010/09/lafrique-du-nord-apres-juba-ier.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://jahiliyyah.files.wordpress.com/2010/09/lafrique-du-nord-apres-juba-ier.jpg">http://jahiliyyah.files.wordpress.com/20...</a> Mappa del territorio (in verde) di Cirta confederazione<br />
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<a href="http://www.luc.edu/roman-emperors/wardoc2map6.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.luc.edu/roman-emperors/wardoc2map6.jpg">http://www.luc.edu/roman-emperors/wardoc...</a> mappa dettagliata del fossatum africae (con Gemellae e Diaqna veteranorum ben indicate) .<br />
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<a href="http://cil.bbaw.de/afrika/cil-karte_neu.html" target="_blank" title="http://cil.bbaw.de/afrika/cil-karte_neu.html">http://cil.bbaw.de/afrika/cil-karte_neu....</a> Ottime mappe tedesche su Mauretania-Numidia-AfricaProconsularia<br />
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<a href="http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=48&ved=0CEIQFjAHOCg&url=http%3A%2F%2Fbu.umc.edu.dz%2Ftheses%2Farchitecture%2FBOU4698.pdf&ei=ctvaU-ziEcSayAT534BY&usg=AFQjCNGY6fzfjB5NHck1IaRzDGU0aUCdtg" target="_blank" title="http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=48&ved=0CEIQFjAHOCg&url=http%3A%2F%2Fbu.umc.edu.dz%2Ftheses%2Farchitecture%2FBOU4698.pdf&ei=ctvaU-ziEcSayAT534BY&usg=AFQjCNGY6fzfjB5NHck1IaRzDGU0aUCdtg">http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j...</a> Scholar essay on Cirta/Constantine and IV confederation (in French)<br />
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<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=1urqHVQ0qQAC&pg=PA224&lpg=PA224&dq=cirta+roman+federation&source=bl&ots=FIPB7AOs8u&sig=HNa7b1Jfuwj8wDhvhu7TIaZvsTU&hl=en&sa=X&ei=WUDcU47DKcy3yATVw4GIBg&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=cirta%20roman%20federation&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.com/books?id=1urqHVQ0qQAC&pg=PA224&lpg=PA224&dq=cirta+roman+federation&source=bl&ots=FIPB7AOs8u&sig=HNa7b1Jfuwj8wDhvhu7TIaZvsTU&hl=en&sa=X&ei=WUDcU47DKcy3yATVw4GIBg&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=cirta%20roman%20federation&f=false">http://books.google.com/books?id=1urqHVQ...</a> Castellum Tidditanorum and Cirta<br />
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Perregaux -Mohammadia- CASTRA NOVA: (last evidence of existence in 484 AD)<br />
Seules quelques ruines romaines, datant du 1° siècle après J.C., témoignaient d'une ère jadis florissante et réduite à néant par les invasions des Vandales, puis des Arabes. Ces ruines étaient les vestiges de l'ancienne ville "Castra Nova". Carrefour des routes venant d'Albulès (Aïn Témouchent ) et de Portus Magnus (Saint-Leu), elle occupait, au pied des monts du Tell et sur la rive droite de l'Oued el Hammam, une place stratégique. <br />
Dalla voce Mohammadia della wiki francese:<br />
après Ballene Præsidium, on trouvait à XX milles le centre de Castra Nova, qui est sans nul doute l’emplacement actuel de Perrégaux ou du moins le lieu situé à 2 kilomètres Est de cette ville où l’on peut voir les ruines d’un petit poste militaire, sans doute Castra Nova. On y remarque les substructions d’un mur d’enceinte, celles de quelques maisons et une grande citerne. Près de ces ruines se trouvait un cimetière romain, dans lequel on a trouvé les deux inscriptions chrétiennes (portant les numéros 47 et 48 du bulletin des antiquités africaines, t. I, p. 139 et 140) Vitalis, évêque de Castra Nova est inscrit le 76e sur la liste des évêques exilés en 484 par le roi Hunéric. Les Romains étaient ainsi maitres de la basse Mina et de la Macta. Une des branches de cette dernière, l’Oued-el-Hammam, s’appelait alors Sira, (c’est peut<br />
Monographie de la commune d’El Matmar 2008<br />
17<br />
être ce qui a donné le nom de Sirat appliqué à une plaine fertile voisine, dans lequel les arabes ont voulu voir le mot Cirat qui chez eux signifie spécialement le sentier ou pont menant au Paradis. Le peuple arabe est d’ailleurs très porté à unifier deux analogies linguistiques en donnant un sens de sa langue propre à une expression étrangère). <br />
Ballene Præsidium et Castra Nova étaient des villes de garnison, bien qu’on n’ait pas trouvé d’inscription en ce sens. Les Romains introduisent l’irrigation avec barrages de dérivation et canaux(2). Ils suspendent leurs arrosages lorsque les forts orages éclatent en amont, là où se trouvent des terrains et des sources salées, néfastes aux cultures. Cette utilisation de l’eau permet de corriger la sécheresse pour pratiquer la culture des céréales et des arbres fruitiers (oliviers et grenadiers). <br />
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<a href="https://golvenezuela.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/maracanazo-criollo.jpg" target="_blank" title="https://golvenezuela.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/maracanazo-criollo.jpg">https://golvenezuela.files.wordpress.com...</a> Pequeno maracanazo (Dep. Italia)<br />
<a href="http://www.google.pt/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=46&ved=0CEAQFjAFOCg&url=http%3A%2F%2Fbiblioteca2.ucab.edu.ve%2Fanexos%2Fbiblioteca%2Fmarc%2Ftexto%2FAAS4821.pdf&ei=1rTiU7_9KtL5oATjjoLoCA&usg=AFQjCNHgMobpFPEJ9aIUNXquPGFP3GcS-A&bvm=bv.72676100,d.cGU" target="_blank" title="http://www.google.pt/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=46&ved=0CEAQFjAFOCg&url=http%3A%2F%2Fbiblioteca2.ucab.edu.ve%2Fanexos%2Fbiblioteca%2Fmarc%2Ftexto%2FAAS4821.pdf&ei=1rTiU7_9KtL5oATjjoLoCA&usg=AFQjCNHgMobpFPEJ9aIUNXquPGFP3GcS-A&bvm=bv.72676100,d.cGU">http://www.google.pt/url?sa=t&rct=j&...</a> Tesi della Cattolica Andres Bello sul Dep. Italia/Petare (ERA D'AMBROSIO!!!!)<br />
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<a href="http://clubecolours.blogspot.com/2010/09/o-pequeno-maracanazo-venezuelano.html" target="_blank" title="http://clubecolours.blogspot.com/2010/09/o-pequeno-maracanazo-venezuelano.html">http://clubecolours.blogspot.com/2010/09...</a> O pequeno maracanazo (in portoghese)<br />
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<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=1F9oAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA300&lpg=PA300&dq=cohors+breucorum+mauretania&source=bl&ots=b6poPRyDgq&sig=2mD02JOL_8LzfJmyIbuuNtf6jjU&hl=en&sa=X&ei=xeHiU9-II5H4yQSypIH4Aw&ved=0CEEQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=cohors%20breucorum%20mauretania&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.com/books?id=1F9oAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA300&lpg=PA300&dq=cohors+breucorum+mauretania&source=bl&ots=b6poPRyDgq&sig=2mD02JOL_8LzfJmyIbuuNtf6jjU&hl=en&sa=X&ei=xeHiU9-II5H4yQSypIH4Aw&ved=0CEEQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=cohors%20breucorum%20mauretania&f=false">http://books.google.com/books?id=1F9oAAA...</a> Cohors breucorum<br />
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<a href="http://filah.over-blog.org/" target="_blank" title="http://filah.over-blog.org/">http://filah.over-blog.org/</a> Diana Veteranorum (e Ahaggar Tin Hinan forse romano?) di blogger arabo<br />
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<a href="http://www.lookandlearn.com/blog/26338/the-tomb-of-tin-hinan-desert-queen-of-the-tuaregs/" target="_blank" title="http://www.lookandlearn.com/blog/26338/the-tomb-of-tin-hinan-desert-queen-of-the-tuaregs/">http://www.lookandlearn.com/blog/26338/t...</a> Tomb of Tin Hinan on former roman fort?<br />
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<a href="http://www.tigzirt.eu/index.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.tigzirt.eu/index.html">http://www.tigzirt.eu/index.html</a> History of Iomnium/Tigzirt<br />
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<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=n7gBAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Itin%C3%A9raire+historique+et+descriptif+de+l%27Alg%C3%A9rie:+comprenant+le+Tell+et+le+...++Par+Louis+Piesse&as_brr=3&hl=fr#v=onepage&q&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.com/books?id=n7gBAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Itin%C3%A9raire+historique+et+descriptif+de+l%27Alg%C3%A9rie:+comprenant+le+Tell+et+le+...++Par+Louis+Piesse&as_brr=3&hl=fr#v=onepage&q&f=false">http://books.google.com/books?id=n7gBAAA...</a> Libro in francese sulla storia della mauretania romana OTTIMO!<br />
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<a href="http://crc-internet.org/our-doctrine/national-restoration/algerian-war/1-roman-land-christian-land/" target="_blank" title="http://crc-internet.org/our-doctrine/national-restoration/algerian-war/1-roman-land-christian-land/">http://crc-internet.org/our-doctrine/nat...</a> Storia dell'Algeria Cristiana, scritta da prete favorevole ai pied noirs<br />
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<a href="http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=11&ved=0CBwQFjAAOAo&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.proiectavdhela.ro%2Fpdf%2Fgiuseppe_motta_the_fight_for_balkan_latinity.pdf&ei=8evnU_D6HsOdygS4hoHoCw&usg=AFQjCNFwMJ3k2E7lnCDKK-ny546GI5UlAQ" target="_blank" title="http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=11&ved=0CBwQFjAAOAo&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.proiectavdhela.ro%2Fpdf%2Fgiuseppe_motta_the_fight_for_balkan_latinity.pdf&ei=8evnU_D6HsOdygS4hoHoCw&usg=AFQjCNFwMJ3k2E7lnCDKK-ny546GI5UlAQ">http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j...</a> GIUSEPPE MOTTA<br />
THE FIGHT FOR BALKAN LATINITY. THE AROMANIANS UNTIL WORLD WAR I. în „MEDITERRANEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES,” VOL. 2(3), SEPTEMBER, 2011, ROME<br />
Editura Predania/ CP 67, OP 13, București www.predania.ro <br />
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<a href="http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=68&ved=0CE8QFjAHODw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.glenriddingcybercafe.co.uk%2Fdocs%2FTCBell%2FPORTSOY%2520-%2520NORTH%2520SCOTLAND%2560S%2520ROMAN%2520HERITAGE..doc&ei=FZL-U4ihGoyhyASz2YCgAw&usg=AFQjCNG8YEKh57j6rtAlirY4ynibjiuGkQ" target="_blank" title="http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=68&ved=0CE8QFjAHODw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.glenriddingcybercafe.co.uk%2Fdocs%2FTCBell%2FPORTSOY%2520-%2520NORTH%2520SCOTLAND%2560S%2520ROMAN%2520HERITAGE..doc&ei=FZL-U4ihGoyhyASz2YCgAw&usg=AFQjCNG8YEKh57j6rtAlirY4ynibjiuGkQ">http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j...</a> Libro di ingegnere inglese di nome Bell su presenza romana nel Great Glen canale a Fort Augustus ed altro in Scozia/Caledonia<br />
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Gruppi Azione Nizzarda ..... <a href="http://italianpolitic.wordpress.com/" target="_blank" title="http://italianpolitic.wordpress.com/">http://italianpolitic.wordpress.com/</a><br />
Vignoli :Storia e letteratura di Nizza italiana..(scaricare il file)... <a href="http://www.monarchia.it/pubblicazioni_nizzavignoli.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.monarchia.it/pubblicazioni_nizzavignoli.html">http://www.monarchia.it/pubblicazioni_ni...</a><br />
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<a href="http://btgsanmarco.it/allegati/il-battaglione-italiano-in-cina/" target="_blank" title="http://btgsanmarco.it/allegati/il-battaglione-italiano-in-cina/">http://btgsanmarco.it/allegati/il-battag...</a> Unico riferimento all'occupazione della ex-Concessione austriaca di Tientsin nel giugno 1928<br />
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<a href="http://www.pewforum.org/uploadedFiles/Topics/Religious_Affiliation/Christian/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.pewforum.org/uploadedFiles/Topics/Religious_Affiliation/Christian/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf">http://www.pewforum.org/uploadedFiles/To...</a> Studio sul cristianesimo nel mondo (Ottimo)<br />
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<a href="https://books.google.it/books?id=5noBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA37&lpg=PA37&dq=aurelianus+ambrosianus&source=bl&ots=HZTR458Lkz&sig=NzCeQI9h0Ktn7rdWXMHxjSXEq9Q&hl=it&ei=G3tJSqzELqCY8wTmpOWTDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result#v=onepage&q&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.it/books?id=5noBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA37&lpg=PA37&dq=aurelianus+ambrosianus&source=bl&ots=HZTR458Lkz&sig=NzCeQI9h0Ktn7rdWXMHxjSXEq9Q&hl=it&ei=G3tJSqzELqCY8wTmpOWTDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result#v=onepage&q&f=false">https://books.google.it/books?id=5noBAAA...</a> Ottimo libro sulla storia medioevale inglese (subroman Britain )<br />
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<a href="http://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=24&ved=0CDUQFjADOBQ&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fedoa.unina.it%2F2854%2F1%2FColucci_Storia_dell_Architettura_e_della_Citta.pdf&ei=qy85VNeNDcT3yQTUuoDIBQ&usg=AFQjCNFiEY7Mj6YX3as7neqN_FhWkWBVrg" target="_blank" title="http://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=24&ved=0CDUQFjADOBQ&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fedoa.unina.it%2F2854%2F1%2FColucci_Storia_dell_Architettura_e_della_Citta.pdf&ei=qy85VNeNDcT3yQTUuoDIBQ&usg=AFQjCNFiEY7Mj6YX3as7neqN_FhWkWBVrg">http://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j&...</a> Ottima tesi dottorato su Schola medica salernitana e suo giardino botanico<br />
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<a href="http://www.wumingfoundation.com/giap/?p=19327" target="_blank" title="http://www.wumingfoundation.com/giap/?p=19327">http://www.wumingfoundation.com/giap/?p=...</a> Articolo di comunisti "wuming" citando brunodam<br />
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<a href="https://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=12&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwi4xZHYnKzJAhWCPD4KHXzqDAg4ChAWCCgwAQ&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.infoaipi.org%2Fnews_14%2FPoeti%2520e%2520letterati%2520dalmati.pdf&usg=AFQjCNEnLQs9cYg7FnOfUZPyNUoIZNyDyA" target="_blank" title="https://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=12&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwi4xZHYnKzJAhWCPD4KHXzqDAg4ChAWCCgwAQ&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.infoaipi.org%2Fnews_14%2FPoeti%2520e%2520letterati%2520dalmati.pdf&usg=AFQjCNEnLQs9cYg7FnOfUZPyNUoIZNyDyA">https://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j...</a> Testo su DALMAZIA NAZIONE di de viscovich su letterati neolatini di dalmazia (Girolamo cavagnini...)<br />
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<a href="http://www.slideshare.net/movimentoirredentistaitaliano/la-dalmazia-terra-ditalia-socialisti-francesi-ed-italiani-per-litalianit-della-dalmazia-gsorel-eleone-1919?related=5" target="_blank" title="http://www.slideshare.net/movimentoirredentistaitaliano/la-dalmazia-terra-ditalia-socialisti-francesi-ed-italiani-per-litalianit-della-dalmazia-gsorel-eleone-1919?related=5">http://www.slideshare.net/movimentoirred...</a> Movimento irredentista italiano: fotocopie di vari libri e pubblicazioni su irredentismo...... O T T I M O <br />
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dspace.bcucluj.ro/jspui/bitstream/.../1/BCUCLUJ_BAL3585_1923.pdf I Romeni e le minoranze (scritto anche sui valacchi) del 1927<br />
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<a href="http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Amministratori_problematici" target="_blank" title="http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Amministratori_problematici">http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:A...</a> Wikipedia italiana: amministratori, utenti problematici ed altro<br />
<a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Staff_and_contractors" target="_blank" title="https://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Staff_and_contractors">https://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Sta...</a> Sito dei membri sul LEGAL DEPARTMENT ed altri di Wikimedia<br />
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<a href="http://www.umbriaturismo.net/turismoumbria/personaggi-illustri/astorre-baglioni/" target="_blank" title="http://www.umbriaturismo.net/turismoumbria/personaggi-illustri/astorre-baglioni/">http://www.umbriaturismo.net/turismoumbr...</a> Astorre baglioni, governatore di cipro nel 1571 assedio di famagosta<br />
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<a href="http://www.arenadipola.it/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=756&Itemid=65" target="_blank" title="http://www.arenadipola.it/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=756&Itemid=65">http://www.arenadipola.it/index.php?opti...</a> storia della VENEZIA GIULIA-ISTRIA LIBERO COMUNE DI POLA<br />
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<a href="http://preferreading.blogspot.com/2010/10/portmahomack-monastery-of-picts-martin.html" target="_blank" title="http://preferreading.blogspot.com/2010/10/portmahomack-monastery-of-picts-martin.html">http://preferreading.blogspot.com/2010/1...</a> Portmahomack nel sesto secolo in scozia<br />
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<a href="http://maps.nls.uk/site-map.html" target="_blank" title="http://maps.nls.uk/site-map.html">http://maps.nls.uk/site-map.html</a> MAPPE PERFETTE DELLA SCOZIA IN EPOCA ROMANA e -tra l'altro- libro dettagliato sulla Scozia romana di Roy <a href="http://maps.nls.uk/roy/antiquities/index.html" target="_blank" title="http://maps.nls.uk/roy/antiquities/index.html">http://maps.nls.uk/roy/antiquities/index...</a>)<br />
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<a href="http://www.tiaret.biz/index.php?display=html%2F50Historique%2F25Historique.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.tiaret.biz/index.php?display=html%2F50Historique%2F25Historique.html">http://www.tiaret.biz/index.php?display=...</a> Storia di Tiaret mauretania (tingitana)<br />
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<a href="http://www.academia.edu/846817/Lo_sviluppo_di_Salerno_nel_Medioevo._I_temi_della_ricostruzione_storiografica" target="_blank" title="http://www.academia.edu/846817/Lo_sviluppo_di_Salerno_nel_Medioevo._I_temi_della_ricostruzione_storiografica">http://www.academia.edu/846817/Lo_svilup...</a> Salerno storia medioevale (OTTIMO)<br />
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<a href="http://www.nasdaq.com/markets/crude-oil.aspx?timeframe=10y" target="_blank" title="http://www.nasdaq.com/markets/crude-oil.aspx?timeframe=10y">http://www.nasdaq.com/markets/crude-oil....</a> OIL grafico: ottimo!<br />
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<a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PtzWAQAAQBAJ&dq=Bur+Gao+somalia&source=gbs_navlinks_s" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=PtzWAQAAQBAJ&dq=Bur+Gao+somalia&source=gbs_navlinks_s">https://books.google.com/books?id=PtzWAQ...</a> Roman commerce and merchant settlements in the Red Sea ( and eastern Africa).<br />
====================================================<br />
<a href="http://www.incontrostoria.it/petrolio2.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.incontrostoria.it/petrolio2.htm">http://www.incontrostoria.it/petrolio2.h...</a> Petrolio e l'Italia in medio oriente negli anni trenta e quaranta<br />
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<a href="https://books.google.it/books?id=VSK2b0H5TtAC&pg=PA201&dq=diplomazia+italiana+in+afghanistan+nel+1939&hl=it&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=diplomazia%20italiana%20in%20afghanistan%20nel%201939&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.it/books?id=VSK2b0H5TtAC&pg=PA201&dq=diplomazia+italiana+in+afghanistan+nel+1939&hl=it&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=diplomazia%20italiana%20in%20afghanistan%20nel%201939&f=false">https://books.google.it/books?id=VSK2b0H...</a> Diplomazia italiana in Afganistan negli anni trenta (OTTIMO)<br />
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<a href="http://hoyvenezuela.info/recorrer-los-siete-templos-desde-la-estetica-y-la-historia-caraquena/#comment-7774" target="_blank" title="http://hoyvenezuela.info/recorrer-los-siete-templos-desde-la-estetica-y-la-historia-caraquena/#comment-7774">http://hoyvenezuela.info/recorrer-los-si...</a> Iglesias de Caracas (nuestra Senora Lourdes/Plaza Italia)<br />
<a href="http://mariafsigillo.blogspot.com/2015/05/la-iglesia-de-nuestra-senora-de-lourdes.html" target="_blank" title="http://mariafsigillo.blogspot.com/2015/05/la-iglesia-de-nuestra-senora-de-lourdes.html">http://mariafsigillo.blogspot.com/2015/0...</a> Fotos de Plaza Italia y NS de Lourdes<br />
<a href="https://www.yumpu.com/es/document/view/26652436/a-venezuela-analiza-a-burundi-sobre-aplicacian-de-la-convencian-/19" target="_blank" title="https://www.yumpu.com/es/document/view/26652436/a-venezuela-analiza-a-burundi-sobre-aplicacian-de-la-convencian-/19">https://www.yumpu.com/es/document/view/2...</a> OTTIMO su NS de LOURDES chiesa in plaza italia<br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRseVqNIDkZ8hCUWvZCHrUhLh_aRqzp1ymDE1yz0V-9L-CODlQl1MpxQllJaj8nzi6RR2WxFvofDkTXs_fMMW_G3mQIp1iasVUjdSasXqaPNMsABpmjepnPhcwb0iOH5YGZEVG6LgEue8/s400/Giuseppe+Garibaldi.JPG" target="_blank" title="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRseVqNIDkZ8hCUWvZCHrUhLh_aRqzp1ymDE1yz0V-9L-CODlQl1MpxQllJaj8nzi6RR2WxFvofDkTXs_fMMW_G3mQIp1iasVUjdSasXqaPNMsABpmjepnPhcwb0iOH5YGZEVG6LgEue8/s400/Giuseppe+Garibaldi.JPG">http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-5THpKBR7CXU/Th...</a> immagine del busto di garibaldi nella Plaza Italia<br />
<a href="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:cnXklIaVCQQJ:www.institutoabreuelima.com.br/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Los-Heroes-de-Carabobo-Hector-Bencomo-Barrios.pdf+&cd=4&hl=es&ct=clnk&gl=es" target="_blank" title="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:cnXklIaVCQQJ:www.institutoabreuelima.com.br/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Los-Heroes-de-Carabobo-Hector-Bencomo-Barrios.pdf+&cd=4&hl=es&ct=clnk&gl=es">http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se...</a> General Castelli y otros de la independencia de Venezuela (OTTIMO)<br />
<a href="http://www.efemeridesvenezolanas.com/images/efemerides/ldalw_Castelli.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.efemeridesvenezolanas.com/images/efemerides/ldalw_Castelli.jpg">http://www.efemeridesvenezolanas.com/ima...</a> Immagine del Castelli<br />
<a href="http://www.scielo.org.ve/scielo.php?pid=S1315-94962013000100006&script=sci_arttext" target="_blank" title="http://www.scielo.org.ve/scielo.php?pid=S1315-94962013000100006&script=sci_arttext">http://www.scielo.org.ve/scielo.php?pid=...</a> Domenico Milano scuola agronomia caracas + generale castelli immigrazione 1841<br />
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<a href="http://ca.wow.com/wiki/Christian_Berbers" target="_blank" title="http://ca.wow.com/wiki/Christian_Berbers">http://ca.wow.com/wiki/Christian_Berbers</a> Christian Berbers su WOW (ci sono tutti i miei articoli cancellati!)<br />
<a href="http://ca.wow.com/wiki/History_of_Italian_colonial_railways" target="_blank" title="http://ca.wow.com/wiki/History_of_Italian_colonial_railways">http://ca.wow.com/wiki/History_of_Italia...</a> History of Italian colonial railways su WOW (ci sono tutti su Libia!)<br />
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<a href="http://terraeantiqvae.blogia.com/2008/020803-estudian-los-secretos-de-la-era-romana-de-beirut-libano-.php" target="_blank" title="http://terraeantiqvae.blogia.com/2008/020803-estudian-los-secretos-de-la-era-romana-de-beirut-libano-.php">http://terraeantiqvae.blogia.com/2008/02...</a> Berytus (Roman Beirut), con planta de la ciudad romana cerca del Puerto actual <br />
<a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YJPn3-rRjC0C&pg=PA230&lpg=PA230&dq=roman+berytus+population&source=bl&ots=aWxdjOIyen&sig=iTeb3xBjS9XjAq2NTGT-e084F9Q&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CDsQ6AEwBmoVChMItK2O6Iu0xwIVBdSACh0_KQtg#v=onepage&q=roman%20berytus%20population&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=YJPn3-rRjC0C&pg=PA230&lpg=PA230&dq=roman+berytus+population&source=bl&ots=aWxdjOIyen&sig=iTeb3xBjS9XjAq2NTGT-e084F9Q&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CDsQ6AEwBmoVChMItK2O6Iu0xwIVBdSACh0_KQtg#v=onepage&q=roman%20berytus%20population&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=YJPn3-...</a> Roman Syria and BERYTUS (p. 231)<br />
<a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jBU5AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA94&dq=roman+colonia+of+laodicea+in+syria&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CEQQ6AEwB2oVChMI-9eIsPnCxwIVDJmACh30aw_m#v=onepage&q=roman%20colonia%20of%20laodicea%20in%20syria&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=jBU5AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA94&dq=roman+colonia+of+laodicea+in+syria&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CEQQ6AEwB2oVChMI-9eIsPnCxwIVDJmACh30aw_m#v=onepage&q=roman%20colonia%20of%20laodicea%20in%20syria&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=jBU5AQ...</a> Syria romana<br />
<a href="http://numistoria.altervista.org/blog/?p=2897" target="_blank" title="http://numistoria.altervista.org/blog/?p=2897">http://numistoria.altervista.org/blog/?p...</a> Chiesa bizantina scoperta a San Giovanni d' Acri/Ptolemais<br />
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<a href="https://excaliburitalia.wordpress.com/2014/01/11/mussolini-e-gli-ebrei/" target="_blank" title="https://excaliburitalia.wordpress.com/2014/01/11/mussolini-e-gli-ebrei/">https://excaliburitalia.wordpress.com/20...</a> SVOLTA ANTIEBRAICA ITALIANA DEL 1938 (Mussolini e gli ebrei)<br />
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<a href="https://www.academia.edu/23092523/IL_TERZO_SECOLO_D.C._E_IL_COMMERCIO_ROMANO_NEL_MAR_ROSSO_CRISI_O_TRASFORMAZIONE" target="_blank" title="https://www.academia.edu/23092523/IL_TERZO_SECOLO_D.C._E_IL_COMMERCIO_ROMANO_NEL_MAR_ROSSO_CRISI_O_TRASFORMAZIONE">https://www.academia.edu/23092523/IL_TER...</a><br />
OTTIMO SCRITTO DI ACCADEMICO ITALIANO SUL COMMERCIO ROMANO NEL MAR ROSSO (verso l'India e la Cina, con riferimenti ai PORTI usati)<br />
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<a href="https://www.academia.edu/25242517/New_series_of_ethnic_maps_by_Zsolt_Bottlik?auto=view&campaign=weekly_digest" target="_blank" title="https://www.academia.edu/25242517/New_series_of_ethnic_maps_by_Zsolt_Bottlik?auto=view&campaign=weekly_digest">https://www.academia.edu/25242517/New_se...</a> OTTIME MAPPE SU CRISTIANI E VLACHS IN RUMELIA TURCA FINE OTTOCENTO (Academia: New series of ethnic maps by Zsolt Bottlik)<br />
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C O L O N I A L I S M O I T A L I A N O:<br />
<a href="http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-radiotelegrafi.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-radiotelegrafi.pdf">http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-radiotel...</a> Prima Radiotelegrafia in Somalia ed Eritrea<br />
<a href="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:jgUMm88RtLkJ:tobiashagmann.freeflux.net/files/media/horn/docs/m-sh-ali-giiumale_nd_mogadishu.pdf+&cd=6&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" target="_blank" title="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:jgUMm88RtLkJ:tobiashagmann.freeflux.net/files/media/horn/docs/m-sh-ali-giiumale_nd_mogadishu.pdf+&cd=6&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us">http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se...</a> Mogadiscio, perla oceano indiano<br />
<a href="https://italiacoloniale.wordpress.com/2015/04/20/le-scuole-indigene-nelle-colonie/" target="_blank" title="https://italiacoloniale.wordpress.com/2015/04/20/le-scuole-indigene-nelle-colonie/">https://italiacoloniale.wordpress.com/20...</a> BLOG su Colonie italiane<br />
<a href="http://www.neteditor.it/content/185291/noi-italiani-dafrica" target="_blank" title="http://www.neteditor.it/content/185291/noi-italiani-dafrica">http://www.neteditor.it/content/185291/n...</a> Autobiografia di italiano della Somalia (OTTIMO)<br />
<a href="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:AqCfSm7nFeMJ:dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/2307/975/5/38_H.%2520O.%2520AHMED%2520-%2520Sul%2520primo%2520decennio%2520dell'era%2520fascista%2520in%2520Somalia.pdf+&cd=11&hl=it&ct=clnk&gl=it" target="_blank" title="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:AqCfSm7nFeMJ:dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/2307/975/5/38_H.%2520O.%2520AHMED%2520-%2520Sul%2520primo%2520decennio%2520dell'era%2520fascista%2520in%2520Somalia.pdf+&cd=11&hl=it&ct=clnk&gl=it">http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se...</a> Primo decennio fascista in Somalia (OTTIMO), scritto da somalo in italiano<br />
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<a href="http://www.igmi.org/ancient/cerca.php?mode=naz&cod=36" target="_blank" title="http://www.igmi.org/ancient/cerca.php?mode=naz&cod=36">http://www.igmi.org/ancient/cerca.php?mo...</a> Istituto Geografico Italiano - MAPPE PERFETTE DELL' AOI (Somalia, ecc..)<br />
<a href="http://www.igmi.org/ancient/immagine.php?cod=17902" target="_blank" title="http://www.igmi.org/ancient/immagine.php?cod=17902">http://www.igmi.org/ancient/immagine.php...</a> Mappa strade dell'AOI nel 1938<br />
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<a href="https://www.google.it/?gws_rd=ssl#q=Hanl%C3%A9+in+1938+somalia+francese+" target="_blank" title="https://www.google.it/?gws_rd=ssl#q=Hanl%C3%A9+in+1938+somalia+francese+">https://www.google.it/?gws_rd=ssl#q=Hanl...</a> testo in francese su occupazione italiana nel 1938-9 di area occidentale della Somalia francese (piana di Henle) mappa pag 171<br />
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<a href="http://www.lacabalesta.it/biblioteca/Gribaudi/RassegnaMensile/GribaudiPionieri.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.lacabalesta.it/biblioteca/Gribaudi/RassegnaMensile/GribaudiPionieri.html">http://www.lacabalesta.it/biblioteca/Gri...</a> Prima colonia italo-etiope in Eritrea<br />
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<a href="http://www.storiaxxisecolo.it/secondaguerra/sgmcampagnaafrica6.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.storiaxxisecolo.it/secondaguerra/sgmcampagnaafrica6.htm">http://www.storiaxxisecolo.it/secondague...</a><br />
articolo sulla sconfitta in AOI (Somalia, ecc)<br />
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<a href="http://www.arsmilitaris.org/pubblicazioni/Libia.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.arsmilitaris.org/pubblicazioni/Libia.pdf">http://www.arsmilitaris.org/pubblicazion...</a> Guerra coloniale in Libia durante la prima guerra mondiale<br />
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<a href="http://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=5&ved=0CD0QFjAE&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.digibess.it%2Ffedora%2Frepository%2Fobject_download%2Fopenbess%3ATO043-00686%2FPDF%2Fopenbess_TO043-00686.pdf&ei=zVP6U6DSN4r8yQTssYHYCg&usg=AFQjCNGE2AxAwItGNhGOLHu7nJ0km4dmSQ&bvm=bv.73612305,d.aWw" target="_blank" title="http://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=5&ved=0CD0QFjAE&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.digibess.it%2Ffedora%2Frepository%2Fobject_download%2Fopenbess%3ATO043-00686%2FPDF%2Fopenbess_TO043-00686.pdf&ei=zVP6U6DSN4r8yQTssYHYCg&usg=AFQjCNGE2AxAwItGNhGOLHu7nJ0km4dmSQ&bvm=bv.73612305,d.aWw">http://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j&...</a><br />
Italiani nel mondo (ottimo su colonie italiane)<br />
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<a href="https://archive.org/stream/tripoliitalianal00mart/tripoliitalianal00mart_djvu.txt" target="_blank" title="https://archive.org/stream/tripoliitalianal00mart/tripoliitalianal00mart_djvu.txt">https://archive.org/stream/tripoliitalia...</a> Storia dettagliata della Guerra italo-turca in libia 1911<br />
<a href="http://www.ernandes.net/ricordi/rionelido/cap01/tripolimap30.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.ernandes.net/ricordi/rionelido/cap01/tripolimap30.jpg">http://www.ernandes.net/ricordi/rionelid...</a> Mappa di Tripoli<br />
<a href="http://www.paolocason.it/Libia/Pagine%20Web/Tripoli'00-'60.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.paolocason.it/Libia/Pagine%20Web/Tripoli'00-'60.htm">http://www.paolocason.it/Libia/Pagine%20...</a> Foto di Tripoli italiana<br />
<a href="http://military.wikia.com/wiki/Tripoli-Castel_Benito_Airport" target="_blank" title="http://military.wikia.com/wiki/Tripoli-Castel_Benito_Airport">http://military.wikia.com/wiki/Tripoli-C...</a> Tripoli-Castel benito airport (mio articolo)<br />
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<a href="http://www.academia.edu/2286490/Addis_Abeba_caput_viarium._La_rete_stradale_del_Duce_in_Abissinia" target="_blank" title="http://www.academia.edu/2286490/Addis_Abeba_caput_viarium._La_rete_stradale_del_Duce_in_Abissinia">http://www.academia.edu/2286490/Addis_Ab...</a> La rete stradale fascista in Etiopia<br />
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<a href="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:_x3BIQCQl_IJ:biyokulule.com/Piratestan1.htm+&cd=41&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" target="_blank" title="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:_x3BIQCQl_IJ:biyokulule.com/Piratestan1.htm+&cd=41&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us">http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se...</a> Cape GUARDAFUi significa guarda e fuggi!<br />
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<a href="http://www.statopotenza.eu/7917/il-calcio-eritreo-specchio-di-una-nazione" target="_blank" title="http://www.statopotenza.eu/7917/il-calcio-eritreo-specchio-di-una-nazione">http://www.statopotenza.eu/7917/il-calci...</a> Storia del Calcio Eritreo<br />
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<a href="http://www.academia.edu/5959550/La_Somalia_coloniale_una_storia_ai_margini_della_memoria_italiana" target="_blank" title="http://www.academia.edu/5959550/La_Somalia_coloniale_una_storia_ai_margini_della_memoria_italiana">http://www.academia.edu/5959550/La_Somal...</a> Somalia colonial (storia analizzata da laureando univ. Friuli)<br />
<a href="http://www.ilduce.net/conquistaimpero.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.ilduce.net/conquistaimpero.htm">http://www.ilduce.net/conquistaimpero.ht...</a> La conquista del' Impero italiano, scritto nel 1939<br />
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<a href="http://www.academia.edu/2326842/Le_Poste_italiane_fuori_dItalia" target="_blank" title="http://www.academia.edu/2326842/Le_Poste_italiane_fuori_dItalia">http://www.academia.edu/2326842/Le_Poste...</a> Le poste italiane in Libia (rotte aeree ed altro)<br />
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<a href="http://www.statopotenza.eu/7917/il-calcio-eritreo-specchio-di-una-nazione" target="_blank" title="http://www.statopotenza.eu/7917/il-calcio-eritreo-specchio-di-una-nazione">http://www.statopotenza.eu/7917/il-calci...</a> Storia DETTAGLIATA del calcio in ERITREA<br />
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<a href="http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/cassetto10-3.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/cassetto10-3.htm">http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/cassetto10-...</a> Il Chichingiolo: Voglia di corse (foto e dati sui circuiti di Asmara)<br />
<a href="http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/cassetto10-4.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/cassetto10-4.htm">http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/cassetto10-...</a> Voglia di corse...continuazione con ottime foto<br />
<a href="http://www.artcurial.com/en/departments/classic_and_racing_cars/alfa-romeo-8c.asp" target="_blank" title="http://www.artcurial.com/en/departments/classic_and_racing_cars/alfa-romeo-8c.asp">http://www.artcurial.com/en/departments/...</a> Articolo in inglese su "Nefasit to Asmara Hillclimb for the Coppa del Governatore dell’Eritrea on 23 May1937"<br />
<a href="http://forums.autosport.com/topic/65151-some-obscure-races-in-ethiopia-brazil-and-hungary-won-by-maseratis/?hl=%2Bsome+%2Bobscure+%2Braces+%2Bin+%2Bethiopia%2C+%2Bbrazil+%2Band+%2Bhungary+%2Bwon+%2Bby+%2Bmaseratis%26%2333%3B#entry3999501" target="_blank" title="http://forums.autosport.com/topic/65151-some-obscure-races-in-ethiopia-brazil-and-hungary-won-by-maseratis/?hl=%2Bsome+%2Bobscure+%2Braces+%2Bin+%2Bethiopia%2C+%2Bbrazil+%2Band+%2Bhungary+%2Bwon+%2Bby+%2Bmaseratis%26%2333%3B#entry3999501">http://forums.autosport.com/topic/65151-...</a> Circuito automobilistico di Asmara nel 1938 (OTTIMO)<br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAxuLOGiEbgmgjyOoB0FN4S3gNiji8sipNJW1XXCQXywWQWm6XT8QvHpPHUFgOKVabmcJ3jTYi57BYVTNE7zYFyT-6Uw-GoMZ0LwtvFJEiuY2OjjYIMVPrFfgzmIXvzbO8UKWkMq8olOhH/s640/AINA+-+ALFA+ROMEO+1750.jpg" target="_blank" title="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAxuLOGiEbgmgjyOoB0FN4S3gNiji8sipNJW1XXCQXywWQWm6XT8QvHpPHUFgOKVabmcJ3jTYi57BYVTNE7zYFyT-6Uw-GoMZ0LwtvFJEiuY2OjjYIMVPrFfgzmIXvzbO8UKWkMq8olOhH/s640/AINA+-+ALFA+ROMEO+1750.jpg">http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-AAn3ZCO2Mhk/T4...</a> Foto Alfa Romeo 1750 ad Asmara anni trenta<br />
<a href="http://www.woiweb.com/wiki/index.php5/File:Asmara_circuit_1950.JPG" target="_blank" title="http://www.woiweb.com/wiki/index.php5/File:Asmara_circuit_1950.JPG">http://www.woiweb.com/wiki/index.php5/Fi...</a> Foto del circuito di asmara del 1950<br />
<a href="http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/Immagini2/0335.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/Immagini2/0335.jpg">http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/Immagini2/0...</a> Primo circuito asmara 1938<br />
<a href="https://books.google.it/books?id=SW_q8y721EwC&pg=PA235&dq=circuito+di+mogadiscio&hl=it&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=circuito%20di%20mogadiscio&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.it/books?id=SW_q8y721EwC&pg=PA235&dq=circuito+di+mogadiscio&hl=it&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=circuito%20di%20mogadiscio&f=false">https://books.google.it/books?id=SW_q8y7...</a> Circuito di Mogadiscio (Fascismo e sport nelle colonie)<br />
<a href="http://archive.libya-al-mostakbal.org/HeshamTajouri/Trains/4_derna_train1916.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://archive.libya-al-mostakbal.org/HeshamTajouri/Trains/4_derna_train1916.jpg">http://archive.libya-al-mostakbal.org/He...</a> Postcard of decauville in Derna-Italian libya<br />
<a href="http://www.trainweb.org/eritrean/scrapbook/who/ferrovie-coloniali/ch5-somalia/militar.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.trainweb.org/eritrean/scrapbook/who/ferrovie-coloniali/ch5-somalia/militar.jpg">http://www.trainweb.org/eritrean/scrapbo...</a> Trenino TIBB a Mogadiscio in 1930 ( TIBB=Tecnomasio Italiano Brown Boveri), raggiungeva i 70 km/h<br />
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<a href="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:IkgUm2_-VKQJ:www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-strade.htm+&cd=11&hl=it&ct=clnk&gl=it" target="_blank" title="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:IkgUm2_-VKQJ:www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-strade.htm+&cd=11&hl=it&ct=clnk&gl=it">http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se...</a> Le strade italiane in Africa Orientale (OTTIMO)<br />
<a href="http://d383x9er2dcb4o.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Mogadiscio_Stazione.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://d383x9er2dcb4o.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Mogadiscio_Stazione.jpg">http://d383x9er2dcb4o.cloudfront.net/wp-...</a> foto della stazione ferroviaria di mogadiscio<br />
<a href="http://www.internetculturale.it/jmms/iccuviewer/iccu.jsp?id=oai%3Awww.internetculturale.sbn.it%2FTeca%3A20%3ANT0000%3ARM0255_DIG_2234&mode=all&teca=MagTeca+-+ICCU" target="_blank" title="http://www.internetculturale.it/jmms/iccuviewer/iccu.jsp?id=oai%3Awww.internetculturale.sbn.it%2FTeca%3A20%3ANT0000%3ARM0255_DIG_2234&mode=all&teca=MagTeca+-+ICCU">http://www.internetculturale.it/jmms/icc...</a> foto decauville vicino merca/somalia<br />
<a href="http://images-00.delcampe-static.net/img_large/auction/000/218/655/062_001.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://images-00.delcampe-static.net/img_large/auction/000/218/655/062_001.jpg">http://images-00.delcampe-static.net/img...</a> Foto della Corriera Massaua-Asmara-Addis Abeba<br />
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<a href="http://senato.archivioluce.it/senato-luce/ricerca/libera/esito.html?start=396&query=mogadiscio&jsonVal=" target="_blank" title="http://senato.archivioluce.it/senato-luce/ricerca/libera/esito.html?start=396&query=mogadiscio&jsonVal=">http://senato.archivioluce.it/senato-luc...</a> Motissime Foto LUCE di Mogadiscio<br />
<a href="http://senato.archivioluce.it/senato-luce/scheda/video/IL3000096018/1/Armi-dItalia-nella-terra-dei-Somali.html" target="_blank" title="http://senato.archivioluce.it/senato-luce/scheda/video/IL3000096018/1/Armi-dItalia-nella-terra-dei-Somali.html">http://senato.archivioluce.it/senato-luc...</a> Video di Mogadiscio nel 1931 con immagini dell'aeroporto Petrella<br />
<a href="https://books.google.it/books?id=zwdQOqmbiMEC&pg=PA308&lpg=PA308&dq=volo+lombardi+roma-mogadiscio&source=bl&ots=cc_P-fRA4I&sig=64jwt7xf6NbkFrFPDW7k0tOcoac&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0CGIQ6AEwCGoVChMIj7710dfjxwIVy9SACh1FMw9j#v=onepage&q=volo%20lombardi%20roma-mogadiscio&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.it/books?id=zwdQOqmbiMEC&pg=PA308&lpg=PA308&dq=volo+lombardi+roma-mogadiscio&source=bl&ots=cc_P-fRA4I&sig=64jwt7xf6NbkFrFPDW7k0tOcoac&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0CGIQ6AEwCGoVChMIj7710dfjxwIVy9SACh1FMw9j#v=onepage&q=volo%20lombardi%20roma-mogadiscio&f=false">https://books.google.it/books?id=zwdQOqm...</a><br />
L'aeronautica italiana: una storia del novecento (con dati su Mogadiscio)<br />
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<a href="http://www.igmi.org/ancient/immagine.php?cod=14102" target="_blank" title="http://www.igmi.org/ancient/immagine.php?cod=14102">http://www.igmi.org/ancient/immagine.php...</a> Foto di mappa di fine 1938 dove si vede in rosso a ferrovia mogadiscio-villabruzzi che continua fino a bolo burti<br />
<a href="https://books.google.it/books?id=yk0DBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA52&lpg=PA52&dq=somalia+decauville+1938&source=bl&ots=qB-oAPicE9&sig=otOQGWkXaxuBgDU6tygIEnHrXXg&hl=it&sa=X&ei=SiJnVdaEHYiwggTJnoGoCA&ved=0CD4Q6AEwBA#v=onepage&q&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.it/books?id=yk0DBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA52&lpg=PA52&dq=somalia+decauville+1938&source=bl&ots=qB-oAPicE9&sig=otOQGWkXaxuBgDU6tygIEnHrXXg&hl=it&sa=X&ei=SiJnVdaEHYiwggTJnoGoCA&ved=0CD4Q6AEwBA#v=onepage&q&f=false">https://books.google.it/books?id=yk0DBAA...</a><br />
Nelle "note" di pag 52, storia dettagliata di Villabruzzi<br />
<a href="http://www.artefascista.it/mogadiscio__fascismo__architettu.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.artefascista.it/mogadiscio__fascismo__architettu.htm">http://www.artefascista.it/mogadiscio__f...</a> Arte fascista: Mogadiscio<br />
<a href="http://www.bibibruschi.com/#!mogadiscio-1%C2%B0-circuito-auto-1938/zoom/ch9e/image_o76" target="_blank" title="http://www.bibibruschi.com/#!mogadiscio-1%C2%B0-circuito-auto-1938/zoom/ch9e/image_o76">http://www.bibibruschi.com/#!mogadiscio-...</a> Foto spettatori mogadiscio circuito auto1938<br />
<a href="http://m8.i.pbase.com/o3/27/350127/1/90031268.sbapTBlB.Mogadiscio1938.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://m8.i.pbase.com/o3/27/350127/1/90031268.sbapTBlB.Mogadiscio1938.jpg">http://m8.i.pbase.com/o3/27/350127/1/900...</a> foto di ragazza somala su moto a mogadiscio 1938<br />
<a href="http://dlib.coninet.it/bookreader.php?&f=3301&p=1&c=1#page/4/mode/2up" target="_blank" title="http://dlib.coninet.it/bookreader.php?&f=3301&p=1&c=1#page/4/mode/2up">http://dlib.coninet.it/bookreader.php?&a...</a> TROVATO! Articolo sul Circuito di Mogadiscio del 1938 (moto+macchine)...corsa fatta a ferragosto 1938<br />
<a href="http://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=53&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CDIQFjACODI&url=http%3A%2F%2Fdspace-roma3.caspur.it%2Fbitstream%2F2307%2F3747%2F4%2F1951.08.06-12.pdf&ei=NJaBVajCOsHEsAXdrYqABg&usg=AFQjCNF2fmCeZ0CR1I7BUh01LLMAQ_elyg" target="_blank" title="http://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=53&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CDIQFjACODI&url=http%3A%2F%2Fdspace-roma3.caspur.it%2Fbitstream%2F2307%2F3747%2F4%2F1951.08.06-12.pdf&ei=NJaBVajCOsHEsAXdrYqABg&usg=AFQjCNF2fmCeZ0CR1I7BUh01LLMAQ_elyg">http://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j&...</a> Corriere della Somalia: moto gare nel 1951 Mogadiscio<br />
<a href="http://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=9&ved=0CFcQFjAI&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.angelopinci.it%2Fweb%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F2012-12-22%2520Generale%2520Attilio%2520Di%2520Nunzio%2520presente.pdf&ei=V5yBVeHFOoHpsQWg74GACA&usg=AFQjCNEIFBu6jD6i2S1Fy-raCUTBcAJp8w" target="_blank" title="http://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=9&ved=0CFcQFjAI&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.angelopinci.it%2Fweb%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F2012-12-22%2520Generale%2520Attilio%2520Di%2520Nunzio%2520presente.pdf&ei=V5yBVeHFOoHpsQWg74GACA&usg=AFQjCNEIFBu6jD6i2S1Fy-raCUTBcAJp8w">http://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j&...</a> Articolo sulle gare di moto vinte a Mogadiscio nel 1951 e 1952 da Attilio Di Nunzio<br />
<a href="http://www.ebay.es/itm/cV950-SOMALIA-Mogadiscio-1953-Gran-Premio-Motociclistico-della-Somalia-Cartolina-/181513425534?pt=LH_DefaultDomain_101&hash=item2a430b127e" target="_blank" title="http://www.ebay.es/itm/cV950-SOMALIA-Mogadiscio-1953-Gran-Premio-Motociclistico-della-Somalia-Cartolina-/181513425534?pt=LH_DefaultDomain_101&hash=item2a430b127e">http://www.ebay.es/itm/cV950-SOMALIA-Mog...</a> Cartolina del Gran Premio Motociclistico della Somalia nel 1953<br />
<a href="http://www.ebay.ca/itm/63719-GRAN-PREMIO-MOTO-1952-SOMALIA-MOGADISCIO-CARTOLINA-PRIMO-GIORNO-GRAND-PRIX-/161610076450?pt=Cartoline&hash=item25a0b61122" target="_blank" title="http://www.ebay.ca/itm/63719-GRAN-PREMIO-MOTO-1952-SOMALIA-MOGADISCIO-CARTOLINA-PRIMO-GIORNO-GRAND-PRIX-/161610076450?pt=Cartoline&hash=item25a0b61122">http://www.ebay.ca/itm/63719-GRAN-PREMIO...</a> Cartolina del GP motociclistico Somalia 1952<br />
<a href="http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/bruno-rossi_" target="_blank" title="http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/bruno-rossi_">http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/brun...</a>(Il-Contributo-italiano-alla-storia-del-Pensiero:-Scienze)/ fisico Rossi su "Altopiano eritreo" ricerca scientifica<br />
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<a href="http://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=12&ved=0CCsQFjABOAo&url=http%3A%2F%2Fmelitensiawth.com%2Fincoming%2FIndex%2FArchivio%2520storico%2520di%2520Malta%2FASM.07%25281935-36%25292%252828Genn.%2529%2F02.pdf&ei=4uK5VI2yK8O-ggTVoYKwAQ&usg=AFQjCNE8ZRxjMDnD1uMBheUTMbanUzDzsw" target="_blank" title="http://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=12&ved=0CCsQFjABOAo&url=http%3A%2F%2Fmelitensiawth.com%2Fincoming%2FIndex%2FArchivio%2520storico%2520di%2520Malta%2FASM.07%25281935-36%25292%252828Genn.%2529%2F02.pdf&ei=4uK5VI2yK8O-ggTVoYKwAQ&usg=AFQjCNE8ZRxjMDnD1uMBheUTMbanUzDzsw">http://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j&...</a><br />
Gozo assegnata al regno di sicilia nel 1798 dagli isolani. <a href="http://www.melitensiawth.com/" target="_blank" title="http://www.melitensiawth. ">www.melitensiawth.com</a><br />
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<a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LlIJl5YkFt8C&pg=PA21&lpg=PA21&dq=italians+in+yemen+1930&source=bl&ots=jpWTeaNCtG&sig=mqXbj2UAuk9E5sui1v8PqsbbK7U&hl=en&sa=X&ei=TzTvVLrWKsOXNrLIgMgE&ved=0CEIQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=italians%20in%20yemen%201930&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=LlIJl5YkFt8C&pg=PA21&lpg=PA21&dq=italians+in+yemen+1930&source=bl&ots=jpWTeaNCtG&sig=mqXbj2UAuk9E5sui1v8PqsbbK7U&hl=en&sa=X&ei=TzTvVLrWKsOXNrLIgMgE&ved=0CEIQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=italians%20in%20yemen%201930&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=LlIJl5...</a> Italian involvement in Yemen in 1920-1930s<br />
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<a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mTRlAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT116&lpg=PT116&dq=italian+bombing+of+oman&source=bl&ots=Iv3E1hEf7o&sig=O9JKe3crnM666ZeY3K9DUhW9TaA&hl=en&sa=X&ei=SjvvVOzSCoHqgwTpuIH4Ag&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=italian%20bombing%20of%20oman&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=mTRlAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT116&lpg=PT116&dq=italian+bombing+of+oman&source=bl&ots=Iv3E1hEf7o&sig=O9JKe3crnM666ZeY3K9DUhW9TaA&hl=en&sa=X&ei=SjvvVOzSCoHqgwTpuIH4Ag&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=italian%20bombing%20of%20oman&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=mTRlAg...</a> Italians in the middle east 1922-1942, by an arab<br />
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<a href="http://storiaefuturo.eu/il-fascismo-eritreo-e-la-caduta-della-colonia-primogenita-1940-1941/" target="_blank" title="http://storiaefuturo.eu/il-fascismo-eritreo-e-la-caduta-della-colonia-primogenita-1940-1941/">http://storiaefuturo.eu/il-fascismo-erit...</a> ERITREA E CADUTA IMPERO ITALIANO: OTTIMO!<br />
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<a href="http://programacontactoconlacreacion.blogspot.com/2012/08/la-somalia-britanica-pasa-manos-de-los.html" target="_blank" title="http://programacontactoconlacreacion.blogspot.com/2012/08/la-somalia-britanica-pasa-manos-de-los.html">http://programacontactoconlacreacion.blo...</a> Somalia pas a manos italianas....OTTIMO (forse mio) con FOTO BELLE<br />
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<a href="http://www.academia.edu/777195/Education_in_the_Italian_colonies_during_the_interwar_period" target="_blank" title="http://www.academia.edu/777195/Education_in_the_Italian_colonies_during_the_interwar_period">http://www.academia.edu/777195/Education...</a> Education in Italian Empire (good statistics)<br />
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<a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e6cFIzBEHBMC&pg=PA1&dq=italian+companies+in+somalia+1950&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=italian%20companies%20in%20somalia%201950&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=e6cFIzBEHBMC&pg=PA1&dq=italian+companies+in+somalia+1950&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=italian%20companies%20in%20somalia%201950&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=e6cFIz...</a> Italian companies in Italian Somalia<br />
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<a href="http://www.storiaverita.org/?p=1089" target="_blank" title="http://www.storiaverita.org/?p=1089">http://www.storiaverita.org/?p=1089</a> ala littoria in libia e aoi<br />
<a href="http://www.ernandes.net/savasta/terzo.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.ernandes.net/savasta/terzo.htm">http://www.ernandes.net/savasta/terzo.ht...</a> Forza aerea in libia nel 1940<br />
<a href="http://www.giemmesesto.org/Documentazione/Aerei/SM-74.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.giemmesesto.org/Documentazione/Aerei/SM-74.html">http://www.giemmesesto.org/Documentazion...</a> Storia e foto a castel benito del sm74<br />
<a href="http://www.ilpostalista.it/unico2004pag55.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.ilpostalista.it/unico2004pag55.htm">http://www.ilpostalista.it/unico2004pag5...</a> linea dell'impero<br />
<a href="http://www.icharta.com/it/c-096961-1934-le-vie-dellaria-aeroposta-da-mogadiscio-enrico-venturini-giornale.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.icharta.com/it/c-096961-1934-le-vie-dellaria-aeroposta-da-mogadiscio-enrico-venturini-giornale.html">http://www.icharta.com/it/c-096961-1934-...</a> Volo postale roma-mogadiscio del 1934<br />
<a href="http://www.century-of-flight.net/new%20site/commercial/Italian%20civil%20aviation.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.century-of-flight.net/new%20site/commercial/Italian%20civil%20aviation.htm">http://www.century-of-flight.net/new%20s...</a> Italian early commercial aviation<br />
<a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m1OHOsSe9j4" target="_blank" title="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m1OHOsSe9j4">http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m1OHOsSe9...</a> VIDEO LUCE sui Coloni Ventimilli del 1938 Libia<br />
<a href="http://enhancedwiki.altervista.org/youtube/view.php?video=0vFlH1x_lVA&feature=youtube_gdata_player&title=Lungo+il+canale+di+Suez+con+i+soldati+italiani+in+viaggio+verso+l%27Eritrea.+I+figli+di+Mussolini+e" target="_blank" title="http://enhancedwiki.altervista.org/youtube/view.php?video=0vFlH1x_lVA&feature=youtube_gdata_player&title=Lungo+il+canale+di+Suez+con+i+soldati+italiani+in+viaggio+verso+l%27Eritrea.+I+figli+di+Mussolini+e">http://enhancedwiki.altervista.org/youtu...</a> Video Luce su Eritrea italiana<br />
<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=KQ0MAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA193&lpg=PA193&dq=Associazione+Musulmana+del+Littorio&source=bl&ots=_wE4Oc9fAt&sig=_7QrxNHLesii8vsNgU3KxdIjFic&hl=en&sa=X&ei=6jhNVJmzOMmzyATf-YHYCg&ved=0CFYQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=Associazione%20Musulmana%20del%20Littorio&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.com/books?id=KQ0MAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA193&lpg=PA193&dq=Associazione+Musulmana+del+Littorio&source=bl&ots=_wE4Oc9fAt&sig=_7QrxNHLesii8vsNgU3KxdIjFic&hl=en&sa=X&ei=6jhNVJmzOMmzyATf-YHYCg&ved=0CFYQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=Associazione%20Musulmana%20del%20Littorio&f=false">http://books.google.com/books?id=KQ0MAAA...</a> Associazione mussulmana del Littorio in Libia<br />
<a href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/SouthAfrica/EAfrica/index.html#contents" target="_blank" title="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/SouthAfrica/EAfrica/index.html#contents">http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/South...</a> english article on Somalia conquest in january 1941<br />
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<a href="http://xoomer.virgilio.it/ramius/Militaria/colonie_italiane-africa_orientale.html" target="_blank" title="http://xoomer.virgilio.it/ramius/Militaria/colonie_italiane-africa_orientale.html">http://xoomer.virgilio.it/ramius/Militar...</a> Truppe a Gondar (101 Italian Somali Division)<br />
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<a href="http://books.google.it/books?id=Ts9aAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA39&dq=ta+ku+forti&hl=it&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=ta%20ku%20forti&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.it/books?id=Ts9aAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA39&dq=ta+ku+forti&hl=it&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=ta%20ku%20forti&f=false">http://books.google.it/books?id=Ts9aAwAA...</a><br />
Colonie italiane in Cina<br />
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<a href="http://books.google.it/books?id=5UJKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA642&dq=ta+ku+forti&hl=it&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=ta%20ku%20forti&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.it/books?id=5UJKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA642&dq=ta+ku+forti&hl=it&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=ta%20ku%20forti&f=false">http://books.google.it/books?id=5UJKAAAA...</a><br />
il 1900 della marina italiana in Cina (OTTIMO)<br />
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<a href="http://books.google.it/books?id=c5ZEAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA49&dq=Ferruccio+Stefenelli&hl=it&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=Ferruccio%20Stefenelli&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.it/books?id=c5ZEAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA49&dq=Ferruccio+Stefenelli&hl=it&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=Ferruccio%20Stefenelli&f=false">http://books.google.it/books?id=c5ZEAgAA...</a> italia e cina: ottimo per dati numerici<br />
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<a href="http://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=6&ved=0CEcQFjAF&url=http%3A%2F%2Famsacta.unibo.it%2F3840%2F1%2FItalians_in_the_'Old_Shanghai'.pdf&ei=k1RlVIfqCs6wyASj6YCgDQ&usg=AFQjCNETEbS-IHwbYvo33OPzD8-Cg1gq8w" target="_blank" title="http://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=6&ved=0CEcQFjAF&url=http%3A%2F%2Famsacta.unibo.it%2F3840%2F1%2FItalians_in_the_'Old_Shanghai'.pdf&ei=k1RlVIfqCs6wyASj6YCgDQ&usg=AFQjCNETEbS-IHwbYvo33OPzD8-Cg1gq8w">http://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j&...</a> Italiani a Shanghai<br />
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<a href="http://conlapelleappesaaunchiodo.blogspot.com/2014/10/francesco-nullo.html" target="_blank" title="http://conlapelleappesaaunchiodo.blogspot.com/2014/10/francesco-nullo.html">http://conlapelleappesaaunchiodo.blogspo...</a> Comandante Borsini ed affondamento del cacciatorpediniere Nullo nel mar rosso - ottobre 1940<br />
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<a href="http://www.albertoparducci.it/photo_gallery/Marina%20Militare1.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.albertoparducci.it/photo_gallery/Marina%20Militare1.htm">http://www.albertoparducci.it/photo_gall...</a> Resoconto delle medaglie d'oro in marina italiana nella seconda Guerra mondiale ed altro ottimi dipinti raffiguranti i personaggi<br />
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<a href="https://farofrancescocrispicapeguardafui.wordpress.com/tag/genale/" target="_blank" title="https://farofrancescocrispicapeguardafui.wordpress.com/tag/genale/">https://farofrancescocrispicapeguardafui...</a> Faro al capo Guardafui in Somalia<br />
<a href="http://www.liberoricercatore.it/immagini/Storia/italia_unita/macro/eritrea.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.liberoricercatore.it/immagini/Storia/italia_unita/macro/eritrea.jpg">http://www.liberoricercatore.it/immagini...</a><br />
<a href="http://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=32&ved=0CC0QFjABOB4&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.liutprand.it%2FMGQ-BSGI.pdf&ei=DhSCVZ3fEcblsAWDg4KQDQ&usg=AFQjCNGHfxMCNT6vI1ANxoxD5lw-FTZwGA" target="_blank" title="http://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=32&ved=0CC0QFjABOB4&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.liutprand.it%2FMGQ-BSGI.pdf&ei=DhSCVZ3fEcblsAWDg4KQDQ&usg=AFQjCNGHfxMCNT6vI1ANxoxD5lw-FTZwGA">http://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j&...</a> Storia di Mogadiscio (urbanizzazione) OTTIMO!<br />
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<a href="http://www.internetculturale.it/opencms/viewItemMag.jsp?case=&id=oai%3Awww.internetculturale.sbn.it%2FTeca%3A20%3ANT0000%3ARM0255_DIG_1159" target="_blank" title="http://www.internetculturale.it/opencms/viewItemMag.jsp?case=&id=oai%3Awww.internetculturale.sbn.it%2FTeca%3A20%3ANT0000%3ARM0255_DIG_1159">http://www.internetculturale.it/opencms/...</a> Foto dell'interno della cattedrale di Mogadiscio<br />
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<a href="http://books.google.it/books?id=SW_q8y721EwC&pg=PA235&dq=campionato+calcio+in+libia+italiana&hl=it&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=campionato%20calcio%20in%20libia%20italiana&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.it/books?id=SW_q8y721EwC&pg=PA235&dq=campionato+calcio+in+libia+italiana&hl=it&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=campionato%20calcio%20in%20libia%20italiana&f=false">http://books.google.it/books?id=SW_q8y72...</a> sport nelle colonie italiane sotto il fascismo<br />
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<a href="http://www.eurasia-rivista.org/quando-la-croazia-doveva-essere-italiana/20392/" target="_blank" title="http://www.eurasia-rivista.org/quando-la-croazia-doveva-essere-italiana/20392/">http://www.eurasia-rivista.org/quando-la...</a> Quando la Croazia doveva essere italiana (OTTIMO)<br />
<a href="http://www.avvenire.it/Cronaca/Pagine/Noi-i-600-di-Cattaro-Italiani-in-Montenegro-.aspx" target="_blank" title="http://www.avvenire.it/Cronaca/Pagine/Noi-i-600-di-Cattaro-Italiani-in-Montenegro-.aspx">http://www.avvenire.it/Cronaca/Pagine/No...</a> italiani di cattaro (Ottimo)<br />
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<a href="http://www.ph.unito.it/fisicatoit.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.ph.unito.it/fisicatoit.html">http://www.ph.unito.it/fisicatoit.html</a> (Il primo laboratorio ad alta quota fu realizzato dall'italo-ebreo Bruno Rossi all'Asmara nel 1932 a 2400 metri di elevazione; la latitudine tropicale servì a mostrare un eccesso da Ovest nella direzione di provenienza della radiazione. Interpretando l'effetto come dovuto all'interazione tra la carica elettrica del primario e il campo magnetico terrestre si stabilì che i primari hanno carica positiva, quindi protoni o nuclei. )<br />
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[[Image:Ugo Foscolo.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Ugo Foscolo]], hero of the Italian Risorgimento, was born in [[Zante]] and lived in [[Corfu]] when young. He was used as a propaganda example for the Italian irredentism in the Ionian islands]]<br />
'''Italian irredentism in the Ionian islands''' was the only irredentism supported by Italian nationalists in [[Greece]] territory during [[Fascism]].<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
This irredentism was promoted only during the [[Mussolini]] dictatorhip, and was mainly related to the island of [[Corfu]]. This island, that was the northernmosdt of the [[Ionian islands]], had a small population still venetian speaking since the fall of the [Republic of Venice]] in 1797. Even if greatly diminished in number and importance, the [[Corfiot Italians]] in the 1930s were supported by the growing nationalism of Musssolini's Italy.<br />
Indeed when Venice ruled Corfu and the [[Ionian islands]], which lasted during the [[Renaissance]] and until the late 18th century, most of the Corfiote and Ionian upper classes spoke Italian (or Venetian in many cases) and converted to [[Roman Catholicism]], but the mass of people remained Greek ethnically, linguistically, and religiously before and after the Ottoman sieges of the 16th century. Corfiot Italians were mainly concentrated in the city of Corfu, which was called "Città di Corfù" by the Venetians. More than half of the population of Corfu city in the 18th century was Venetian-speaking.Gray, Ezio. ''Le terre nostre ritornano...Malta, Corsica, Nizza'', p. 92.<br />
The re-emergence of Greek nationalism, after the [[Napoleonic]] era, contributed to the disappearance of the Corfiot Italians (and the few Italians of the Ionian islands, like the family [[Ugo Foscolo|Foscolo]] in Zante). Corfu was ultimately incorporated into [[Kingdom of Greece|Greece]] in 1864. The Greek government abolished all Italian schools in the Ionian islands in 1870, and as a consequence, by the 1940s there were only four hundred Corfiote Italians left.Vignoli Giulio. ''Gli Italiani Dimenticati. Minoranze Italiane In Europa'', p. 132.<br />
==[[Corfiot Italians]] and the Risorgimento==<br />
The Italian [[Risorgimento]] was initially concentrated in the Italian peninsula with the surrounding continental areas ([[Istria]], [[Dalmatia]], [[Trentino]], [[Nice|Nizzardo]], etc.) and did not reach Corfu and the [[Ionian islands]]. One of the main heroes of the Italian Risorgimento, the poet [[Ugo Foscolo]], was born in [[Zante]] from a noble Venetian family of the island, but only superficially promoted the possible unification of the Ionian islands to Italy.<br />
The first newspaper of Corfu was in Italian: the official weekly newspaper (''Gazzetta degli Stati Uniti delle Isole Jone'') was first published in 1814. First in Italian, then in both Greek and Italian, finally from 1850 in Greek and English; and it continued for the entire duration of the English Protectorate until 1864.<br />
According to historian Ezio Gray, the small communities of Venetian-speaking people in Corfu were mostly assimilated after the island became part of Greece in 1864 and especially after all Italian schools were closed in 1870.Gray, Ezio ''Le terre nostre ritornano...'' p. 118<br />
However, the Italian language maintained some importance, as can be seen by the fact that poets like Stefano Martzokis (Marzocchi was the surname of the father, an Italian from [[Emilia-Romagna]]) and Geranimos Markonos, the first from Corfù and the second from [[Cefalonia]], wrote in Italian some of their poems in the second half of the 19th century.<br />
The island of Corfu was a refuge for many Italians in exile during the [[Unification of Italy|Wars of Independence of Italy]], like [[Niccolò Tommaseo]] (who married Diamante Pavello-Artale, a Corfiot Italian).Seton-Watson. ''Italy from Liberalism to Fascism, 1870-1925'', p. 236.<br />
After [[World War I]], however, the [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Kingdom of Italy]] started to apply a policy of expansionism toward the Adriatic area and saw Corfu as the gate of this sea. [[Benito Mussolini]] developed an extreme nationalistic position in accordance to the ideals of [[Italia irredenta|Italian irredentism]] and actively promoted the unification of Corfu to Italy.<br />
The Corfiote Italians, even if reduced to a few hundreds in the 1930s, were strongly supported by [[fascist]] propaganda and in the summer of 1941 (after the Italian occupation of the Ionian islands) Italian schools were reopened in Corfu city.Vignoli Giulio ''Gli Italiani Dimenticati. Minoranze Italiane In Europa'', p. 143. During World War II Mussolini promoted an initial development of Italian irredentism in Corfu, similar to the one being promoted in [[Italian irredentism in Savoy|Savoy]].Gray, Ezio. ''Le terre nostre ritornano... Malta, Corsica, Nizza'', p. 127.<br />
After World War I, Italy had embarked on a policy of expansionism towards the Adriatic, in which Corfu played an important role, as it controlled entrance to it. As shown by the [[Corfu incident|incident of 1923]], Mussolini and [[Italia irredenta|Italian irredentism]] had set their sights firmly on the island. The Italian community was an especially useful tool, and it was both supported and exploited by Fascist propaganda.<br />
==WWII==<br />
The Italians occupied the bulk of the Greek mainland and most of the islands. Although several proposals for territorial annexation had been put forward in [[Rome]], none were actually carried out during the war. This was due to pressure from the King of Italy, [[Victor Emmanuel III]], and from the Germans, who were concerned of further alienating the Greek population, which was already strongly opposing the Bulgarian annexations.<br />
Nevertheless in the Ionian Islands, long a target of Italian expansionism, the Greek civil authorities were replaced by Italians in preparation for a post-war annexation. Indeed during the Second World War Mussolini wanted to possess the Ionian Islands: the Italians occupied Corfu and the Ionian islands from 28 March 1941. They implemented a process of [[italianization]], with creation of Italian schools, centered around the small surviving community of the Corfiote Italians, who still spoke the Venetian dialect,Gray, Ezio. ''Le terre nostre ritornano... Malta, Corsica, Nizza'', p. 162. but which by that time numbered only 500 people, living mainly in Corfu city.Gray, Ezio. ''Le terre nostre ritornano...Malta, Corsica, Nizza'', p. 47.<br />
Furthermore [[Epirus]], the area near the Albanian border where a significant Albanian minority (the [[Cham Albanians]]) lived, was claimed by Albanian [[irredentism|irredentists]] as ''[[Chameria]]''. Before the war, a great part of Italian propaganda against Greece had revolved around the Chameria issue, as the Italians hoped to gain Albanian support by promoting irredentism in Chameria and [[Kosovo]].Fischer (1999), pp. 70-75 Although the Italians wanted to annex Chameria to Albania (that was "nominally" part of the Kingdom of Italy, in a way similar to [[Wales]] inside [[Great Britain]]), the Germans vetoed the proposal. An Albanian High Commissioner, Xhemil Dino, was appointed, but his authority was limited, and for the duration of the Occupation, the area remained under direct control from the Axis military authorities in Athens.Fischer (1999), p. 85<br />
Another case of Italian-sponsored puppet states on Greek territory were the proposed Aromanian [[Principality of the Pindus]] and the Grand Voivodeship of Macedonia, statelets that were to encompass the regions of [[West Macedonia]], northern Thessaly and Epirus,Poulton, Hugh, ''Who are the Macedonians?'' Indiana University Press. (2000) p. 111 and headed by [[Alchiviad Diamandi di Samarina|Alchiviad Diamandi]], [[Nicolau Matoussi]] and Count [[Gyula Cseszneky]]. But many of the autochtonous Aromanian population however refused to collaborate and the "principality" never amounted to much beyond Diamandi's followers, the so-called ''Roman Legion''.Mazower (1995), p. 46 With the growth of the Resistance in 1943 and the collapse of their Italian sponsors in September 1943, the plans for the Principality were conclusively shelved. <br />
Until September 1943 the population of the Ionian islands did not participate in the guerrilla war against the Italians and the Axis: only some protests happened, made by students in Corfu <a href="http://city.com/" target="_blank" title="http://city. ">city.Com</a>pared to what happened in the other two zones of Greece occupied (the German and the Bulgarian), the Italian occupation regime was relatively mild, which can be seen from the relatively low number of executions and atrocities committed in the Italian zone of occupation when compared with the atrocities and executions committed in the German and Bulgarian zones. Furthermore, unlike the Germans, and aside from some local commanders, the Italian military protected the Jews in their zone. The Germans were purportedly perturbed as the Italians not only protected Jews on their territory, but in parts of occupied France, Greece, the Balkans, and elsewhere, where they protected local Jewish populations also. On 13 December 1942, Joseph Goebbels, Hitler's propaganda minister, wrote in his diary, ''“The Italians are extremely lax in the treatment of the Jews. They protect the Italian Jews both in [[Tunis]] and in occupied France and will not permit their being drafted for work or compelled to wear the Star of David. This shows once again that Fascism does not really dare to get down to fundamentals but is very superficial regarding problems of vital importance.”''<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Gray, Ezio. ''Le terre nostre ritornano... Malta, Corsica, Nizza''. De Agostini Editoriale. Novara, 1943<br />
* {{cite book|last=Fischer|first=Bernd Jürgen|title=Albania at War, 1939-1945|publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers|year=1999|isbn=978-1-85065-531-2|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=P-MiG9ngCp8C}}<br />
* Martin, John Jeffries. ''Venice Reconsidered. The History and Civilization of an Italian City-State, 1297–1797''. Johns Hopkins UP. New York, 2002.<br />
* Mazower, Mark. ''Inside Hitler's Greece: The Experience of Occupation, 1941–44''. Yale University Press. Yale, 1995 ISBN 0-300-08923-6.<br />
* Norwich, John Julius. ''A History of Venice''. Vintage Books. New York, 1989.<br />
* Seton-Watson, Christopher. ''Italy from Liberalism to Fascism, 1870-1925''. John Murray Publishers. London, 1967.<br />
* Tagliavini, Carlo. ''Le origini delle lingue neolatine''. Patron Ed. Bologna, 1982.<br />
* Vignoli, Giulio. ''Gli Italiani Dimenticati. Minoranze Italiane In Europa. Saggi E Interventi''. Editore Giuffrè. Roma, 2000.<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Corfiot Italians]]<br />
* [[Italian irredentism in Malta]]<br />
{{Italian irredentism by region}}<br />
[[Category:Italian irredentism]]<br />
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==Circuito Mogadiscio==<br />
[[File:Mogadishu1936.jpg|thumb|right|450px|Corso Vittorio Emanuele, where was done the "Circuito Mogadiscio" in 1938 and 1939. The stands where near the "Arch" dedicated to Umberto II]]<br />
''Circuito Mogadiscio''' (called even "Circuito di Mogadiscio" and in English: "Mogadishu Circuit") was a car race done in the main streets of [[Mogadiscio]], that was created in 1938 [[Italian Somalia]] <a href="http://www.bibibruschi.com/#!mogadiscio-1%C2%B0-circuito-auto-1938/zoom/ch9e/image_o76" target="_blank" title="http://www.bibibruschi.com/#!mogadiscio-1%C2%B0-circuito-auto-1938/zoom/ch9e/image_o76">http://www.bibibruschi.com/#!mogadiscio-...</a> Foto of the Circuit Stands]<br />
==History==<br />
[[File:Alfa Romeo 12C (1936).jpg|thumb|left|300px|A late version of the Alfa Romeo 1750 (winner of the 1938 Circuito Montecarlo) in a Museum]]<br />
The main Italian newspaper of Mogadiscio and the Italian colonies, ''Il Littoriale'', <a href="http://dlib.coninet.it/bookreader.php?&f=3301&p=1&c=1#page/1/mode/2up" target="_blank" title="http://dlib.coninet.it/bookreader.php?&f=3301&p=1&c=1#page/1/mode/2up">http://dlib.coninet.it/bookreader.php?&a...</a> Il Littoriale on the Circuit of Mogadiscio at page 5 (in Italian)] reported that on mid-August 1938 was done the first car race circuit of Mogadiscio.<br />
Indeed, on August 15 the Governor Francesco Saveno flagged the start of a car race followed by many thousands in the "Corso Vittorio Emanuele" (actual "Somalia Boulevard") of Somalia's capital, where there were the main stands. On Mogadiscio streets many Somalis enjoyed enthusiastically to the first car race in their country. It was followed even by a motorcycle race, done with 250 cc and 350 cc category and won respectively by Girotto on [[Benelli (motorcycles)|Benelli]] and by Pontiggia on [[Moto Guzzi|Guzzi]]. <a href="http://m8.i.pbase.com/o3/27/350127/1/90031268.sbapTBlB.Mogadiscio1938.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://m8.i.pbase.com/o3/27/350127/1/90031268.sbapTBlB.Mogadiscio1938.jpg">http://m8.i.pbase.com/o3/27/350127/1/900...</a> Foto of Somali girl, fan of the moto race]<br />
The car race was similar (even if smaller) to those done in other Italian colonies: the [[Circuito Asmara]] in [[Italian Eritrea]] and the worldwide famous [[Tripoli Grand Prix]] in [[Italian Libya]]. The "Circuito di Mogadiscio" was repeated in 1939, but the edition of 1940 was not done because of the beginning of [[WWII]].<br />
{{Quote|''The race was done without accidents and registered the following results: Battaglia on "Alfa Romeo 1750" was the winner for Category Sport at 111 km/h, while Lombardi won on "Fiat Balilla" the Category 1500cc and Ciccotti won the Category Tourism on "Lancia DiLambda"....''Il Littoriale}}<br />
The most important category was dominated by the [[Alfa Romeo Bimotore|Alfa Romeo 1750]], a race car built under [[Enzo Ferrari]] supervision that won in many other circuits (like the Christmas Asmara circuit of 1938 <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAxuLOGiEbgmgjyOoB0FN4S3gNiji8sipNJW1XXCQXywWQWm6XT8QvHpPHUFgOKVabmcJ3jTYi57BYVTNE7zYFyT-6Uw-GoMZ0LwtvFJEiuY2OjjYIMVPrFfgzmIXvzbO8UKWkMq8olOhH/s640/AINA+-+ALFA+ROMEO+1750.jpg" target="_blank" title="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAxuLOGiEbgmgjyOoB0FN4S3gNiji8sipNJW1XXCQXywWQWm6XT8QvHpPHUFgOKVabmcJ3jTYi57BYVTNE7zYFyT-6Uw-GoMZ0LwtvFJEiuY2OjjYIMVPrFfgzmIXvzbO8UKWkMq8olOhH/s640/AINA+-+ALFA+ROMEO+1750.jpg">http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-AAn3ZCO2Mhk/T4...</a> Photo of the Alfa Romeo 1750 that won in Asmara, Eritrea]).<br />
[[File:Circuito Asmara 1950.JPG|thumb|right|250px|An early version of the Alfa Romeo 1750 (white car in second line) in a 1950 Asmara Race]]<br />
According to Gianluca Gabrielli there were 7 stands (2 stands only for the autochthonous population) and the magazine/newspaper "Corriere della Somalia" reported that in 1938 more than 10,000 spectators enjoyed the two sets of races (cars and motorcycles).Gianluca Gabrielli. "L'attivita' sportiva nelle colonie italiane". I SENTIERI DELLA RICERCA rivista di storia contemporanea. p. 118-123<br />
Those race cars were also promoted by the Italian government to increase the image of Italy (inside the colonial populations and in the world) as a technologically country with state-of-the-art mechanical industry. Indeed, Italian Mogadiscio in 1938 was the second manufacturing city -after Italian Asmara- in the Eastern Africa's Italian Empire. The triangle Mogadiscio-Genale-Villabruzzi was the most developed area of the Italian colony, with one of the biggest vehicles concentration (per inhabitants) of all Africa: nearly 3000 vehicles in 1939. <a href="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:F-4SVWUXsV0J:www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-colonie.pdf+&cd=3&hl=it&ct=clnk&gl=it" target="_blank" title="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:F-4SVWUXsV0J:www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-colonie.pdf+&cd=3&hl=it&ct=clnk&gl=it">http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se...</a> L'automobilismo in Africa Orientale Italian; p.3 (in Italian)]<br />
===Motorcycle races after WWII===<br />
After [[WWII]] the "Circuito Mogadiscio" was done only with motorcycles races and was called ''Gran Premio Motociclistico della Somalia'' (GP Motorcycle of Somalia). It was celebrated from 1950 until 1954, <a href="http://www.ebay.es/itm/cV950-SOMALIA-Mogadiscio-1953-Gran-Premio-Motociclistico-della-Somalia-Cartolina-/181513425534?pt=LH_DefaultDomain_101&hash=item2a430b127e" target="_blank" title="http://www.ebay.es/itm/cV950-SOMALIA-Mogadiscio-1953-Gran-Premio-Motociclistico-della-Somalia-Cartolina-/181513425534?pt=LH_DefaultDomain_101&hash=item2a430b127e">http://www.ebay.es/itm/cV950-SOMALIA-Mog...</a> 1953 Postcard] when the [[Italian Trusteeship of Somalia|italian governmnent obtained the "Somalia Trusteeship"]] from the [[ONU]]. The race was done on the coastal streets of Mogadiscio, near the port and on "Lungomare Corni", <a href="http://www.ebay.it/itm/STORIA-POSTALE-Colonie-SOMALIA-1934-Cartolina-da-Mogadiscio-a-Bologna-FILK-/171183016630?pt=LH_DefaultDomain_101&hash=item27db4d8ab6" target="_blank" title="http://www.ebay.it/itm/STORIA-POSTALE-Colonie-SOMALIA-1934-Cartolina-da-Mogadiscio-a-Bologna-FILK-/171183016630?pt=LH_DefaultDomain_101&hash=item27db4d8ab6">http://www.ebay.it/itm/STORIA-POSTALE-Co...</a> Mogadiscio postcard: Lungomare Corni in 1939] and was more than one mile long <a href="http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/2307/3747/4/1951.08.06-12.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/2307/3747/4/1951.08.06-12.pdf">http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/...</a> Corriere della Somalia of August 7, 1951 (in Italian)]<br />
Attilio Di Nunzio won the 500cc category from 1950 to 1952 with his self-improved Guzzi. <a href="http://www.angelopinci.it/web/sites/default/files/2012-12-22%20Generale%20Attilio%20Di%20Nunzio%20presente.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.angelopinci.it/web/sites/default/files/2012-12-22%20Generale%20Attilio%20Di%20Nunzio%20presente.pdf">http://www.angelopinci.it/web/sites/defa...</a> Di Nunzio victories, with photo (in Italian)]<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
*Del Boca, Angelo and Gabrielli, Gianluca. ''L’attività sportiva nelle colonie italiane durante il fascismo. Tra organizzazione del consenso, disciplinamento del tempo libero e «prestigio di razza»'' "I Sentieri della ricerca", rivista di storia contemporanea. Crodo, 2005 ( <a href="http://www.cddelbocafekini.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/00-ISDR02-Completo.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.cddelbocafekini.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/00-ISDR02-Completo.pdf">http://www.cddelbocafekini.org/wp-conten...</a>])<br />
*Hess, Robert L. ''Italian Colonialism in Somalia''. University of Chicago P. Chicago, 1966.<br />
*Tripodi, Paolo. ''The Colonial Legacy in Somalia''. St. Martin's P Inc. New York, 1999.<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Italian Somalia]]<br />
* [[Circuito Asmara]]<br />
* [[Tripoli Grand Prix]]<br />
[[Category:Somalia]]<br />
[[Category:Motorsport in Africa]]<br />
[[Category:Italian Somaliland]]<br />
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==Circuito Asmara==<br />
[[File:Circuito Asmara 1950.JPG|thumb|right|500px|The ''Circuito Asmara'' was started in 1938. Photo of the 1950 car race, in the "III Circuito Asmara"]]<br />
'''Circuito Asmara''' (called in Italian even "Circuito di Asmara" and in English: "Asmara Circuit") was a car race done in the main streets of [[Asmara]]. The Circuito was created in 1938 [[Italian Eritrea]] and was later done -with many interruptions- until 1972.<br />
===History===<br />
{{Quote|'' (The Italians in Asmara) organised an automobile club and started running competitions, one of the first of which was the 26 Kms Nefasit to Asmara Hillclimb for the "Coppa del Governatore dell’Eritrea" on 23 May 1937. I am sure that there was more competition but the next major event was held on Christmas Day 1938 which attracted two Alfa Romeos from Italy as well as lots of locals. There were two races for cars up to, and over, 1.5 litres. The former was won by a 4CS Maserati, whilst Romano’s Alfa Romeo 8C2300 Monza won the main event. There were no fewer than fourteen 6C1750 Alfa entered in the race for larger capacity cars so it is not surprising that an Alfa Romeo agency was opened in Asmara.'' Simon Moore <a href="http://www.artcurial.com/en/departments/classic_and_racing_cars/alfa-romeo-8c.asp" target="_blank" title="http://www.artcurial.com/en/departments/classic_and_racing_cars/alfa-romeo-8c.asp">http://www.artcurial.com/en/departments/...</a> 1936 Alfa Romeo 8C]}}<br />
===Notes===<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
===See also===<br />
* [[Circuito Mogadiscio]]<br />
[[Category:Italian Eritrea]]<br />
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<a href="http://schoolserver.xsce.org:3000/wikipedia_en_all_2015-05/A/Roman_colonies_in_Berber_Africa.html" target="_blank" title="http://schoolserver.xsce.org:3000/wikipedia_en_all_2015-05/A/Roman_colonies_in_Berber_Africa.html">http://schoolserver.xsce.org:3000/wikipe...</a> "ROMAN COLONIES IN BERBER AFRICA" ORIGINALE!!!!!!! e tutto il resto "originale" da ricopiare dal template<br />
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LA CARLOTA - Rincon italiano di Caracas<br />
<a href="http://www.eluniversal.com/noticias/caracas/carlota-campo-claro-pedacito-italia-caracas_671185" target="_blank" title="http://www.eluniversal.com/noticias/caracas/carlota-campo-claro-pedacito-italia-caracas_671185">http://www.eluniversal.com/noticias/cara...</a><br />
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GIUSEPPE DAODICE<br />
{{Infobox military person<br />| honorific_prefix =<br />| name = Giuseppe Daodice<br />| honorific_suffix =<br />| native_name =<br />| native_name_lang =<br />| image =<br />| image_size =<br />| alt =<br />| caption =<br />| birth_date = {{birth date|1882|04|16}}<br />| death_date = {{death date and age|1952|12|04|1882|04|16}}<br />| birth_place = [[Dalmine]], Italy<br />| death_place = [[Bergamo]], Italy<br />| nickname =<br />| birth_name =<br />| allegiance = {{flag|Kingdom of Italy}}<br />| branch = {{army|Kingdom of Italy}}<br />| serviceyears =<br />| rank =<br />| servicenumber =<br />| unit =<br />| commands = General Officer of Italian Army; Governor of Eritrea; Governor of Scioa/Addis Abeba<br />| battles = [[World War I]];[[Second Italo-Abyssinian War]];[[World War II]]<br />}}<br />
'''Giuseppe Daodice''' (Dalmine, 1882 - Bergamo, 1952) was an Italian general. He was [[Governor]] of [[Italian Eritrea]] from 1937 to 1940 and of [[Addis Ababa]] from 1940 to 1941, in [[Italian East Africa|Africa Orientale Italiana]].<br />
==Biography==<br />[[File:Order of the Most Holy Annunciation BAR.svg|thumb|right|Ordine supremo della Santissima Annunziata]][[File:Ordine_di_Vittorio_Veneto_BAR.svg|thumb|right|Ordine di Vittorio Veneto]][[File:Cavaliere SSML BAR.svg|thumb|right|Ordine dei Santi Maurizio e Lazzaro]][[File:Cavaliere BAR.svg|thumb|right|Ordine militare di Savoia]]<br />[[File:Cavaliere_OCI_BAR.svg|thumb|right|Ordine della Corona d'Italia]]<br />
Daodice when was twelve years old went to a catholic seminary in [[Bergamo]]. But the young man did not want to pursue a career in the church and his parents enrolled him at the [[Nunziatella military academy]]. Then went to the [[Military Academy of Modena]] and became [[lieutenant]] of cavalry. He participated in the [[Italo-Turkish War]] as [[Officer (armed forces)|Official]] of active service in [[Tripoli]], in the siege of Ain Zara and in [[Cyrenaica]]. He was [[Military|conscript]] in 1915 and -by intervening in the battles of the Isonzo- he was wounded in the [[Seventh Battle of the Isonzo]]: for this serious wound he was relegated to service distant from the front for some months, but soon wanted to go back to the battle front. Daodice was then promoted to [[major]] after the [[Battle of the Piave River|Battle of the solstice]] and the [[Battle of Vittorio Veneto]] in 1918.<br />
After the war, Daodice remained hostile to the [[fascism]] becoming "military attaché" in 1926 in [[Lisbon]] and later in [[Budapest]] from 1928 to 1931. In 1934 he was promoted to [[Colonel]], fighting the [[Ethiopian War]] ([[First Battle of Tembien]], Battle of Step Uarieu and Battle of Mai Ceu) as adjutant first to [[Pietro Badoglio|Badoglio]] and then to [[Rodolfo Graziani]]. During the war Daodice was the author of numerous deportations to concentration camps of members of the local population. With his successful victories, Daodice was awarded the [[Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation|Order of the Supreme Santissima Annunziata]]. <a href="http://brusionews.blogspot.com/2014/12/vita-e-morte-di-giuseppe-daodice.html" target="_blank" title="http://brusionews.blogspot.com/2014/12/vita-e-morte-di-giuseppe-daodice.html">http://brusionews.blogspot.com/2014/12/v...</a> Biografia di Giuseppe Daodice (in Italian)]<br />
Daodice was governor of [[Italian Eritrea]] from December 1937 to June 1940 and greatly improved the colony during his mandate. During his rule he promoted the architectural development of [[Italian Asmara]], a city that was nicknamed ''Little Rome'' even because of him. <br />
In his governorship to [[Addis Ababa]]/[[Scioa Governorate]] (June 2, 1940) Daodice built numerous infrastructure to improve the social status; the charge was transferred to [[Agenore Frangipani]] in 1941. Daodice returned to Italy just before the British conquest of Ethiopia's capital, where he was promoted to [[Major General]] and was member of the [[Italian Parliament]], retiring to private life and taking part in a few sessions in two years as "deputy". <br />
Daodice voted against [[Benito Mussolini]] after July 25, 1943 and as a consequence from [[Frosinone]], where he then lived, was forced to flee to [[Caserta]] and from there to [[Brindisi]], with the King [[Victor Emmanuel III]] and Badoglio in September 1943. <br />
After the war he was tried as fascist and for possible crimes perpetrated in Ethiopia: he was sentenced to fifteen years of [[forced labor]], but he did only five. He died in Bergamo in December 1952.<br />
==Awards==<br />
Guseppe Daodice was named ''Knight'' receiving five military & civilian awards: Ordine supremo della Santissima Annunziata, Ordine di Vittorio Veneto, Ordine dei Santi Maurizio e Lazzaro, Ordine militare di Savoia and Ordine della Corona d'Italia.<br />
==Notes==<br />{{Reflist}}<br />
==Bibliography==<br />* Goffredo Orlandi Contucci, ''A.O.I.- AFRICA ORIENTALE ITALIANA - La conquista dell'Impero nel ricordo del tenente Goffredo Orlandi Contucci'' - Edizioni MyLife, Monte Colombo/Coriano, 2009 ISBN 978-88-6285-100-8<br />
==See Also==<br />* [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War]]<br />* [[East African Campaign (World War II)]]<br />* [[Eritrea Governorate]]<br />* [[Scioa Governorate]]<br />{{s-start}}<br />{{s-off}}<br />{{s-bef|before=[[Vincenzo De Feo]]}}<br />{{s-ttl|title=[[Italian Governors of Eritrea|Governor of Eritrea]]|years=1937–1940}}<br />{{s-aft|after=[[Luigi Frusci]]}}<br />{{end}}<br />{{Italian Governors of Eritrea and Somaliland}}<br />{{Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)}}<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Daodice, Giuseppe}}<br />[[Category:History of Italy]]<br />[[Category:Italian generals]]<br />
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<a href="http://www.oglethorpe.edu/faculty/~b_smith/ou/bs_foundations_chapter2.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.oglethorpe.edu/faculty/~b_smith/ou/bs_foundations_chapter2.htm">http://www.oglethorpe.edu/faculty/~b_smi...</a> Storia OTTIMA dell'impero romano (conquiste e client kingdoms in Germania/Scandinavia) <br />
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<a href="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:LAm5YFytexQJ:etheses.dur.ac.uk/10140/1/10140_6934.PDF+&cd=9&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" target="_blank" title="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:LAm5YFytexQJ:etheses.dur.ac.uk/10140/1/10140_6934.PDF+&cd=9&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us">http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se...</a> A study of the client kings in the early Roman period (OTTIMO)<br />
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<a href="http://www.arsbellica.it/pagine/contemporanea/Adua/Adua.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.arsbellica.it/pagine/contemporanea/Adua/Adua.html">http://www.arsbellica.it/pagine/contempo...</a> ADUA (ottimo)<br />
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Caesarea of Mauretania<br />
Originally named Iol, Caesarea of Mauretania lay along the northern coast of Africa near the present day city of Algiers. It was originally founded by the Phoenicians in the fifth century BC to serve as a trading station. During the first century BC, due to the city’s strategic location, new defences were built, and in 33 BC Rome annexed the area, placing it in the hands of a Berber prince named Juba II. Although his father was once an ally of Pompey, Juba had lived in Rome under the tutelage of Julius Caesar, learning to read and write Greek and Latin. As he was considered too Roman to rule, Juba and his wife, Cleopatra Selene (the daughter of Pompey and Cleopatra), were at the mercy of civil unrest when Emperor [[Augustus]] intervened. Juba made the city into a typical Graeco-Roman city, complete with street grids, a theatre, an art collection, and a lighthouse similar to the one at Alexandria. It was Juba who named the city Caesarea after Augustus.<br />
Considered to be one of the more loyal provinces, Caesarea began to grow under Roman rule, eventually reaching a population of over 30,000. In 44 CE during the reign of Emperor Claudius, it became the capital of the imperial province of Mauretania Caesarensis. Later, the emperor made it a colonia, “Colonia Claudia Caesarea”. As with many other cities throughout the empire, he and his followers further romanized the area, building monuments, enlarging the bath houses, adding an amphitheatre, and improving the aqueducts. Later, under the Severean dynasty, a new forum was added. Although it would recover, the city was sacked by Berber tribes during a revolt in 371/372 AD. The area was finally overtaken by the Vandals in 429 AD; however, in 533 Ad the city was seized by the Byzantine Emperor [[Justinian I]]. Earthquakes have since ravaged many of the ancient remains.<br />
Perseus: Caesarea <a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0006:entry=iol" target="_blank" title="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0006:entry=iol">http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text...</a> )<br />
( <a href="http://www.persee.fr/articleAsPDF/efr_0000-0000_1984_ths_70_1_3006/article_efr_0000-0000_1984_ths_70_1_3006.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.persee.fr/articleAsPDF/efr_0000-0000_1984_ths_70_1_3006/article_efr_0000-0000_1984_ths_70_1_3006.pdf">http://www.persee.fr/articleAsPDF/efr_00...</a> Cesarea di Mauretania e dintorni: scritto accademico perfetto ) <br />
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CARTENNAS<br />Tenes is supposed to have been a Phoenician settlement, and was a place of great importance during the Roman occupation, under the name of Cartenna. When Marshal Bugeaud fixed on this spot to establish a French colony, a fine monument, the remains of the ramparts, and other ruins, were standing, but I understand that none are now in existence, except the foundations of the ramparts beneath the present town walls, and the cisterns now utilised by the French. An interesting monumental inscription now in Algiers, records that the Roman Governor, Caius Fulcinius Optatus, successfully defended the colony against an attack by the Baquates, the Bakoutai of the Greeks, doubtless the wild Highlanders of the circumjacent Dahra. This tribe is specially mentioned by Pliny.<br />
Cartenna was rendered famous in the theological disputes which shook the African Christian Church to its centre. Rogatus, Donatist Bishop of Cartenna, established a new Sect, modifying the Donatist Heresy, and his followers were denominated Rogatists, after their founder. During the revolts of Firmus, who was subdued by Theodosius in 371, and by Gildo in 396, Rogatus took advantage of the general confusion to persecute his opponents; but his Sect did not take firm root, and during the episcopacy of Vincentius, his successor, only two African bishops were tainted with this particular heresy.<br />
But the original Donatist Heresy, from which it was an offshoot, nearly overpowered Orthodox Catholicism, and at the Donatist Conference, or Council, at Carthage, in 411, the Orthodox bishops under St. Augustin only mustered seven more than Donatus and his Heretic episcopal adherents—the numbers being two hundred and eighty-six Catholics, against two hundred and seventynine Donatists. These Schismatics desired the severance of the Church from the State. After the Council they were violently persecuted, but continued to survive as a Sect until the sixth century, as mentioned in the letters of Gregory the Great. As this Sect was put down by the African Bishop Augustin, so the still more dangerous schism of Alius was finally overthrown by Athanasius, Patriarch of the African Church, after Unitarianism had been for some time triumphant, and but for his indomitable perseverance would have become the key-stone of the religion of the world.<br />
Though all memorials of the Romans above ground at Tenes have been destroyed—by the Vandals, according to the French—a large portion of the old necropolis has been brought to light by the falling away of part of the cliff, probably during an earthquake. From the deck of the ship the tombs were quite perceptible, and the dark recesses ran some distance along the hill-side, sometimes assuming the form of galleries, along which no doubt vaults branched off on either side. Many of these vaults are used by the Government as magazines and cellars, and I heard that skeletons, and even pieces of clothing and jewelry, had been found in their recesses. At the other extremity of the bay I saw some remains of masonry, which probably mark the site of the Roman port.<br />
Scenes in the Sunny South: Including the Atlas Mountains and the Oases of the Sahara in Algeria, Volume 2<br />Author Charles Smyth Vereker<br />Publisher Longmans, Green, and Company, 1871<br />Original from the University of Wisconsin - Madison<br />( <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=VofVAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA131&lpg=PA131&dq=tenes+roman+cartenna&source=bl&ots=FiHbqLVkby&sig=J5nHAx6_4eTM--R3YW9XM8aufrs&hl=en&sa=X&ei=qpjAU_z7OIWmyASWmYGwCg&ved=0CDcQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=tenes%20roman%20cartenna&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.com/books?id=VofVAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA131&lpg=PA131&dq=tenes+roman+cartenna&source=bl&ots=FiHbqLVkby&sig=J5nHAx6_4eTM--R3YW9XM8aufrs&hl=en&sa=X&ei=qpjAU_z7OIWmyASWmYGwCg&ved=0CDcQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=tenes%20roman%20cartenna&f=false">http://books.google.com/books?id=VofVAAA...</a> )<br />
==========================================================================<br />MASSACRE OF ITALIANS AT SCIARA SCIAT<br /> <a href="http://98.139.236.92/search/srpcache?p=massacre+of+sciara+sciatt+wikiwand&type=drg_mdaffmarmar_15_16&param1=1&param2=cd%3D2XzuyEtN2Y1L1QzuyCyEtAtCyDtDtB0AyByDzy0A0CyBzztDtN0D0Tzu0StCtBtDtBtN1L2XzutAtFtCtDtFtBtFtDtN1L1CzutCyEtBzytDyD1V1TtN1L1G1B1V1N2Y1L1Qzu2StD0AtAzy0BtD0EzztGzztAyEtDtGzz0EyC0FtG0CyE0BzztGtDtAyC0DyCyDtByC0ByDtDyD2QtN1M1F1B2Z1V1N2Y1L1Qzu2StC0D0CzzyB0EyE0FtG0EyD0A0CtGyEyDyDtBtG0AyBtAyEtGtBzy0ByD0CyEtD0B0FtCzy0E2QtN0A0LzuyE%26cr%3D724075207%26a%3Ddrg_mdaffmarmar_15_16%26f%3D4%26cat%3Dweb%26sid%3Df66ba3ad53ccf4ad83234ffb18ce73be%26sesid%3D52d8fd81d59a28ac4a885c5d175d1d09%26ip%3D108.217.85.134%26b%3DIE%26bv%3D11.0%26os%3DWindows%2B8.1%26pa%3Ddregol&hsimp=yhs-fullyhosted_003&hspart=iry&fr=yhs-iry-fullyhosted_003&ei=UTF-8&u=http://cc.bingj.com/cache.aspx?q=massacre+of+sciara+sciatt+wikiwand&d=4795585812178425&mkt=en-US&setlang=en-US&w=AVgIRpudkRiEx-PZoHPdobvu6s_jarT2&icp=1&.intl=us&sig=vsUx6KFOUnx.96ik8bj1Jg--" target="_blank" title="http://98.139.236.92/search/srpcache?p=massacre+of+sciara+sciatt+wikiwand&type=drg_mdaffmarmar_15_16&param1=1&param2=cd%3D2XzuyEtN2Y1L1QzuyCyEtAtCyDtDtB0AyByDzy0A0CyBzztDtN0D0Tzu0StCtBtDtBtN1L2XzutAtFtCtDtFtBtFtDtN1L1CzutCyEtBzytDyD1V1TtN1L1G1B1V1N2Y1L1Qzu2StD0AtAzy0BtD0EzztGzztAyEtDtGzz0EyC0FtG0CyE0BzztGtDtAyC0DyCyDtByC0ByDtDyD2QtN1M1F1B2Z1V1N2Y1L1Qzu2StC0D0CzzyB0EyE0FtG0EyD0A0CtGyEyDyDtBtG0AyBtAyEtGtBzy0ByD0CyEtD0B0FtCzy0E2QtN0A0LzuyE%26cr%3D724075207%26a%3Ddrg_mdaffmarmar_15_16%26f%3D4%26cat%3Dweb%26sid%3Df66ba3ad53ccf4ad83234ffb18ce73be%26sesid%3D52d8fd81d59a28ac4a885c5d175d1d09%26ip%3D108.217.85.134%26b%3DIE%26bv%3D11.0%26os%3DWindows%2B8.1%26pa%3Ddregol&hsimp=yhs-fullyhosted_003&hspart=iry&fr=yhs-iry-fullyhosted_003&ei=UTF-8&u=http://cc.bingj.com/cache.aspx?q=massacre+of+sciara+sciatt+wikiwand&d=4795585812178425&mkt=en-US&setlang=en-US&w=AVgIRpudkRiEx-PZoHPdobvu6s_jarT2&icp=1&.intl=us&sig=vsUx6KFOUnx.96ik8bj1Jg--">http://98.139.236.92/search/srpcache?p=m...</a><br />
Massacre of Italians at Sciara Sciat<br />
IMAGE:Sciara Sciatt was on the east of Tripoli outskirt, near the coast and Fort Hamidie<br />The Massacre of Italians at Sciara Sciat occurred in late October 1911 in a village on the outskirts of Tripoli, Libya. Approximately 500 Italian troops (called Bersaglieri) were killed in the incident which occurred during the Italo-Turkish War. It was the biggest loss of life for Italian troops prior to World War I.[1]<br />
Contents [hide]<br />1 History<br />2 Consequences<br />3 Notes<br />4 Bibliography<br />5 See also<br />
History[edit]<br />
The Italian fleet appeared off Ottoman Tripoli in the evening of September 28, 1911: the city was quickly conquered by 1,500 Italian sailors, welcomed by the population.[2]<br />
But after Italy had conquered the city of Tripoli and surroundings from the Ottoman Empire in the first days of October 1911,[3] the interior of Ottoman Libya shortly broke out into revolt, with Italian authorities losing control over large areas of the region.[4]<br />
Indeed before the arrival of the Italian forces in 1911, cells led by Ottoman officers (called "Young Turks", like Kemal Ataturk) had Libyans infiltrate Italian industry and companies in Ottoman Tripolitania, reconnoiter roads, and take a census of all males able to bear arms in Tripoli and Derna: they prepared for a "jihad" with the local Moslems.[5]<br />
Even if the Arab population of the city of Tripoli welcomed the Italians, in the interior of coastal Libya from the first weeks many cruelties were done by local Muslims (supported by Turks disguised as Arab Muslims) to the Italian soldiers and civilians during this revolt, as happened in Sciara Sciat:[6][7]<br />
Indeed the "11 Reggimento" Bersaglieri of colonel Gustavo Fara had the 4th battalion defending the small village/oasis of Sciara Sciatt when started an attack from the Turks and Arabs, and was massacred on the October 23, 1911. The surviving 290 bersaglieri were captured in the local cemetery by local fanatical Moslems but all were tortured and killed with cruelty and sadism.<br />
I saw (in Sciara Sciat) in one mosque seventeen Italian crucifixed with their bodies reduced to the status of bloody rags and bones, but whose faces still retain traces of hellish agony. It has passed through the neck of these wretched a long barrel and arms resting on this rod. They were then nailed to the wall and died for a slow fire between untold suffering. It is impossible for us to paint the picture of these hideous rotted meat hanging pitifully on the bloody wall. In a corner another body is crucified, but as an officer he was to have refined his sufferings. The eyes are stitched. All the bodies were mutilated and castrated; so indescribable was the scene and the bodies appeared swollen as shapeless carrion. But that's not all! In the cemetery of Chui which served as a refuge from the Turks and whence pulled from afar we could see another show. Under the same door in front of the Italian trenches five soldiers had been buried up to their shoulders, their heads emerged from the black sand stained of their blood: heads horrible to see, and there you could read all the tortures of hunger and thirst (Gaston Leroud and the correspondent of Matin-Journal[8])<br />
Argentine journalist Enzo D'Armesano of the Buenos Aires newspaper "La Prensa" was present the next morning in Sciara Sciatt and reported the cruelty with a description that impressed the Argentinian people. He wrote that many local civilians attacked from the back the Italian troops with knives, after initially showing friendship in order to approach them.[9]<br />
IMAGE:Consequences of Sciara Sciatt: execution of 30 Turks dressed as Arabs<br />The Argentinian reporter wrote even that the only three survivors of the 4th battalion accused the Moslem civilians of the Sciara Sciatt oasis of "tradimento" (betrayal)[10]<br />
Consequences[edit]<br />
At Sciara Sciatt died officially 21 Italian officers and 482 soldiers (290 of them after surrender in Rebab cemetery).[11]<br />
The consequences of this massacre (and others against the Italian troops) were the retaliation and revenge mainly on native civilians in the outskists of Tripoli. Even some Turks were executed because found dressed as Arabs, in order to infiltrate inside the area controlled by the Italians and promote treacherous attacks by the local Muslims.<br />
One of the opponents of the Italian intervention in the conquest of Ottoman Libya, a Marxist activist and future dictator Benito Mussolini, started to change his opinion after news of this massacre reached Italy. He, later in the late 1920s, remembered (and always cited) this Sciara Sciatt massacre when imposed his Pacification of Libya.<br />
Notes[edit]<br />1.Jump up ^ Italo-turkish war<br />2.Jump up ^ Tripoli inhabitants welcomed the Italians (p. 36-40)<br />3.Jump up ^ Smallwarsjournal: Arab thoughts on Italian-Turkish war<br />4.Jump up ^ Wright, John (1983). Libya: A Modern History. Kent, England: Croom Helm. p. 30.<br />5.Jump up ^ Bruce Davenport, second chapter<br />6.Jump up ^ Sciara sciat and the massacre of Italians<br />7.Jump up ^ "Cronaca e storia del Corpo dei Bersaglieri", Daniele Piazza Editore, Torino 1986, pag.173<br />8.Jump up ^ Gaston Leroud , Matin Journal edition august 23, 1917<br />9.Jump up ^ Bruce Davenport, p. 38<br />10.Jump up ^ Antonio De Martino. "Tripoli italiana", p. 116-118<br />11.Jump up ^ Corriere della Sera: Sciara Sciatt<br />
Bibliography[edit]<br />Bruce Vandervort. Verso la quarta sponda, la guerra italiana per la Libia (1911-1912) Stato maggiore dell'esercito. Roma, 2012<br />De Martino, Antonio. Tripoli italiana. la Guerra italo-turca Societa' libraria italiana. New York, 1912 (Library of Congress edition)<br />Gerwarth, Robert. Empires at War: 1911-1923. The Greater War. Publisher Oxford University Press. Oxford, 2014 ISBN 0191006947<br />Ministero della Difesa.Cronaca e storia del Corpo dei Bersaglieri, Daniele Piazza Ed. Torino, 1986<br />
See also[edit]<br />Italo-Turkish War<br />1911 Tripoli massacre<br />Italian Libya<br />templates:<br />Italian colonial conflicts<br />Italian Libya<br />IMAGE:Administrative subdivision of Italian Libya.jpg<br />
Categories: Italian Libya<br />Italo-Turkish War<br />Massacres in Libya<br />
===============================================================<br /><strong>PROVINCE OF POLA</strong><br />IMAGE:Province of Pola, with municipalities<br />
The Province of Pola (in Italian Provincia di Pola) was a province of the Kingdom of Italy created after WWI, that officially existed from 1923 until 1947.<br />
<em>Characteristics</em><br />
IMAGE:Coat of Arms of Italian Pola <br />
The Province of Pola was divided in 1938 in 42 "Comuni" (municipalities) and had an area of 3,718 km2 with a population of 294,492 inhabitants (80 ab./km2).[1] It was located in the peninsula of Istria.<br />
The 1921 Italian Census showed that in the Province there were 199,942 Italians (67%) and 90.262 Croats (23%), with 9% of Slovenians and Austrians, most of them former employees of the Hasburg empire. The city of Pola had 41,125 Italians (91%) e 5,420 Croats (9%). In the Province there was a small community of Istroromanians, concentrated around the Valdarsa area in central Istria.[citation needed]<br />
IMAGE:Location of Province of Pola within the Kingdom of Italy <br />
Nearly 96% of the population was Catholic and they were members of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Parenzo and Pola, in those years under the "Arcidiocesi di Gorizia".[citation needed]<br />
<em>History</em><br />
The Province of Pola was created in January 1923 with "Regio Decreto # 53" after Italy's victory in WWI that united Istria to the Kingdom of Italy: it was the former "Margraviato d'Istria" with the islands of Quarnaro, Cherso and Lussino.<br />
The Via Flavia, rebuilt and improved in 1928 <br />
The Via Flavia, rebuilt and improved in 1928 <br />
Initially the province was made of all the areas of Istria, less Muggia and other small municipalities united to the Province of Trieste. But in 1924 the area of "Circondario di Volosca-Abbazia" -less the municipalities of Castelnuovo d'Istria and Matteria- was united to the Province of Fiume.[2]<br />
Following the collapse of Austria-Hungary in 1918, Pola and the whole of Istria – except the territory of Castua – were assigned to Italy.[3]<br />
Pola became the capital of the newly created "Province of Pola". The city's decline in population after World War I [4] was mainly due to economic difficulties caused by the withdrawal of Austro-Hungarian military and bureaucratic facilities and the dismissal of workers from the shipyard.<br />
Under the Italian Fascist government of Benito Mussolini, non-Italians, especially Slavic residents, faced stringent political and cultural repression (as a retaliation for what happened to Italians before and during WWI), and many fled the city of Pola and Istria altogether. After the collapse of Fascist Italy in September 1943, the city and the province were occupied by the German Army. Consequently, the province was subjected to repeated Allied bombing from 1943 until the end of 1944. In the last phase of the war Pola and the province saw arrests, deportations and executions of people suspected of aiding the Tito's partisans, because of the Foibe mass killings they did.<br />
In the early 1930s were improved the Ferrovia istriana and the railways station of Pola, while in 1935 was closed the Ferrovia Parenzana (an old narrow gauge railway). New navigation lines from Istria were added, mainly toward Trieste, Venice and Ancona; a weekly ship service that connected all the minor ports of Istria from Trieste to Pola and to Fiume was created. From 1935 the Adriatica di Navigazione connected with huge modern ships Pola with Zara and Ancona.<br />
In the 1930s the Province of Pola enjoyed an economic revival based on minerary exploitation (coal in Valdarsa) and infrastructure investments.[5] The Via Flavia -from Trieste to Pola- was enlarged and reduced in distance; the railways were improved and the water facilities increased with the new "Acquedotto istriano".[6] The port and shipyard of Pola were increased with modern military facilities, while an airport was built in the same area.[7]<br />
Even tourism stated to be increased, mainly to the Roman ruins of Pola: in 1938, the Italian region of Istria had 129,838 foreign visitors.[8]<br />
List of "Comuni" (municipalities)<br />
N.<br />
Name in Italian<br />
Official #<br />
Actual nation<br />
Actual municipality<br />
Notes<br />
1 Albona A170 Croatia Albona<br />Santa Domenica<br />2 Antignana A311 Croatia Antignana<br /> San Pietro in Selve<br />3 Arsa A442 Croatia Arsa Municipality created in 1937<br />4 Barbana d'Istria A624 Croatia Barbana<br />5 Bogliuno A924 Croatia Lupogliano<br />6 Brioni Maggiore B186 Croatia Pola Municipality created in 1934<br />7 Buie d'Istria B260 Croatia Buie<br />8 Canfanaro B601 Croatia Canfanaro<br />9 Capodistria B665 Slovenia Capodistria [9]<br />10 Cherso C601 Croatia Cherso<br />11 Cittanova d'Istria C748 Croatia Cittanova<br />12 Dignano d'Istria D301 Croatia Dignano<br />- Draguccio D362 Croatia Cerreto Eliminated in 1928<br />13 Erpelle-Cosina D465 Slovenia Erpelle-Cosina Named Occisla-Clanzo before 1922<br />14 Fianona D563 Croatia Chersano<br />15 Gimino E032 Croatia Gimino<br />16 Grisignana E183 Croatia Grisignana<br />17 Isola d'Istria E355 Slovenia Isola<br />18 Lussingrande E765 Croatia Lussinpiccolo<br />19 Lussinpiccolo E766 Croatia Lussinpiccolo [10]<br />20 Maresego E942 Slovenia Capodistria<br />21 Montona F683 Croatia Montona<br />Caroiba<br />22 Neresine F869 Croatia Lussinpiccolo Municipality created in 1924<br />23 Orsera G127 Croatia Orsera<br /> San Lorenzo<br />Fontane<br />24 Ossero G177 Croatia Lussinpiccolo<br />25 Parenzo G322 Croatia Parenzo<br /> Torre-Abrega [11]<br />26 Paugnano G380/F495 Slovenia Capodistria Renamed Monte di Capodistria in 1927<br />27 Pinguente G675 Croatia Pinguente<br />28 Pirano G700 Slovenia Pirano<br />29 Pisino G709 Croatia Pisino<br /> Gallignana<br /> Pedena [12]<br />30 Pola G778 Croatia Pola<br />Fasana<br /> Lisignano<br /> Marzana<br /> Medolino [13]<br />31 Portole G915 Croatia Portole<br />32 Rovigno H619 Croatia Rovigno Renamed Rovigno d'Istria in 1924<br />33 Rozzo H624 Croatia Pinguente<br />34 Sanvincenti I386 Croatia Sanvincenti<br />35 Silun Mont'Aquila I733/E440 Croatia Lanischie Renamed Lanischie in 1929<br />36 Umago L491 Croatia Umago<br />37 Valdarsa L533 Croatia Chersano New city created for Istroromanians in 1923. A section was named Susgnevizza before 1922<br />38 Valle d'Istria L602 Croatia Valle<br />39 Verteneglio L793 Croatia Verteneglio<br />40 Villa Decani L932 Slovenia Capodistria Named Villa Decani before 1922<br />41 Visignano M074 Croatia Visignano Renamed Visignano d'Istria in 1925<br />42 Visinada M075 Croatia Visinada<br /> Castellier-Santa Domenica <br />
<em>See also</em><br />
•Provinces of Italy<br />•Province of Carnaro<br />•Province of Trieste<br />
<em>Notes</em><br />
1.^ Annuario Generale 1938-XVI, Consociazione Turistica Italiana. Milano,1938 p. 661<br />2.^ R.D.L. 22 febbraio 1924, n. 213. s:R.D.L. 22 febbraio 1924, n. 213 - "Istituzione della provincia del Carnaro con capoluogo Fiume" (Creation of Province of Carnaro)<br />3.^ Cresswell, Atkins & Dunn 2006, p. 117.<br />4.^ The 1910 Austrian census recorded in the city of Pola a population of 58,562 -with 45.8% Italian speaking and 15.2% Slavs- while in 1921 Pola had only 49,000 inhabitants.(Kocsis, Károly; Az etnikai konfliktusok történeti-földrajzi háttere a volt Jugoszlávia területén; Teleki László Alapítvány, 1993 ISBN 963-04-2855-5)<br />5.^ Acquedotto istriano (in Italian)<br />6.^ Map of Acquedotto istriano<br />7.^ Enciclopedia Treccani: Istria <a href="http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/istria_res-18760e7c-87e6-11dc-8e9d-0016357eee51_" target="_blank" title="http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/istria_res-18760e7c-87e6-11dc-8e9d-0016357eee51_">http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/istr...</a>(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/)<br />8.^ Anton Gosar (University of Primorska, Slovenia): The development or tourism in Istria<br />9.^ In 1910 78,8% of inhabitants were Italians and 19.2% Slovenians.<br />10.^ In 1921 68% of inhabitants were Italians and 15% Croats.<br />11.^ In 1921 75% of inhabitants were Italians, 5% Slovenians and 20% Croats.<br />12.^ In 1921 39% of inhabitants were Italians, 2.5% Slovenians and 57% Croats.<br />13.^ In 1921 71% of inhabitants were Italians and 20% Croats.<br />
<em>Bibliography</em><br />
•Boris Gombač. Atlante storico dell'Adriatico orientale Bandecchi & Vivaldi Editori. Pontedera, 2007<br />•Cresswell, Peterjon; Atkins, Ismay; Dunn, Lily. Time Out Croatia Ebury Publishing, Random House. London, 2007 ISBN 978-1-904978-70-1<br />•Villa Chiara. Fotoricordo ([1])<br />
Categories: History of Italy<br />History of Istria<br />
================================================<br />
<strong>PROVINCE OF CATTARO</strong> <br />
IMAGE:Map of the "Cattaro province" and the Governorate of Dalmatia. <br />
The Province of Cattaro (in Italian: Provincia di Cattaro) was a province of the Italian Governorate of Dalmatia, created in May 1941 during World War II (by the Regio Decreto Legge del 18 maggio 1941 n. 452[1]). It lasted until September 1943.<br />
<em>History</em><br />
In April 1941 the Italians conquered coastal Dalmatia from the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. They created some provinces in that region, that lasted until September 1943. One was the province of Cattaro. The administrative capital was the city of Cattaro (now Kotor).[2]<br />
The province (subdivided in 15 "Comuni") had an area of 547 Km2 and a population of 39,800 inhabitants. Most of the province's inhabitants were Montenegrins, Croats and Serbs, but there were even 300 Dalmatian Italians, concentrated in Cattaro and Perasto (now Perast).<br />
The Italians improved the region by building hospitals and infrastructures, but even started a process of Italianization. Because of this, in summer 1942 there was a small insurrection against the Italian conquest, but without huge consequences until summer 1943.<br />
In September 1943 the German army took control of the region from the Italians, who has surrendered to the Allies, and soon started a terrible guerrilla war between the Nazi occupiers and Joseph Broz Tito's partisans. The province was abolished in the same September.<br />
<em>Administrative subdivision</em><br />
IMAGE:Map of the Province of Cattaro. <br />
The 15 "Comuni" were (in Italian the official name and in Montenegrin the actual):<br />•Cattaro / Kotor<br />•Cartolle / Krtole<br />•Castelnuovo di Cattaro / Herceg Novi<br />•Dobroto / Dobrota<br />•Gruda / Gruda<br />•Lastua Inferiore / Donja Lastva<br />•Lustizza / Luštica<br />•Mulla / Muo<br />•Perasto / Perast<br />•Perzagno / Prčanj<br />•Risano / Risan<br />•Stolivo Inferiore / Donji Stoliv<br />•Sutorina / Sutorina<br />•Teodo / Tivat<br />•Zuppa / Grbali<br />
<em>See also</em><br />
•Governatorate of Dalmatia<br />•Province of Spalato<br />•Province of Zara<br />
<em>Notes</em><br />
1.^ R.D.L. 18 maggio 1941, n. 452<br />2.^ Davide Rodogno. Fascism European Empire<br />
<em>Bibliography</em><br />
•Rodogno, Davide. Il nuovo ordine mediterraneo, ed. Bollati Boringhieri, Turin, 2003<br />
Categories: Former subdivisions of Italy<br />States and territories established in 1941<br />States and territories disestablished in 1943<br />20th century in Italy<br />History of Dalmatia<br />Italy–Yugoslavia relations<br />Yugoslavia in World War II<br />Montenegro in World War II<br />Bay of Kotor<br />
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<strong>PROVINCE OF SPALATO</strong> <br />
IMAGE:Map of the "Spalato province" and the Governorate of Dalmatia. <br />
IMAGE:Italian warship in the Spalato Harbour after the annexation into Italy in 1941. <br />
Spalato (province) was a province of the Italian Governorate of Dalmatia, during World War II.<br />
<em>History</em><br />
In April 1941 the Italians conquered coastal Dalmatia from the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. They created some provinces in that region, that lasted until September 1943. One was the province of Spalato. The administrative capital was the city of Spalato (now: Split).[1]<br />
The province had an area of 1075 Km2 and a population of 128000 inhabitants. Most of the province's inhabitants were Croats, but there were even 3000 Dalmatian Italians, concentrated in Spalaro and Traù (now: Trogir).<br />
The Italians improved the regionby building hospitals and infrastructures, but even started a process of Italianization. Because of this, in summer 1942 there was a small insurrection against the Italian conquest, but without huge consequences until summer 1943.<br />
In September 1943 the German army took control of the region from the Italians, who has surrendered to the Allies, and soon started a terrible guerrilla war between the Nazi occupiers and Joseph Broz Tito's partisans. The province was cancelled in the same September and later annexed to Ante Pavelic's Croatia.<br />
<em>Administrative subdivision</em><br />
IMAGE:Map of the Province of Spalato. <br />
The 15 "Comuni" were (in Italian the official name and in Croatian the actual):<br />•Spalato / Split<br />•Blatta / Blato<br />•Castella Inferiore o Castel Vecchio / Kaštel Stari o Donji Kaštel<br />•Castelli / Kaštel Sućurac<br />•Castel Vitturi / Kaštel Lukšić<br />•Comisa / Komiža<br />•Curzola / Korčula<br />•Lagosta / Lastovo<br />•Lissa / Vis<br />•Meleda / Mljet<br />•Solta / Šolta<br />•Traù / Trogir<br />•Vallegrande / Vela Luka<br />
<em>See also</em><br />
•Governatorate of Dalmatia<br />•Spalato<br />•Province of Cattaro<br />
<em>Notes</em><br />
1.^ Davide Rodogno. Fascism European Empire<br />
<em>Bibliography</em><br />
•Rodogno, Davide. Il nuovo ordine mediterraneo, ed. Bollati Boringhieri, Turin, 2003<br />
Categories: Former subdivisions of Italy<br />States and territories established in 1941<br />States and territories disestablished in 1943<br />20th century in Italy<br />History of Dalmatia<br />Italy–Yugoslavia relations<br />Yugoslavia in World War II<br />
====================================<br />
<strong>CARLOS LUIS CASTELLI</strong><br />'''Carlos Luis Castelli''' ([[Torino]],1790 - [[Caracas]],1860), fue un militar [[Italia|italiano]] e ilustre prócer de la independencia de [[Venezuela]]. <a href="http://www.efemeridesvenezolanas.com/images/efemerides/ldalw_Castelli.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.efemeridesvenezolanas.com/images/efemerides/ldalw_Castelli.jpg">http://www.efemeridesvenezolanas.com/ima...</a> Imagen de Carlo Luigi Castelli]<br />
==Biografia==<br />
Castelli fue un general nacido en Italia con el nombre "Carlo Luigi", que luchó con [[Simon Bolívar]] por la independencia de Venezuela. Hijo de un medico de [[Piemonte]], Carlo Luigi Castelli empezó su vida en San Sebastiano Po (Turín), Italia) el 18 de diciembre de 1790 y desde joven se unió a [[Napoleón I|Napoleón Buonaparte]]. Fue un ardiente luchador por los ideales de la [[Revolución Francesa]] y por el recién creado [[Reino de Italia (1805-1814)|Reino de Italia napoleónico]]. Con la derrota del emperador francés en 1815, Castelli -amargado- vino a las Americas.<br />
Conoció al [[Simon Bolívar|Libertador]] en [[Haití]] y desde entonces lo siguió en su lucha por la independencia de Venezuela, destacándose por sus conocimientos militares. Castelli se distinguió en la Batalla de Carabobo de 1821 con el ''Batallón de Apure'' (era el coronel al cuyo mando estos llaneros sostuvieron el primer ataque de la batalla, muriendo casi la mitad de ellos). Sucesivamente con su batallón de ''Cazadores de Occidente'' se distinguió en Colombia recibiendo elogios del mismo Bolívar.<br />
{{Quote|''Ilustre Prócer de la Independencia, de origen italiano. Después de servir en la guardia joven del Emperador Napoleón I, a su caída (1815) pasó a América, con otros oficiales y en 1816 se unió al Libertador en Los Cayos de Haití. Con él estuvo en la ruta de Clarines en los triunfos de Barcelona y toma de las dos Guayanas (1817), apresando un bergantín y auxiliando en Guiria a los sitiados.Pasó a las Antillas y en 1818 regresó a Angostura, esta vez en compañía del Batallón Británico. Como capitán de una compañía, fogueó reclutas en las misiones y en 1819 se halló con el General Páez en La Cruz, como también en Portuguesa, Apurito y Barinas. Ascendió en 1820 a teniente coronel y recibió la condecoración de la "Estrella de los Libertadores". Dirigió fortificaciones en San Fernando y en 1821 formando parte del Batallón Apure, fue de los gloriosos vencedores de Carabobo, pasando luego con fuerzas al sitio de Puerto Cabello y a San Felipe como Jefe Civil y Militar.Con Carlos Núñez triunfó en Chaparé de Coro en 1822. sostuvo la ruta de Dabajuro y le fue hecho efectivo su grado de teniente coronel. '' <a href="http://www.efemeridesvenezolanas.com/sec/his/id/553/?show=3" target="_blank" title="http://www.efemeridesvenezolanas.com/sec/his/id/553/?show=3">http://www.efemeridesvenezolanas.com/sec...</a> General Castelli]}}<br />
Después del destierro y muerte del Libertador, sufrió persecuciones por su apoyo fiel a Bolívar y volvió a Italia (donde se casó con Paola Sacchero <a href="http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/carlo-maria-luigi-castelli_" target="_blank" title="http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/carlo-maria-luigi-castelli_">http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/carl...</a>(Dizionario_Biografico)/ Treccani: Biografia di Carlo Luigi Castelli (en italiano)]). Pero en 1844 regresó a Caracas con el cargo de "Cónsul en Venezuela del Reino de Cerdeña" bajo el gobierno del Rey Carlos Alberto de Saboya y sucesivamente apoyó el primer gobierno de Monagas en 1848 (que lo ascendió a "General"). En 1850 Castelli se hizo ciudadano venezolano. <br />
[[Jose Tadeo Monagas]] nombró a Carlos Luis Castelli como "Ministro de Guerra" en 1858 (Castelli por 4 veces fue ministro: dos como titular y dos como interino <a href="https://books.google.es/books?id=KEJCW4EwaEkC&pg=PA36&lpg=PA36&dq=carlos+luis+castelli+ministro+venezuel;a&source=bl&ots=eLkavPjLkS&sig=GPuQrUTl8B5LkHtEGjuxbyd-f_o&hl=es&sa=X&ved=0CEkQ6AEwCWoVChMItvbN9cyIxwIVxHc-Ch1eYQ-x#v=onepage&q=carlos%20luis%20castelli%20ministro%20venezuel%3Ba&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.es/books?id=KEJCW4EwaEkC&pg=PA36&lpg=PA36&dq=carlos+luis+castelli+ministro+venezuel;a&source=bl&ots=eLkavPjLkS&sig=GPuQrUTl8B5LkHtEGjuxbyd-f_o&hl=es&sa=X&ved=0CEkQ6AEwCWoVChMItvbN9cyIxwIVxHc-Ch1eYQ-x#v=onepage&q=carlos%20luis%20castelli%20ministro%20venezuel%3Ba&f=false">https://books.google.es/books?id=KEJCW4E...</a> Castelli ministro de Venezuela]). Su ultima acción fue evitar la guerra civil entre Monagas y [[Julián Castro]] <a href="https://books.google.it/books?id=d0Cbt9Reh90C&pg=PA36&lpg=PA36&dq=general+carlos+luis+castelli&source=bl&ots=Y937vmbnhC&sig=3yq1q1O6Mf8GzkZsEQLF0nzNESs&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0CFMQ6AEwCGoVChMIkeburqT7xgIVRRY-Ch35cg8Z#v=onepage&q=general%20carlos%20luis%20castelli&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.it/books?id=d0Cbt9Reh90C&pg=PA36&lpg=PA36&dq=general+carlos+luis+castelli&source=bl&ots=Y937vmbnhC&sig=3yq1q1O6Mf8GzkZsEQLF0nzNESs&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0CFMQ6AEwCGoVChMIkeburqT7xgIVRRY-Ch35cg8Z#v=onepage&q=general%20carlos%20luis%20castelli&f=false">https://books.google.it/books?id=d0Cbt9R...</a> Castelli y la guerra de los Caudillos] durante la llamada [[Revolución de Marzo]].<br />
Murió en Caracas en 1860, en parte a causa de las heridas sufridas en combate, dejando una hija de nombre Josefa Castelli Sacchero.<br />
En 1876 el Presidente [[Guzman Blanco]] decretó que sus restos fueran colocados en el [[Panteón Nacional de Venezuela]].<br />
==Legado==<br />
El legado de Carlos Luis Castelli, a parte de lo que aportó en combate para la independencia de Venezuela, se puede colocar en dos sectores:<br />*1) el Civil. Fue el primer promotor de la emigración de italianos a Venezuela: en 1841 viajó a Italia y trató de hacer llegar a Venezuela un barco con unos 300 italianos, que desafortunadamente se hundió en el Mediterraneo apenas salido de la peninsula italiana en Toscana. Aunque la mayoria de estos italianos renunció a completar el viaje hacia La Guayra, uno de ellos de nombre Domenico Milano logró completar el viaje y llegó a Caracas en 1843. Milano (que era un ingeniero agrónomo) fundó los primeros "estudios agronómicos superiores" de Venezuela con el establecimiento de la ''Escuela Normal de Agricultura'' (actual Facultad de Agronomía de la UCV) por la Diputación Provincial de Caracas el 9 de diciembre 1843. <a href="http://www.scielo.org.ve/scielo.php?pid=S1315-94962013000100006&script=sci_arttext" target="_blank" title="http://www.scielo.org.ve/scielo.php?pid=S1315-94962013000100006&script=sci_arttext">http://www.scielo.org.ve/scielo.php?pid=...</a> La educación agrícola en América Latina: Los estudios superiores agronómicos. Universidad Central de Venezuela/Facultad de Agronomía]<br />
*2) el histórico-político. Logró evitar el inicio de la guerra civil en Venezuela -segun Marisa Vannini- mediando entre Monagas y Julian Castro en los años cincuenta del siglo XIX. A su muerte se desataron la [[Guerra Federal]] y las revoluciones con golpes de estado (como el ''Guzmancismo'') que por casi medio siglo ensangrentaron la sociedad venezolana. Al momento de morir Castelli era el ultimo "europeo" de alto cargo en Venezuela crecido con los ideales napoleónicos, y en sus últimos años de vida trató de mantener la unidad de los que lucharon por la independencia de Venezuela.<br />
==Notas==<br />
==Bibliografia==<br />* Vannini, Marisa. ''Carlos Luis Castelli: Documentos: Vida y Obra Del General de División Carlos Luis Castelli, Ilustre Prócer de la Independencia''. Cámara de Comercio, Industria y Agricultura Venezolana-Italiana. Caracas, 1988 ISBN 980300221X <br />
==Vease también==<br />
*[[Revolución de Marzo]]<br />*[[Historia de Venezuela]]<br />
[[Categoría:Historia de Venezuela]]<br />[[Categoría:Militares de la Guerra de Independencia venezolana (próceres)]]<br />[[Categoría: Militares de la Guerra de Independencia de Venezuela]]<br />
=====================================<br /><strong>PLAZA ITALIA</strong><br />
{{Ficha de parque<br />|nombre = Plaza Italia <br /> (Caracas)<br />|otros nombres = Piazza Italia di Caracas<br />|mapa_loc =Venezuela<br />|mapa_alternativo =<br />|pos_etiqueta_mapa_loc =<br />|pie_mapa_loc =<br />|tam_mapa_loc = 250px<br />|imagen =Church in Caracas.jpg<br />|tamaño imagen =<br />|descripción = La Plaza Italia dominada por la iglesia NS de Lourdes<br />|mapa =<br />|tamaño mapa =<br />|pie mapa =<br />|x = |y =<br />|tipo = Parque urbano - Plaza<br />|localización =[[Parroquia San Juan (Caracas)|Parroquia San Juan]] <br /> [[Municipio Libertador de Caracas|Municipio Libertador]] <br /> [[Caracas]]<br />{{bandera2|Venezuela}}<br />|vías adyacentes =<br />|tamaño =<br />|creación =<br />|inauguración =<br />|denominación =<br />|operador =<br />|visitantes =<br />|estatus =<br />}}<br />'''Plaza Italia'''http://www.caracas.gob.ve/la-alcaldia-de-caracas-continua-garantizando-espacios-limpios-a-la-comunidad/ es un espacio público localizado en el sector San Martín, Esquina de Palo <a href="grandehttp://pastoralfamiliarcaracas.com/descarga/Parroquias_en_Caracas.pdf" target="_blank" title="Grandehttp://pastoralfamiliarcaracas.com/descarga/Parroquias_en_Caracas.pdf">Grandehttp://pastoralfamiliarcaracas.com...</a> de la [[Parroquia San Juan (Caracas)|Parroquia San Juan]] del [[Municipio Libertador de Caracas|Municipio Libertador]] del [[Distrito Capital (Venezuela)|Distrito Capital]], en la parte oeste de la ciudad de [[Caracas]] y al centro norte del país sudamericano de [[Venezuela]]. Se ubica en la Avenida San Martín justo al frente de la iglesía de Nuestra Señora de Lourdes, inaugurada en 1935. <a href="https://www.yumpu.com/es/document/view/26652436/a-venezuela-analiza-a-burundi-sobre-aplicacian-de-la-convencian-/19" target="_blank" title="https://www.yumpu.com/es/document/view/26652436/a-venezuela-analiza-a-burundi-sobre-aplicacian-de-la-convencian-/19">https://www.yumpu.com/es/document/view/2...</a> Historia de la iglesia NS de Lourdes]<br />
==Historia==<br />
La Plaza Italia estaba localizada a finales del siglo XIX muy cerca de la estación terminal en Caracas (llamada ''Palo Grande'') del "Ferrocarril Alemán" o Ferrocarril Central de Venezuela ([[Gran Ferrocarril de Venezuela|Caracas-Valencia]]). <a href="http://www.tramz.com/ve/cs/csm2.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.tramz.com/ve/cs/csm2.html">http://www.tramz.com/ve/cs/csm2.html</a> Mapa del sistema ferroviario en Caracas, evidenciando la estacion "Palo Grande" cercana a la Plaza Italia]. La Plaza tenia a menos de un km al este la [[Plaza Capuchinos]], una de las primeras de la Caracas colonial, que le restaba importancia inicialmente.<br />
La Plaza era mas grande a principios del siglo XX <a href="http://mariafsigillo.blogspot.com/2015/05/la-iglesia-de-nuestra-senora-de-lourdes.html" target="_blank" title="http://mariafsigillo.blogspot.com/2015/05/la-iglesia-de-nuestra-senora-de-lourdes.html">http://mariafsigillo.blogspot.com/2015/0...</a> Foto de la Plaza y su iglesia en 1940], pero con la construcción de la avenida San Martin quedó reducida a menos de la mitad. La Plaza esta dominada por la imponente architectura de la iglesia de "Nuestra Señora de Lourdes", en estilo neogótico <a href="http://voce.com.ve/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/plaza-italia.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://voce.com.ve/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/plaza-italia.jpg">http://voce.com.ve/wp-content/uploads/20...</a> Foto de la Iglesia N.S. de Lourdes y de parte de la Plaza Italia]<br />
{{Quote|''El templo de la Plaza Italia fue el primero en tener "campanas a vuelo" en Caracas. Estas campanas -antes del desarrollo automotriz de la ciudad- daban un agradable sonido a todas las edificaciones alrededor del casco central caraqueño'' Don Matteo (Padre Escalabriniano) <a href="https://www.pinterest.com/pin/569564684094476840/" target="_blank" title="https://www.pinterest.com/pin/569564684094476840/">https://www.pinterest.com/pin/5695646840...</a> La Plaza Italia, con fotos ]}}<br />
Posee varios monumentos, entre ellos la llamada "Estatua de la Libertad" (representada por una imagen femenina llamada "Italia", creada en 1911 <a href="http://angeloadamo.net/tag/caracas/" target="_blank" title="http://angeloadamo.net/tag/caracas/">http://angeloadamo.net/tag/caracas/</a> Plaza Italia]) y el busto de [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]].<br />[[File:Iglesia de Palo Grande 009.jpg|thumb|left|200px|La llamada "Estatua de la libertad", donada por Italia en 1911]]<br />La Estatua -hecha por Gaetano Chiaromonte <a href="http://www.eluniversal.com/arte-y-entretenimiento/120704/varias-italias-invisibles-habitan-en-caracas" target="_blank" title="http://www.eluniversal.com/arte-y-entretenimiento/120704/varias-italias-invisibles-habitan-en-caracas">http://www.eluniversal.com/arte-y-entret...</a> El Universal: Italias invisibles en Caracas]- tiene una dedicatoria en italiano donde se resalta que fue donada por el gobierno italiano para celebrar los cien años de la independencia y libertad de Venezuela. <br />
En [[2007]] la Alcaldía del Municipio Libertador de Caracas y el Embajador de Italia inauguraron en la Plaza el monumento-busto a Garibaldi <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRseVqNIDkZ8hCUWvZCHrUhLh_aRqzp1ymDE1yz0V-9L-CODlQl1MpxQllJaj8nzi6RR2WxFvofDkTXs_fMMW_G3mQIp1iasVUjdSasXqaPNMsABpmjepnPhcwb0iOH5YGZEVG6LgEue8/s400/Giuseppe+Garibaldi.JPG" target="_blank" title="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRseVqNIDkZ8hCUWvZCHrUhLh_aRqzp1ymDE1yz0V-9L-CODlQl1MpxQllJaj8nzi6RR2WxFvofDkTXs_fMMW_G3mQIp1iasVUjdSasXqaPNMsABpmjepnPhcwb0iOH5YGZEVG6LgEue8/s400/Giuseppe+Garibaldi.JPG">http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-5THpKBR7CXU/Th...</a> Foto del busto de Garibaldi] en conmemoración de los 200 años de su nacimiento en [[1807]]. Garibaldi fue uno de los promotores de la Unidad de Italia: en su busto y monumento hay una inscripción en italiano que dice: ''"Giuseppe Garibaldi Eroe Dei Due Mondi"'' (Jose Garibaldi, heroe de los dos mundos -el europeo y el americano)<br />
La iglesia que domina la Plaza Italia tiene un estilo gótico, incluyendo los vitrales, y en la nave central se aprecian una serie de vitrales, todos dedicados a Jesús joven. En las naves laterales se observan vitrales describiendo a Jesús en su adultez. En el interior de la iglesia se aprecia una lectura del Víacrucis que vivió Cristo, pasaje que fue creado por un sacerdote ebanista.HoyVenezuela: iglesia NS de Lourdes. En 1950 fue instalado el "Altar Mayor", hecho en Italia con el famoso [[Mármol de Carrara]].<br />
Después de la segunda guerra mundial el área alrededor de la plaza Italia fue poblada por una numerosa [[Italo-venezolanos|colonia de sicilianos y napolitanos del sur de Italia]]. Actualmente quedan unas pocas familias italianas, que celebran en la plaza y en la iglesia sus reuniones en algunas ocasiones. <br />
Un periódico en italiano ha sido creado en 2013 con el nombre "Piazza Italia" <a href="http://www.faiv.com.ve/noticias/sale-a-la-luz-publica-piazza-italia-2/" target="_blank" title="http://www.faiv.com.ve/noticias/sale-a-la-luz-publica-piazza-italia-2/">http://www.faiv.com.ve/noticias/sale-a-l...</a> Revista "Piazza Italia"], en clara referencia al hecho de que la Plaza ha sido uno de los puntos de reunión de los Italianos de Caracas (junto con la "Casa de Italia" y el "Centro Italo-Venezolano").<br />
{{Commons|Category:Iglesia de Palo Grande}}<br />
==Véase también==<br />*[[Plaza Bolívar (Venezuela)]]<br />*[[Plaza Capuchinos]]<br />*[[Plaza Altamira]]<br />*[[Plaza]]<br />*[[Anexo:Plazas, parques y paseos de Caracas]]<br />
==Referencias==<br />{{listaref}}<br />
==Enlaces externos==<br />* <a href="http://wikimapia.org/18736230/es/Plaza-Italia" target="_blank" title="http://wikimapia.org/18736230/es/Plaza-Italia">http://wikimapia.org/18736230/es/Plaza-I...</a> Mapa de localización de la Plaza]<br />* <a href="http://hoyvenezuela.info/recorrer-los-siete-templos-desde-la-estetica-y-la-historia-caraquena/#comment-7774" target="_blank" title="http://hoyvenezuela.info/recorrer-los-siete-templos-desde-la-estetica-y-la-historia-caraquena/#comment-7774">http://hoyvenezuela.info/recorrer-los-si...</a> Vista de la Plaza e iglesia, con comentarios]<br />
{{ORDENAR:Italia, Plaza de}}<br />
[[Categoría:Plazas de Caracas]]<br />[[Categoría:Municipio Libertador (Caracas)]]<br />[[Categoría:Bustos de Venezuela]]<br />
=================================================<br />
<strong>IGLESIA DE POMPEI</strong><br />
La '''Iglesia de Pompei''' es una iglesia recientemente construida en [[Caracas]] para la [[Italo-venezolanos|comunidad italiana]]. <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Le5ANwj6rc" target="_blank" title="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Le5ANwj6rc">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Le5ANwj...</a> Video de la Iglesia de Pompei (donación estatua "Virgen de Loreto")]<br />
==Características==<br />
La Iglesia pertenece a la [[Arquidiocesis de Caracas]] y es considerada una "Iglesia de comunidad" (llamadas también "Parroquias personales") <a href="http://www.arquidiocesisdecaracas.com/estructura_org/parroquias_p.php" target="_blank" title="http://www.arquidiocesisdecaracas.com/estructura_org/parroquias_p.php">http://www.arquidiocesisdecaracas.com/es...</a> Parroquia de la iglesia de Pompei].<br />
{{Quote|''La iglesia es un cuadrado de 25 metros por lado, más el altar mayor y los dos altares laterales. Todo el edificio está sostenido por cuatro columnas puestas en las cuatro esquinas. El edificio presenta una bóveda autoportante parabólica.De lado a la fachada hacia el sur se levanta un alto campanario. En la cumbre lleva un gran cruz iluminada. El campanario está sostenido con cabezales y vigas de riostra adecuadas y unidas a toda la estructura en concreto de la iglesia.'' <a href="http://www.reocities.com/heartland/cabin/7977/iglesia_af.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.reocities.com/heartland/cabin/7977/iglesia_af.htm">http://www.reocities.com/heartland/cabin...</a> Historia de la Iglesia de Pompei]}}<br />
Los trabajos de la iglesia empezaron en 1967 y terminaron en 1969. El arquitecto fue Domenico Filippone (que hizo también la ''Casa de Italia'', recibiendo la condecoración de la "Orden de Miranda"), mientras que el ingeniero estructuralista fue Giorgio Bruttini. El estilo arquitectónico es completamente moderno y se amalgama perfectamente dentro de la abundante vegetación de la "Alta Florida" (la iglesia se encuentra a menos de un Km del "Country Club" de Caracas).<br />
El altar mayor tiene un ''Cristo resucitado'' (creado por el escultor Aldo D'Alamo), que domina el interior de la iglesia <a href="http://www.reocities.com/heartland/cabin/7977/p_iglesia.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.reocities.com/heartland/cabin/7977/p_iglesia.htm">http://www.reocities.com/heartland/cabin...</a> Interior de la iglesia]. La iglesia se encuentra ubicada al lado de una escuela con el mismo nombre, con cursos en italiano y español, dirigida por los "[[Scalabrinianos|Padres Escalabrinianos]]".<br />
==Notas==<br />
==Vease tambien==<br />* [[Edificaciones religiosas de Caracas]]<br />* [[Italo-venezolanos]]<br />
==Bibliografía==<br />*Cassani Pironti, Fabio. ''Gli italiani in Venezuela dall’Indipendenza al Secondo Dopoguerra'' Roma, 2004<br />
[[Categoría:iglesias de Caracas]]<br />====================================================<br />
[[File:Mogadishu International Airport.jpg|thumb|right|Original building of Petrella airport, restructured and still in use]]<br />
'''Petrella-Mogadiscio aeroporto''' was the first international airport in [[Italian Somalia]]. It was opened in 1928 with the name "Enrico Petrella" in honor of an Italian pilot who died in the same airport of [[Mogadiscio italiana]]. Actually it has been improved and is the [[Mogadishu Airport|Mogadishu international airport]].<br />
==History==<br />
The initial Mogadishu airport was established in 1928 with the name "''Aeroporto Petrella di Mogadiscio''", the first such facility to be opened in the [[Horn of Africa]].<br />[[File:Romeo Ro.1.jpg|thumb|left|300px|A "Romeo Ro.1" airplane used by Squadriglia Mogadiscio, based on Petrella airport]]<br />
It was located nearly 5 km south of [[Mogadiscio]]'s port: since 1938 a bus service (one of the first in Africa) was connecting the airport with the colonial Italian city and its port.<br />
It served as the main military airport serving [[Italian Somaliland]]. The "36 Squadriglia Mogadiscio" was based there since 1926 <a href="http://www.aeronautica.difesa.it/storiaTradizione/ufficioStorico/Documents/SMA_Memorie%20storiche.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.aeronautica.difesa.it/storiaTradizione/ufficioStorico/Documents/SMA_Memorie%20storiche.pdf">http://www.aeronautica.difesa.it/storiaT...</a> Historical documents: section Somalia; page 11] The airport was the center for Italian air-raids & bombings on southern [[Ethiopia]] during the Italian conquest of Abyssinia in 1935-1936.<br />
In 1930 the airport was known worldwide because the pilot Francis Lombardi flew from Rome to Mogadiscio in the same flight, obtaining an aviation record <a href="http://senato.archivioluce.it/senato-luce/scheda/video/IL3000096018/1/Armi-dItalia-nella-terra-dei-Somali.html" target="_blank" title="http://senato.archivioluce.it/senato-luce/scheda/video/IL3000096018/1/Armi-dItalia-nella-terra-dei-Somali.html">http://senato.archivioluce.it/senato-luc...</a> Video showing the Petrella airport and the Lombardi airplane]<br />
In the mid-1930s, the airport began offering civilian and commercial flights. <a href="http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/2307/1165/1/S039.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/2307/1165/1/S039.jpg">http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/...</a> Photo of Petrella-Mogadiscio airport] A regular [[Asmara]]-[[Assab]]-Mogadishu commercial route was started in 1935, with an [[Ala Littoria]] [[Caproni Ca.133|Caproni 133]] providing 13-hour flights from the Mogadishu airport to [[Italian Eritrea]]. The aircraft had a maximal capacity of 18 passengers, which at the time was a record. In 1936, Ala Littoria launched an intercontinental connection between Mogadishu-Asmara-[[Khartoum]]-[[Tripoli]] and Rome. The voyage lasted four days and was one of the first long range flights in the world.{{cite web|last=Flavio Riccitelli (A.I.D.A.)|title=ALA LITTORIA S.A. (1934–1941)|url=http://www.ilpostalista.it/unico2004pag55.htm|publisher=Il Postalista|accessdate=7 October 2013}}<br />
{{Quote|''In 1934 the Italian aviation in Somalia -under the orders of captain Pocci- was made of the "Squadriglia di Mogadiscio" with 9 Romeo Ro-1, the group that attacked Ual-Ual (starting the 1935 italo-ethiopian war)...''Paolo Ferrari, p 308}}<br />
In 1939 the Petrella airport was started to be enlarged, but the beginning of [[WWII]] blocked the works. During the [[East African Campaign (World War II)|East African Campaign]] the airport was greatly damaged.<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />* Ferrari, Paolo. ''L'aeronautica italiana: una storia del Novecento''. Editore FrancoAngeli, 2004 ISBN 8846451090 ( <a href="https://books.google.it/books?id=zwdQOqmbiMEC&pg=PA308&lpg=PA308&dq=volo+lombardi+roma-mogadiscio&source=bl&ots=cc_P-fRA4I&sig=64jwt7xf6NbkFrFPDW7k0tOcoac&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0CGIQ6AEwCGoVChMIj7710dfjxwIVy9SACh1FMw9j#v=onepage&q=volo%20lombardi%20roma-mogadiscio&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.it/books?id=zwdQOqmbiMEC&pg=PA308&lpg=PA308&dq=volo+lombardi+roma-mogadiscio&source=bl&ots=cc_P-fRA4I&sig=64jwt7xf6NbkFrFPDW7k0tOcoac&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0CGIQ6AEwCGoVChMIj7710dfjxwIVy9SACh1FMw9j#v=onepage&q=volo%20lombardi%20roma-mogadiscio&f=false">https://books.google.it/books?id=zwdQOqm...</a> ])<br />* Mannone Guido, ''Le Ali del Littorio - Piccola Storia dell'Aviazione Civile Italiana'', Grafica Bierre, 2004.<br />==See also==<br />
* [[Italian Somalia]]<br />* [[Mogadiscio italiana]]<br />* [[Mogadishu Airport]]<br />* [[Ala Littoria]]<br />
{{Somalia italiana (colonia)}}<br />
[[Category:Italian Somaliland]]<br />
============================================================<br />
{{Navbox<br />
| name = Somalia italiana (Colonia)<br />| title = Somalia italiana<br />| state = {{{state|}}}<br />| listclass = hlist<br />| image = [[File:GrandeSomaliasettembre1940.gif]]<br />
| group1 = Main authorities<br />| list1 =<br />* [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|King & Emperor Vittorio Emanuele III]]<br />* [[Benito Mussolini|Prime Minister Benito Mussolini]]<br />* [[List of viceroys of Italian East Africa]]<br />
| group2 = Governors<br />| list2 =<br />* [[List of colonial governors of Italian Somaliland|Italian Governors of Somalia]]<br />* Main Colonial governors: [[Vincenzo Filonardi]]; [[Giacomo De Martino (governor)|Giacomo De Martino]]; [[Cesare Maria De Vecchi]]; [[Rodolfo Graziani]]; [[Carlo De Simone]]<br />
| group3 = General History<br />| list3 =<br />* [[Italian Somalia]]<br />* [[Italian Trans-Juba]]<br />* [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War]]<br />* [[Somalia Governorate]]<br />* [[Italian conquest of British Somaliland]]<br />* [[French Somaliland in World War II|Italian tentative to occupy French Somaliland]]<br />* [[East African Campaign (World War II)|East African Campaign]]<br />* [[Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia|Italian guerrilla war in A.O.I. (1941-1943)]]<br />* [[Trust Territory of Somalia]]<br />* [[Italy–Somalia relations]]<br />
| group4 = Infrastructures<br />| list4 =<br />* [[Mogadishu–Villabruzzi Railway]]<br />* [[Railway stations in Somalia]]<br />* [[Linea dell'Impero]]<br />* [[Petrella-Mogadiscio aeroporto]]<br />* [[Railways of Italian colonies|History of Italian colonial railways]]<br />* [[Villa Somalia]]<br />* [[Circuito automobilistico di Mogadiscio]]<br />* [[Governor's Palace of Mogadishu]]<br />* [[Port of Mogadishu|Porto di Mogadiscio]]<br />
| group5 = Related articles<br />| list5 =<br />* [[Italian Somalians]]<br />* [[Mogadiscio]]<br />* [[Benadir]]<br />* [[Imperial Italy (fascist)|Imperial Italy]]<br />* [[Italian East Africa]]<br />* [[Italian East African lira]]<br />* [[Italian Somaliland lira]]<br />* [[Italian Somaliland rupia]]<br />* [[Italian Somaliland somalo]]<br />* [[Postage stamps and postal history of Somalia]]<br />* [[Postage stamps and postal history of Italian East Africa]]<br />* [[Postage stamps and postal history of Oltre Giuba]]<br />* [[Roman Catholicism in Somalia]]<br />* [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Mogadiscio]]<br />* [[Mogadishu Cathedral]]<br />
| group6 = Colonial troops<br />| list6 =<br />* [[Royal Corps of Colonial Troops]]<br />* [[Royal Corps of Somali Colonial Troops]]<br />* [[Italian Somali Divisions (101 and 102)]]<br />* [[Dubats]]<br />* [[Italian African Police]]<br />* [[Bands (Italian Army irregulars)|Bands]]<br />* [[Zaptié]]<br />
}}<br />
==========================================================================<br />ITALIAN COUNTERATTACK IN GELA (JULY 1943)<br />
This scenario represent the first counterattack, carried out in the first hours of the same<br />day of the disembarkation in Sicily, from the Axis troops against the American forces<br />disembarked on the beaches of the city of Gela. The attack, carried from the Italian Mobile<br />Group “E” coming from Niscemi, was carried out without coordination with the units of the<br />German division “Herman Goering” that also had received order to attack the beaches of<br />disembarkation.<br />The action however was lead with energy and courage, in spite of the losses endured in<br />phase of approach to the city for the fire of cruiser USS BOISE, in fact the Italians tanks<br />succeeded to penetrate in the first roads of the city. The Americans defenders, pertaining<br />to 1st Rangers Battalion (Darby's Rangers), found in difficulty for the lack of anti-tank<br />weapons, besides the bazooka of normal equipment, therefore they were forced to engage<br />a fight road for road with the Italians tanks (Renault R35 ex French, booty of war),<br />attacking them with grenades and in a case, also with explosive charges, launch from the<br />balconies and the roofs of the houses. The situation was resolved to advantage of the<br />Americans when the Col. Darby taken, with to an other official, a jeep and succeeded to<br />find on the disembarkation beaches a 37 mm. antitank gun. It quickly carried on the place<br />of the combat and thanks to the fire of the gun (Col. Darby personally destroyed an Italian<br />tank) the Americans rejected the adversaries. The Mobile Group “E” was forced therefore<br />to withdraw itself, but it would have renewed own attack, without greater fortune, the<br />morning of the successive day with units of the Infantry Division “Livorno”.<br />Italian Order of Battle (test @19 casualties)<br />GRUPPO MOBILE “E”<br />HQ: CO (Ten. Col. Conti) + 3 Figs. + Lancia Aprilia staff car.<br />1st Co. CI Battaglione Carri R-35: 3 x Renault R-35.<br />2nd Co. CII Battaglione C.C. 47/32: 6 Figs. + 2 x 47/32 A.T. guns + 2 x trucks.<br />4th Co. 501th Battaglione Costiero: 10 Figs. + truck.<br />155th Co. Motorcyclists: 10 Figs. + 6 motorcycles.<br />9th Batteria 75/18 III Gp. 54th Art. “Napoli”: 4 figs. + 75/18 gun + truck + 2 Figs.<br />OP. + Fiat 508 car.<br />1st Section 326th Batteria 20mm “Assietta”: 3 figs. + 20 mm. A.A. Breda<br />machine gun + truck.<br />1 civil sharpshooter.<br />American Order of Battle (test @17 casualties)<br />1st -2nd RANGERS BATTALION (DARBY’S RANGERS)<br />HQ: CO (Col. William O. Darby) + 4 Figs. + 60 mm. mortar.<br />Ranger Co. “A”: 5 Figs. + Bazooka.<br />Ranger Co. “B”: 5 Figs. + Bazooka.<br />Ranger Co. “C”: 5 Figs. + Demo Charge.<br />Ranger Co. “D”: 5 Figs. + 30 cal MMG.<br />Ranger Co. “E”: 5 Figs. + 30 cal MMG.<br />Ranger Co. “F”: 5 Figs. + 30 cal MMG.<br />Reinforcements:<br />1 jeep + 37 mm. A.T. gun.<br />Naval Forces<br />USS BOISE (CL 47): 2 x 6” (152mm) shot for turn (15 points Table 5).<br />AOP USS BOISE: Vought OS2U “Kingfisher” (Lt. C.G. Lewis).<br />
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NB: Read complete section at <a href="https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-MTO-Sicily/USA-MTO-Sicily-8.html#cn20" target="_blank" title="https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-MTO-Sicily/USA-MTO-Sicily-8.html#cn20">https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA...</a> (Gela; The US ARMY in WWII)<br />
-----------------<br />
Riassunto dettagliato fatto da un Ranger : <a href="http://www.historynet.com/world-war-ii-39th-combat-engineer-regiment-in-the-battle-for-gela.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.historynet.com/world-war-ii-39th-combat-engineer-regiment-in-the-battle-for-gela.htm">http://www.historynet.com/world-war-ii-3...</a><br />
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<a href="http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2005/marzo/03/Sei_prigioniero_italiano_sparo_cuore_co_9_050303089.shtml" target="_blank" title="http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2005/marzo/03/Sei_prigioniero_italiano_sparo_cuore_co_9_050303089.shtml">http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2005/...</a> SEI UN PRIGIONIERO ITALIANO? ALLORA TI SPARO (Strage di circa 200 italiani civili e militari) all'aeroporto di Biscari il 14 luglio 1943<br />=================================================================<b></b><i></i><u></u><sub></sub><sup></sup><strike></strike>mappista59http://www.blogger.com/profile/17629549463392207787noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-508143919763220478.post-57856378982054788622019-09-20T10:41:00.000-07:002019-09-20T10:47:04.537-07:00MORE MEMORIES 3<br />
AUGUSTUS PAGUS (Wikipedia)<br />
[[File:Nihastatue.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Statue of Roman colonist/priest at Niha lower great temple, in the "Augustus Pagus" settlements (and showing a latin inscription)]]<br />
'''Pagus Augustus''' was a "country district" (or "farm villages-association of settlers") in [[Roman Phoenicia]], created by Roman colonists under [[Augustus]] rule. It lasted a couple of centuries as a center of Roman [[paganism]] and disappeared when Christianity become the official religion of the [[Roman Empire|empire]].<br />
==Historical background==<br />
Romans created only four colonies for veterans in the actual [[Middle East]]: one was [[Berytus]]. But on the mountains ([[Mount Lebanon]] and others) east of this city they also settled in an area relatively depopulated where they created [[Temples of the Beqaa Valley|various temples]] and farm-villages (like [[Niha (Roman temples)|Niha]]Benjamin Isaac; p. 52 ( <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7fVsvzHi8iQC&pg=PA52&lpg=PA52&dq=augustus+pagus+at+niha&source=bl&ots=fgG-0TjK-L&sig=dHUPsaTBc7BfWfX15IRCuhSU_Fo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjWiODV4OLaAhURd98KHUwlA44Q6AEITjAM#v=onepage&q=augustus%20pagus%20at%20niha&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=7fVsvzHi8iQC&pg=PA52&lpg=PA52&dq=augustus+pagus+at+niha&source=bl&ots=fgG-0TjK-L&sig=dHUPsaTBc7BfWfX15IRCuhSU_Fo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjWiODV4OLaAhURd98KHUwlA44Q6AEITjAM#v=onepage&q=augustus%20pagus%20at%20niha&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=7fVsvz...</a> Latin in cities of the Roman Near east]) ). This area (around actual [[Niha Bekaa|Nihaa]] and [[Qsarnaba]] and along the road between Berytus and Baalbeck) was fully [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanized]] in the first century of the Roman empire and was the only [[Latin language|latin-speaking]] in the region. This kind of farm & villages settlement in an extended area was similar to others in the Roman empire, like in [[Roman Iberia]]'s Colonia Tuccitana <a href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:jvU6T56LnLUJ:https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/4527070.pdf+&cd=4&hl=it&ct=clnk&gl=us" target="_blank" title="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:jvU6T56LnLUJ:https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/4527070.pdf+&cd=4&hl=it&ct=clnk&gl=us">https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/s...</a> Villas Romanas en colonia Tuccitana (in Spanish)].<br />
{{Quote|''...Dea Suria Nihathe(na) / pro Aug(usto), Pagus / Augustus fecit / et dedica[vi]t (Dedication in Latin found at Nihaa about Augustus Pagus)''. Anne-Rose Hošek <a href="https://journals.openedition.org/mefra/3088" target="_blank" title="https://journals.openedition.org/mefra/3088">https://journals.openedition.org/mefra/3...</a> Augustus Pagus (in French)]}}<br />
The Roman settlements of Augustus Pagus were located at the shoulder of the Western Lebanese Mountain Range -just to the East of [[Mount Sannine]] specifically <a href="https://www.int-arch-photogramm-remote-sens-spatial-inf-sci.net/XL-5-W2/699/2013/isprsarchives-XL-5-W2-699-2013.pdf" target="_blank" title="https://www.int-arch-photogramm-remote-sens-spatial-inf-sci.net/XL-5-W2/699/2013/isprsarchives-XL-5-W2-699-2013.pdf">https://www.int-arch-photogramm-remote-s...</a> Map with location of some temples in the Augustus Pagus area]- and at the border of the central parts of the [[Beqaa Valley]] with the famous pagan [[Heliopolis in Phoenicia]]. People in this area actually are mostly traditional farmers, famous for growing vineyards and wild rose flowers for rosewater extraction since Roman times.<br />
Indeed a Latin inscription found in these mountains near the village of [[Niha (Roman temples)|Niha]], shows a 'Pagus Augustus' (a village, or association of settlers) making a dedication on behalf of the Emperor to the 'Dea Suria Nihathe(na)' <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IA-YlZqHv90C&pg=PA282&lpg=PA282&dq=augustus+pagus+in+roman+phoenicia&source=bl&ots=-No0xbVt1e&sig=t8qq_o3VCooiLEIjua5btAof-8c&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwip8fGy8-DaAhVHuVkKHU9eD3wQ6AEIbzAL#v=onepage&q=augustus%20pagus%20in%20roman%20phoenicia&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=IA-YlZqHv90C&pg=PA282&lpg=PA282&dq=augustus+pagus+in+roman+phoenicia&source=bl&ots=-No0xbVt1e&sig=t8qq_o3VCooiLEIjua5btAof-8c&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwip8fGy8-DaAhVHuVkKHU9eD3wQ6AEIbzAL#v=onepage&q=augustus%20pagus%20in%20roman%20phoenicia&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=IA-YlZ...</a> Fergus Millar. "The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337"; p. 282].<br />
{{Quote|''In Roman times, this town (now called Niha) located in the center of the "Augustus pagus", is inhabited by a community of pilgrims and Roman settlers (among whom are the Vesii). The inhabitants of Nihatha could pay homage to a divine triad similar to that of Baalbek, with the difference that the gods who compose it retain their Semitic denominations: alongside the couple formed of the supreme god Hadaranès and the goddess Atargatis (Dea Syria Nihathena) is perhaps a young minor consort whose name is unknown, but whose appearance would be similar to that of the Heliopolitan Mercury.''Julien Aliquot <a href="http://books.openedition.org/ifpo/1456" target="_blank" title="http://books.openedition.org/ifpo/1456">http://books.openedition.org/ifpo/1456</a> La vie religieuse au Liban sous l'empire roman: Niha & Hosn Niha] Niha & surroundings, with detailed images (in French)}}<br />
Historian Kevin Butcher pinpointed that the territory of Roman [[Berytus]] under [[Claudius]] reached the [[Bekaa valley]] and included [[Heliopolis of Phoenicia|Heliopolis]]: it was the only area mostly [[latin language|latin-speaking]] in the Syria-Phoenicia region, because settled by Roman colonists who even promoted agriculture in the fertile lands around actual [[Yammoune]]. He also wrote that from the 1st century BC the Bekaa valley served as a source of grain for the [[Roman province]]s of the [[Levant]] and even for the same [[Rome]] (today the valley makes up to 40 percent of Lebanon's [[arable land]]): Roman colonists created there even the "country district" called ''Pagus Augustus'' where are located the Niha temples with latin inscriptions Butcher, 2003; p.230. <br />
In his opinion the mountain area between Berytus and Baalbeck was chosen by the Roman colonists because of the climate similar to the one of the Italian peninsula mountains (from where they came) and because it was with no presence of huge Phoenician or local [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] speaking communities: for a couple of centuries it was the stronghhold of Rome in the Levant (as a fully Romanized area with Roman pagan religion), that only under emperor [[Constantine the great|Constantine]] started to be converted to Christianity and was assimilated by the surrounding majority of Aramaic-speaking population.<br />
Indeed [[Eusebius]] records that the Emperor [[Constantine the Great|Constantine]] destroyed a pagan temple of Venus 'on the summit of Mount Lebanon.'Eusebius 'Life of Constantine' III.54 and, after the 5th century AD, Christian monks who were followers of a hermit named [[Maron]] settled in the mountains where lived the remaining descendants of the roman colonists of the Augustus Pagus.<br />
It is noteworthy to pinpoint that the area of Augustus Pagus is the "original homeland" in actual [[Lebanon]] of the territories of the [[Maronites]], a Christian group that looks at the [[Pope]] leadership. Indeed the Maronite Church is an [[Eastern Catholic Churches|Eastern Catholic]] ''[[sui iuris]]'' [[particular church]] in [[full communion]] with the [[Pope]] and the [[Catholic Church]],{{Cite book|title=One Friday in Jerusalem|last=Moubarak|first=Andre|publisher=Twin Tours & Travel Ltd|year=2017|isbn=9780999249420|location=Jerusalem, Israel|pages=213}} with self-governance under the [[Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches]]. <br />
Some researchers -like D'Ambrosio- think that this link to [[Rome]] is the last legacy of the Roman colonists who settled in this Augustus Pagus area.<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Aliquot, Julien. ''La Vie religieuse au Liban sous l'Empire romain''. Publications de l’Institut français du Proche-Orient. Beyrut, 2012 {{ISBN|9782351591604}} ( <a href="http://books.openedition.org/ifpo/1411" target="_blank" title="http://books.openedition.org/ifpo/1411">http://books.openedition.org/ifpo/1411</a>])<br />
* Butcher, Kevin. ''Roman Syria and the Near East'' Getty Publications. Los Angeles, 2003 {{ISBN|0892367156}} ( <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YJPn3-rRjC0C&pg=PA230&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=YJPn3-rRjC0C&pg=PA230&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=YJPn3-...</a>])<br />
* Millar, Fergus. ''The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337''. ACLS Humanities. Harvard University Press. Harvard, 1993 {{ISBN|0674778863}}<br />
* Price, Jonathan; David J. Wasserstein; Benjamin Isaac. ''From Hellenism to Islam: Cultural and Linguistic Change in the Roman Near East''. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, 2009 ISBN 0521875811<br />
==See also==<br />
{{Portal|Lebanon|Archaeology|Ancient Near East}}<br />
* [[Niha (Roman temples)]]<br />
* [[Temples of the Beqaa Valley]]<br />
* [[Temples of Mount Hermon]]<br />
* [[Heliopolis in Phoenicia]]<br />
* [[Roman Phoenicia]]<br />
* [[Mount Lebanon]]<br />
{{Archaeological sites in Lebanon}}<br />
{{Roman Archaeological sites in Beirut & Lebanon}}<br />
{{Roman colonies in ancient Levant}}<br />
[[Category:Roman sites in Lebanon]]<br />
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Lebanon]]<br />
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<a href="http://genealogiagenetica.it/storia-genetica-degli-italiani/" target="_blank" title="http://genealogiagenetica.it/storia-genetica-degli-italiani/">http://genealogiagenetica.it/storia-gene...</a> STORIA GENETICA DEGLI ITALIANI (OTTIMO!!!)<br />
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<a href="http://148.206.53.84/tesiuami/UAM1510.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://148.206.53.84/tesiuami/UAM1510.pdf">http://148.206.53.84/tesiuami/UAM1510.pd...</a> TESI su Zentla - Colonia Manuel Gonzalez<br />
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<a href="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:nx2y9NnykOMJ:revistas.uv.mx/index.php/ulua/article/download/1840/pdf_258+&cd=9&hl=es&ct=clnk&gl=es" target="_blank" title="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:nx2y9NnykOMJ:revistas.uv.mx/index.php/ulua/article/download/1840/pdf_258+&cd=9&hl=es&ct=clnk&gl=es">http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se...</a> Emigrazione italiana in Messico (OTTIMA)<br />
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<a href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0186-03482010000100004" target="_blank" title="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0186-03482010000100004">http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?scri...</a> Le sei colonie italiane in messico (Ottimo)<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgoZZwsq7e1-7h6lWVp2DMboPImpHGgikAwqUWLo3xyqmeYv5ceDWWFMke_Ps-KiNKYO98gnTwBtFN-T63Kp_uGlv61vjzfPJppb-NUi50e9pKct8t0Xuo81Ntu4suzqgc3gxSbxewR_MIk/s1600/venezolano+deportivo+italia+1957.jpg" target="_blank" title="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgoZZwsq7e1-7h6lWVp2DMboPImpHGgikAwqUWLo3xyqmeYv5ceDWWFMke_Ps-KiNKYO98gnTwBtFN-T63Kp_uGlv61vjzfPJppb-NUi50e9pKct8t0Xuo81Ntu4suzqgc3gxSbxewR_MIk/s1600/venezolano+deportivo+italia+1957.jpg">http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-t0W8ds7Lau4/US...</a> Fassano nel Dep. Italia 1957<br />
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<a href="http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/cronache/mistero-dell-ufo-che-spavent-mussolini-e-spar-america-1376924.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/cronache/mistero-dell-ufo-che-spavent-mussolini-e-spar-america-1376924.html">http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/cronache/m...</a> Storia dell'UFo in Italia del 1933 (per Researchomnia)<br />
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<a href="https://blackcampbell.files.wordpress.com/2009/10/the-reluctant-imperialist.pdf" target="_blank" title="https://blackcampbell.files.wordpress.com/2009/10/the-reluctant-imperialist.pdf">https://blackcampbell.files.wordpress.co...</a> Storia dettagliata del Benadir occupato dagli italiani ( per Researchomnia) a fine Ottocento<br />
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<a href="http://www.eluniversal.com/noticias/cultura/linda-dambrosio-presenta-libro-sobre-ramon-plaza_631381" target="_blank" title="http://www.eluniversal.com/noticias/cultura/linda-dambrosio-presenta-libro-sobre-ramon-plaza_631381">http://www.eluniversal.com/noticias/cult...</a> Linda D'Ambrosio /El Universal su libro "Ramon de la plaza"<br />
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<a href="http://www.academia.edu/11868779/The_Farasan_Islands_Saudi_Arabia_Towards_a_Chronology_of_Settlement" target="_blank" title="http://www.academia.edu/11868779/The_Farasan_Islands_Saudi_Arabia_Towards_a_Chronology_of_Settlement">http://www.academia.edu/11868779/The_Far...</a> FARASAN ISLANDS (RED SEA, FACING SAUDI ARABIA ) CONTROLLED BY ROMANS<br />
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LUDOVICO POLLERA (Governor Eritrea)<br />
Ludovico Pollera, was a colonial official of some importance. He arrived in Eritrea in 1895 and remained there until 1928. In 1900 it passed by the military in civilian roles. Ludovico Pollera had a particularly brilliant career. He started as a resident of Agordat and then was regional commissioner of the boat. In 1912 he accompanied an aggregate meharists company in the V Battalion Ascari in operations in Libya. Subsequently he became the head of the Civil and Political Affairs Department (1918-1920). From 20 November 1920 to 13 April 1921 he was secretary general regent the Government of the Colony of Eritrea, and then stood to the General Secretary until 1928. In spite of its excellent state service and its participation, active and sustained, the political life of the colony, Ludovico Pollera has not published that one wrote.<br />
--------------------------<br />
The following year, in 1895, arrived in Eritrea Pollera also Ludovico (1870-1953), older brother of Alberto, which would have had the opportunity, a little later, to participate in the battle of Adwa in March 1896.<br />
Unlike Louis, who returned from Africa in the mid-thirties of the last century to then cover between 1938 and 1945, the post of president of the Cassa di Lucca, Alberto Pollera decided to Eritrea her second homeland and had spent his whole life<br />
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<a href="http://www.assiter.org/file/2004-africus-08.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.assiter.org/file/2004-africus-08.pdf">http://www.assiter.org/file/2004-africus...</a> Vita dettagliata in fondo articolo sul fratello Alberto<br />
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CAMILLO DE CAMILLIS<br />
{{ Infobox officeholder<br />
| name =Camillo De Camillis<br />
| image=<br />
| imagesize=<br />
| caption=<br />
|order1=[[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea|Italian Governor of Eritrea]]<br />
| term_start1= July 1, 1919<br />
|term_end1 = November 16, 1920<br />
| predecessor1=[[Giacomo De Martino (governor)|Giacomo De Martino]]<br />
| successor1=[[Ludovico Pollera]]<br />
|order2=<br />
|term_start2 =<br />
| term_end2=<br />
| predecessor2=<br />
| successor2=<br />
| birth_date=<br />
|birth_place =<br />
| death_date=<br />
| death_place=<br />
| nationality=Italian<br />
|party =<br />
| footnotes=<br />
}}<br />
'''Camillo De Camillis''' was an Italian diplomat. He was an Italian colonial governor of [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]].<br />
==Data==<br />
His role of "Regent Governor" in [[Italian language|Italian]] was ''Funzionario ruolo colonie (attribuzione: Reggente)'' from July 1919 to November 1920.<br />
The Regent Governor of Eritrea Camillo De Camillis instructed all colonial commissaries in Eritrea to attribute Italian citizenship automatically to the sons and daughters of unknown Italian paternal parenthood, even in the absence of paternal legal acknowledgement. So these "mulatto" eritrean kids became Italian citizens by law. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KQ0MAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA123&lpg=PA123&dq=Camillo+De+Camillis+" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=KQ0MAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA123&lpg=PA123&dq=Camillo+De+Camillis+">https://books.google.com/books?id=KQ0MAA...</a>(governor+of+Eritrea)+biography&source=bl&ots=_wL0Rabaum&sig=DnLnWLvAThKmDkOhAd6iRJfvq1c&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjb4KPY-tPQAhWhq1QKHXiGC5sQ6AEIRDAH#v=onepage&q=Camillo%20De%20Camillis%20(governor%20of%20Eritrea)%20biography&f=false A Political History of National Citizenship and Identity in Italy, 1861–1950, by Sabina Donati]<br />
This was a revolutionary law when created, opening the first steps toward racial integration in colonial [[Africa]].<br />
==Notes==<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Italian Eritrea]]<br />
* [[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea]]<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Donati, Sabina. ''A Political History of National Citizenship and Identity in Italy, 1861–1950''. Publisher Stanford University Press. Stanford, 2013. ISBN 0804787336<br />
{{s-start}}<br />
{{s-bef|before=[[Giacomo De Martino (governor)|Giacomo De Martino]]}}<br />
{{s-ttl|title=Italian Governor of Eritrea|years=1919-1920}}<br />
{{s-aft|after=[[Ludovico Pollera]]}}<br />
{{s-end}}<br />
{{Italian Governors of Eritrea and Somaliland}}<br />
{{Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)}}<br />
[[Category:Italian diplomats]]<br />
[[Category:Italian Governors of Eritrea]]<br />
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<a href="http://www.petitesondes.net/Guida-AOI/Parte-1-pag-001-115.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.petitesondes.net/Guida-AOI/Parte-1-pag-001-115.pdf">http://www.petitesondes.net/Guida-AOI/Pa...</a> GUIDA DELL'AFRICA ORENTALE ITALIANA (1938)<br />
<a href="http://www.centrorsi.it/notizie/images/stories/casssa/cassa%20nastro%20azzurro117.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.centrorsi.it/notizie/images/stories/casssa/cassa%20nastro%20azzurro117.jpg">http://www.centrorsi.it/notizie/images/s...</a> mappa (in verde) territori occupati in Kenia e Sudan nel 1940<br />
==============================<br />
'''Pequeño MARACANAZO'''<br />
[[File:Aerial view of the Maracanã Stadium.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The famous Maracanã where the "Deportivo Italia" of Caracas won 1-0 the "Fluminense FC", Brasil champion]]<br />
'''Pequeño Maracanazo''' was a futbol match in [[Rio de Janeiro]] between the [[Venezuela]]n team [[Deportivo Italia (1948-2010)|Deportivo Italia]] and the [[Fluminense]], champion of Brasil in 1971. The Fluminense, managed by [[Mário Zagallo|Lobo Zagalo]] who had just won the [[1970 FIFA World Cup|1970 world Cup]], was defeated 1-0.<br />
==History==<br />
Deportivo Italia was Venezuela's Champion of the 1971 season. The Italo-Venezuelan team traveled to the [[Maracanã Stadium]] and took home a 1:0 victory against the [[Fluminense FC]]. The goal was scored by central defender Tenorio. The [[Fluminense]] of famous Lobo Zagalo, Champion of Brazil <a href="https://eliezerperez.files.wordpress.com/2016/03/1971-deportivoitalia.jpg?w=636" target="_blank" title="https://eliezerperez.files.wordpress.com/2016/03/1971-deportivoitalia.jpg?w=636">https://eliezerperez.files.wordpress.com...</a> Some players of the team that made the ''Little Maracanazo'' in 1971 with goal of Tenorio] was defeated that year for the first time in its own Maracana. <a href="https://eliezerperez.wordpress.com/tag/deportivo-italia-petare-fluminense-brasil-venezuela-futboll-futven-futve-copa-libertadores/" target="_blank" title="https://eliezerperez.wordpress.com/tag/deportivo-italia-petare-fluminense-brasil-venezuela-futboll-futven-futve-copa-libertadores/">https://eliezerperez.wordpress.com/tag/d...</a> Eliezer Perez: El Maracanazo de Venezuela]<br />
==Media reactions==<br />
The Caracas daily [[El Universal (Caracas)|El Universal]] wrote that:<br />
{{Quote|''...the night of March 3, 1971 will never be forgotten by the fans of Fluminense, who followed the match against Deportivo Italia by radio and television. More than 26,000 people went to the Maracanã. The modest Venezuelan team, thrashed in their own field in the previous match, did what no none could do for over a year, not even the powerful Brazilian teams: defeat Fluminense in their Maracanã. That fateful night, Deportivo Italia achieved the most enjoyable victory in the Venezuelan national football history, beating the Brazilian champion in the largest stadium in the world...}}<br />
Santander Laya-Garrido, who wrote the book ''Los Italianos forjadores de la nacionalidad y del desarrollo economico en Venezuela'', said that since then no other Venezuela football team has obtained a similar international result in official soccer matches.Javier Briceño. Universidad Catolica Andres Bello. "Años de ensueño: la Era D'Ambrosio" p.34<br />
==Match data==<br />
*[[File:Fluminense fc logo.svg|20px]] FLUMINENSE (0): Vitório; Oliveira, Galhardo, Assis, Maco, Antonio, Denilson, Didi (Sildes de Souza Povoas “Silveira”), Cafuringa, Flávio, Minuano, Samarone, Lula (Wilton César Xavier).DT: Mario Zagallo<br />
*[[File:Deportivoitalia1968.png|20px]] DEPORTIVO ITALIA (1): Vito Fassano; Carlos Marín, Freddy Ellie, Manuel Tenorio, Vicente Arruda, Delman Useche, Rui da Costa, Alcyr Freitas (Waldir Pereira “Baiano”), Bendezú Negri, Roberto Arantes “Beto”, Nelson Militello.DT: Elmo Correa<br />
*Stadium: Mario Filho “Maracaná”, Río de Janeiro<br />
*Date: March 3, 1971<br />
*Referee: Rodolfo Pérez Osorio (Paraguay)<br />
*Goal: Manuel Tenorio (Dep. Italia) 66'<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Briceño, Javier. ''Años de ensueño: la Era D'Ambrosio'' (de "Un sueño llamado Deportivo Petare"). Universidad Católica Andres Bello (Publicaciones y tesis). Caracas, 2013 ( <a href="http://biblioteca2.ucab.edu.ve/anexos/biblioteca/marc/texto/AAS4821.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://biblioteca2.ucab.edu.ve/anexos/biblioteca/marc/texto/AAS4821.pdf">http://biblioteca2.ucab.edu.ve/anexos/bi...</a>])<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Fluminense FC]]<br />
* [[Deportivo Petare|Deportivo Italia]]<br />
[[Category:Fluminense Football Club]]<br />
[[Category:Association football controversies]]<br />
===================================================================<br />
<a href="http://icomosdevenezuela.blogspot.com/2013/07/patrimonio-edificado-de-la-venezuela_6.html" target="_blank" title="http://icomosdevenezuela.blogspot.com/2013/07/patrimonio-edificado-de-la-venezuela_6.html">http://icomosdevenezuela.blogspot.com/20...</a> Patrimonio edificado de Venezuela (OTTIMO E COMPLETO!)<br />
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DEPORTIVO DANUBIO <br />
El '''Deportivo Danubio''' (usualmente llamado '''Danubio''') fue un [[Club de fútbol|club profesional de fútbol]] venezolano. Tenía como sede la ciudad de [[Caracas]] y disputaba sus partidos en el [[Estadio Olímpico de la UCV]]. <a href="https://eliezerperez.files.wordpress.com/2016/06/dsc04771.jpg?w=636" target="_blank" title="https://eliezerperez.files.wordpress.com/2016/06/dsc04771.jpg?w=636">https://eliezerperez.files.wordpress.com...</a> Eliezer Perez: Foto del Deportivo Danubio]<br />
==Historia==<br />
El equipo fue creado principalmente por emigrantes de [[Hungria]], que llegaron a Venezuela en los años cincuenta del siglo XX.<br />
{{Quote|''(El Danubio) Tuvo una vida efímera: 1958 y 1959. Su presidente era Tibor Pivko y el tren directivo se completó con José Molina (vicepresidente), George Kemes (tesorero), Eugenio Linder (secretario), Geza Barton (director de Relaciones Públicas), L. Epielberger (comisario), Eugene Wiener Frommer (delegado) y Gaby Mozer (director técnico). Todos eran venezolanos pero por naturalización, a excepción de José Molina''.Eliezer Perez}}<br />
En la era profesional, solo disputó la [[Primera División Venezolana 1958|temporada de 1958]] y la [[Primera División Venezolana 1959|temporada de 1959]].<br />
La temporada de futbol profesional de 1958 se llamó ''Copa Junta de Gobierno'', en donde el Danubio terminó de último <a href="http://www.rsssf.com/tablesv/venez58.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.rsssf.com/tablesv/venez58.html">http://www.rsssf.com/tablesv/venez58.htm...</a> Campeonato 1958]. El primer partido del equipo de colonia fue el 17 de agosto de 1958 con el [[Deportivo Portugues]] y terminó 0 - 0. Su primera victoria fue el 28 de septiembre del mismo año con el La Salle y fue por 2 a 0.<br />
En el campeonato profesional de 1959 el Danubio alcanzó el tercer lugar, consiguiendo 4 victorias en los 12 partidos disputados. El Danubio logró vencer por 3 a 2 el 8 de marzo de 1959 el [[Club Deportivo Español (Venezuela)|Deportivo Español]], que se titulo Campeón de Venezuela en ese año. <a href="http://www.rsssf.com/tablesv/venez59.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.rsssf.com/tablesv/venez59.html">http://www.rsssf.com/tablesv/venez59.htm...</a> Campeonato 1959]<br />
El Deportivo Danubio tambien jugó en contra de la seleccion de [[Curazao]] en partido amistoso.<br />
Sucesivamente fue disuelto por problemas de presupuesto y falta de seguidores, ya que la [[Inmigración húngara en Venezuela|colonia hungara en Venezuela]] era muy pequeña.<br />
==Notas==<br />
==Vease tambien==<br />
*[[Fútbol de colonias en Venezuela]]<br />
==External links==<br />
* <a href="https://eliezerperez.wordpress.com/category/europa-austria/" target="_blank" title="https://eliezerperez.wordpress.com/category/europa-austria/">https://eliezerperez.wordpress.com/categ...</a> Danubio, el equipo exótico de los 50]<br />
[[Categoría:Equipos de fútbol desaparecidos de Venezuela]]<br />
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FUTBOL DE COLONIAS EN VENEZUELA<br />
[[Imagen:1961DeportivoItalia.jpg|thumb|500px|"Deportivo Italia" en 1961, cuando fue "Campeón de Venezuela"]]<br />
El '''Futbol de colonias en Venezuela''' fue el inicio de la era profesional del fútbol venezolano. En la segunda mitad del siglo XX los principales clubes eran de origen europeo, sostenidos por las colonias de españoles, italianos y portugueses que se habían radicado en Venezuela especialmenter en esos años. Es así como nacen por iniciativa de estas comunidades los principales ganadores de la [[Primera División de Venezuela|Primera Division de Futbol de Venezuela]] en esas decadas: el [[Deportivo Italia]], el [[Unión Deportiva Canarias]], el [[Club Deportivo Español (Venezuela)|Deportivo Español]], el [[Galicia de Aragua|Deportivo Galicia]] y el [[Deportivo Portugués]].<br />
== Historia ==<br />
A finales del siglo XX el [[fútbol]] llegó a [[Venezuela]] (como en muchos otros países del mundo) con los viajeros de Europa, quienes con el deseo de explotar la minería y el caucho por los altos del [[río Orinoco]] se entretenían jugando "gygy" con un balón, en los terrenos de los campamentos de la zona y en los pocos ratos libres de su dura existencia.<br />
De acuerdo a la tradición oral, ''El Correo del Yuruari'', publicación semanal del estado Bolívar, habría publicado el 16 julio de 1876 una nota sobre una exhibición de "un sport llamado foot-ball" con motivo de la celebración del Día de la Virgen del Carmen, en el Caratal, ubicada muy cerca de la mina "Perú" en El Callao. Este primer encuentro de fútbol habría sido organizado por un maestro galés de nombre A.W. Simpson, quien trabajaba para las compañías explotadoras del oro en la región con la participación de trabajadores ingleses, franceses, alemanes e italianos. Sin embargo, no existe respaldo documentado de esta historia, y ''El Correo del Yuruari'' tuvo su primer número el año siguiente, es decir, en 1877{{cita noticia|apellidos1=Pérez|nombre1=Eliézer|título=El extraño origen del fútbol en Venezuela|url=http://www.ultimasnoticias.com.ve/noticias/deportes/futbol/video--el-extrano-origen-del-futbol-en-venezuela.aspx}}.<br />
Posteriormente, el fútbol se radicó en la ciudad de [[Caracas]] donde comenzaron a formarse los primeros equipos en [[1902]]. Así en los primeros días de agosto de 1902, los hermanos [[Escocia|escoceses]] David y Jimmy Ballantyne fundaron el club “[[San Bernardino Sport Club|San Bernardino]]”, quedando constituido el primer equipo de fútbol de la capital. Sucesivamente, inmigrantes de diversas naciones europeas (principalmente de [[España]], [[Portugal]] e [[Italia]]) crearon el primer torneo profesional de fútbol venezolano con seis equipos: Universidad, La Salle, [[Banco Obrero]], [[Deportivo Español (Venezuela)|Deportivo Español]], Catalonia y [[Deportivo Vasco]].<br />
Despues de la [[segunda guerra mundial]] llegaron [[Inmigración en Venezuela|muchos centenares de millares de europeos]] a Venezuela, especialmente durante la presidencia de [[Perez Jimenez]] y empezó el llamado ''Futbol Colonial'', que dio un enorme impulso a la asistencia de público en los estadios venezolanos.<br />
{{Quote|''A partir de este momento, el fútbol con componente criollo fué "apartado" por los inversionistas que se formaron en las colonias de inmigrantes, ya que los criollos no podían competir económicamente con los equipos con nombres extranjeros. Inclusive algunos empresarios extranjeros, como el vasco Damián Gaubeka se costeaban amistosos contra grandes clubes del mundo como Real Madrid, Botafogo, River Plate, Barcelona, etc...Deportivo Portugués, Deportivo Español, Deportivo Vasco, Deportivo Italia, Catalonia, UD Canarias, Deportivo Celta, eran nombres de los equipos más consecuentes en esta época. Italia y Portugués marcarían una rivalidad que se extendería en varias décadas aunque, pasado el tiempo, se debilitaría ese antagonismo por la calidad del fútbol; uno a uno dejarian de aparecer en los rectángulos de juego...El Deportivo Portugués participó ininterrumpidamente desde 1958 hasta 1982, en esas 24 temporadas fueron campeones 4 veces. El Deportivo Galicia estaría desde 1963 hasta 1982 interrumpidamente, luego reapareció esporádicamente en 1987 y 1989, para finalmente desaparecer en el 2001. El Deportivo Italia fué el último en separarse. Desde 1959 el Italia participó en nuestro fútbol nacional hasta 1996, cambió de nombre para salvar el equipo aliándose con la Alcaldía de Chacao y pasó a llamarse Deportivo Italchacao desde 1999 hasta que descendió a Segunda División en el 2005, revivió como Deportivo Italia el 2008 y volvió a cambiar de nombre en el 2010 para llamarse Deportivo Petare.''Armando Garcia}}<br />
En la segunda mitad del siglo XX este futbol de colonias europeas impulsó el juego del balompié en Venezuela, llegando a obtener resultados halagadores a nivel internacional. Por ejemplo el [[Era D'Ambrosio del Deportivo Italia|Deportivo Italia]] consiguió la hazaña de vencer el equipo campeon de [[Brasil]] en el mismo estadio [[Maracana]] en la [[Copa Libertadores 1971]], con el famoso [[Pequeño Maracanazo]].<br />
El Deportivo Español -durante la era del futbol "amateur" en Venezuela- en 1946 fue el primero de los equipos de colonia en galardonarse del título de Campeon de Venezuela, seguido por el [[Deportivo Vasco]] en 1954. El Deportivo Español en 1955 se tituló de Vice-campeon <a href="http://www.rsssf.com/tablesv/venez55.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.rsssf.com/tablesv/venez55.html">http://www.rsssf.com/tablesv/venez55.htm...</a> Campeonato "amateur" de 1956].<br />
Ademas el Deportivo Italia fue subcampeón del "[[Torneo Internacional de Caracas de 1950]]" <a href="http://www.futboldevenezuela.com.ve/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=203&Itemid=215" target="_blank" title="http://www.futboldevenezuela.com.ve/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=203&Itemid=215">http://www.futboldevenezuela.com.ve/inde...</a> Dep. Italia vicecampeon en el Torneo de Caracas 1950], considerado como el precursor o como la primera [[Pequeña Copa del Mundo de Clubes]].<br />
El futbol "profesional" de Venezuela empezó en 1957 con la mitad de los seis equipos participantes que eran de colonia: Deportivo Español, Catalonia y Deportivo Vasco. <a href="http://www.rsssf.com/tablesv/venez57.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.rsssf.com/tablesv/venez57.html">http://www.rsssf.com/tablesv/venez57.htm...</a> Campeonato 1957, el primero "profesional"]<br />
==Los años sesenta y setenta==<br />
Durante los años sesenta y parte de los setenta el futbol de colonias dominó el balompie venezolano. <br />
Casi todos los años desde el inicio del Campeonato "profesional" de la [[Primera División de Venezuela]] en 1957 y hasta mediados de los setenta hubo un equipo de las colonias que se tituló ''Campeon de Venezuela'' <a href="http://www.rsssf.com/tablesv/venezchamp.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.rsssf.com/tablesv/venezchamp.html">http://www.rsssf.com/tablesv/venezchamp....</a> Tabla de Campeones de Venezuela]. Fueron cuatro los equipos que mas se distinguieron como Campeones: Deportivo Italia, Deportivo Portugues, Deportivo Galicia y UD Canarias. <br />
En efecto en el campeonato de 1960 hubo solo 4 equipos, todos de colonia: Deportivo Italia, Deportivo Portugues, Deportivo Español y "Celta" <a href="http://www.rsssf.com/tablesv/venez60.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.rsssf.com/tablesv/venez60.html">http://www.rsssf.com/tablesv/venez60.htm...</a> Campeonato 1960] <br />
En esos años los principales equipos del futbol de colonia jugaban todos sus encuentros como locales en el [[Estadio Olímpico de la Universidad Central de Venezuela]] en Caracas. Sus aficionados eran casi todos europeos (españoles, italianos y portugueses o descendientes de estos) y era común la rivalidad entre los “amarillos” del Unión Deportiva Canarias, los “rojiverdes” del Club Deportivo Portugués, los “azules” del Deportivo Italia y los “rojos” del Deportivo Galicia. En efecto hubo bastante rivalidad entre las colonias italianas y las colonias portuguesas, que llegaron a llenar con 30000 expectadores el Olímpico de la UCV en lo que se denominó en su momento el "Clásico Europeo" entre Deportivo Italia y Deportivo Portugués; a este clásico se uniría el Deportivo Galicia quíen compartiría rivalidad deportiva con esas 2 franquicias en esas decadas.<br />
El Deportivo Galicia ademas en 1971 ganó el Torneo internacional llamado [[Copa Simón Bolívar]], el primer galardón internacional del futbol venezolano <a href="http://www.rsssf.com/sacups/simonbolivar71.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.rsssf.com/sacups/simonbolivar71.html">http://www.rsssf.com/sacups/simonbolivar...</a> Copa Simon Bolivar 1971] Sucesivamente ganó dos veces (1980 y 1982) el [[Copa Almirante Brion]], un torneo binacional entre los equipos campeones de [[Campeonato de las Antillas Neerlandesas|Curazao]] y Venezuela.<br />
Ya a la mitad de los sesenta fueron desapareciendo pequeños equipos de colonia, como el "Deportivo Celta" (precursor del Deportivo Galicia) , el "Catalonia" y el "Banco Frances e italiano", mientras empezaron a tomar fuerza algunos equipos de provincia cuyos dueños eran europeos (como el "Tiquire Flores" del estado [[Aragua (estado)|Aragua]], que se convirtió en el "Tiquire-Canarias" en 1975). Algunos equipos menores, como el [[Sociedad Deportiva Centro Ítalo Fútbol Club|Centro Italo FC]] y la [[Hermandad Gallega Fútbol Club|Hermandad Gallega FC]] duraron varias décadas, pero al final desaparecieron principalmente por causas económicas y tambien por la desaparición de los hinchas europeos (envejecidos y en algunos casos vueltos a sus paises de origen).<br />
[[Archivo:Caracas Fc 1-4 Deportivo Petare.jpg|250px|thumb|right|"[[Clásico caraqueño|Clásico Capitalino]]" entre [[Caracas Fútbol Club]] y [[Deportivo Petare Fútbol Club|Deportivo Italia]] en el [[Estadio Olímpico de la UCV]]]]<br />
En la segunda mitad de los setenta la riqueza de los petrodolares -luego de la [[Crisis del petróleo de 1973]]- empezó a trasladarse a manos de empresarios venezolanos, que promovieron el desarrollo de equipos venezolanos (como el [[Caracas FC]] y el [[Portuguesa Fútbol Club|Portuguesa FC]]) y la asimilación de los de las colonias europeas. Por ejemplo, desaparecieron el Deportivo Portugues -que fue substituído en 1985 por el [[Club Sport Marítimo de Venezuela|Sport Marítimo]]- y el Deportivo Galicia, que fue substituído en 2002 por el Galicia de Aragua. Otros tuvieron vida corta, como el [[Italmaracaibo]], el [[Minervén Sport Club|Club Deportivo Iberoamericano]], el "Deportivo Danubio" y el [[Casa D'Italia Fútbol Club]] (Segunda División de Venezuela).<br />
Solamente el Deportivo Italia -luego de convertirse en [[Deportivo Italchacao]], parcialmente de propriedad del municipio Chacao de Caracas- logró regresar a su nombre originario y representar la [[Italo-venezolanos|colonia italiana de Venezuela]] en el campeonato del 2007. El Deportivo Italia fue considerado como el mejor equipo venezolano del [[siglo XX]] junto al [[Estudiantes de Mérida]], según la [[Federación Internacional de Historia y Estadística de Fútbol]]{{cita web|url=http://www.iffhs.de/?32b0cfd380ff73117fe2c0bf23c17e23a09e33b17f7370eff3702bb0a35bb6e36e52c00f23808f02|título=Lista de los mejores equipos sudamericanos del siglo XX|editor=IFFHS}}: en esos años tambien se hizo famoso el [[Clásico caraqueño]] (iniciado en 1985) entre el Deportivo Italia y el Caracas FC. <br />
En el [[Primera División Venezolana 2008-09|Campeonato 2008-2009]] el Deportivo Italia fue el Vice-Campeon de Venezuela, siendo esta la ultima presencia triunfadora del futbol de colonia en Venezuela. <a href="http://www.rsssf.com/tablesv/venez09.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.rsssf.com/tablesv/venez09.html">http://www.rsssf.com/tablesv/venez09.htm...</a> Campeonato 2008-2009, con el Deportivo Italia Vice-Campeon]<br />
En ese mismo 2008 lo que quedaba de la hinchada española y portuguesa fundó el "Real Esppor" (nombre compuesto por un acrónimo de las palabras España y Portugal, el cual se debe a que sus fundadores eran empresarios con ascendencia de dichos países), que fue asimilado sucesivamente en el [[Deportivo La Guaira Fútbol Club]].<br />
Tambien el Deportivo Italia fue asimilado y en 2010 se convirtó en el [[Deportivo Petare]] (propriedad del municipio Petare de Caracas), terminando así toda presencia (con nombre oficial europeo) del futbol de colonias en Venezuela.<br />
La presencia del futbol de colonias en el campeonato profesional de Venezuela es importante al punto de que el equipo con mas torneos ''sin interrupciones'' actualmente es el Petare FC (que es el Deportivo Italia, con nombre cambiado en el 2010 sin desaparecer por quiebra como el Galicia y el Portugues), seguido por el [[Estudiantes de Mérida Fútbol Club|Estudiantes de Merida]] y el [[Portuguesa Fútbol Club|Portuguesa FC]] en el campeonato 2016:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-a<br />
! width="280" |Club<br />
! width="120" |Ciudad<br />
! width="180" |Entrenador<br />
! width="200" |Estadio<br />
! width="65" |[[Anexo:Equipos participantes de la Primera División de Venezuela|Temp.]]<br />
! width="65" |Campeón<br />
|-<br />
|[[Archivo:Flag of Miranda State.svg|20px]] [[Petare Fútbol Club]] (Deportivo Italia)|| [[Caracas]] || {{bandera|Siria}}{{bandera|VEN}} Louey Salah || [[Estadio Olímpico de la Universidad Central de Venezuela|Olímpico de la UCV]] || align="center" | 54 || align="center" | 5 Veces<br />
|-<br />
|[[Archivo:Flag of Mérida.svg|20px]] [[Estudiantes de Mérida Fútbol Club]] || [[Mérida (Venezuela)|Mérida]] ||Ruberth Moran || [[Estadio Metropolitano de Mérida|Metropolitano de Mérida]] || align="center" | 44 || align="center" | 2 veces<br />
|-<br />
|[[Archivo:Flag of Portuguesa.svg|20px]] [[Portuguesa Fútbol Club]] || [[Araure]] || {{bandera|ARG}}{{bandera|VEN}} [[Horacio Matuszyczk]] || [[Estadio Jose Antonio Paez|Jose Antonio Paez]] || align="center" | 43 || align="center" | 5 veces<br />
|-<br />
|[[Archivo:Flag of Táchira.svg|20px]] [[Deportivo Táchira Fútbol Club]] || [[San Cristóbal (Venezuela)|San Cristóbal]] || {{bandera|URU}}{{bandera|VEN}} [[Carlos Maldonado]] || [[Polideportivo de Pueblo Nuevo|Pueblo Nuevo]] || align="center" | 41 || align="center" | 8 veces<br />
|-<br />
|[[Archivo:Flag of Caracas.svg|20px]] [[Caracas Fútbol Club]] || [[Caracas]] || {{bandera|VEN}} [[Antonio Franco]] || [[Estadio Olímpico de la Universidad Central de Venezuela|Olímpico de la UCV]] || align="center" | 32 || align="center" | 11 veces<br />
|-<br />
|[[Archivo:Flag of Bolívar State.svg|20px]] [[Club Deportivo Mineros de Guayana]] || [[Ciudad Guayana]] || {{bandera|VEN}} [[José de Jesús Vera|José "Chuy" Vera]] || [[Estadio Cachamay|CTE Cachamay]] || align="center" | 33 || align="center" | 1 vez<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="6" align="centre" |'''''Datos actualizados el 31 de julio de 2016'''''<br />
|}<br />
== Total campeones del fútbol de colonias en el fútbol Venezolano 1957-2010 ==<br />
* Un total de 7 clubes han obtenido al menos un título en el fútbol Venezolano profesional, como campeones o vice-campeones.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width:85%; font-size:95%"<br />
!width="160px"|Club<br />
!width="60px"| Campeón<br />
!width="60px"| 2°<br />
!width="500px"| Años Campeón<br />
|-<br />
|'''[[Petare Fútbol Club|Deportivo Italia]] Ganó 4 campeonatos y 7 subcampeonatos con el nombre ''Deportivo Italia'', y 1 campeonato y 1 subcampeonato con el nombre ''Deportivo Italchacao''. Actualmente se llama "Petare FC"<br />
| align=center | '''5<br />
| align=center | 8<br />
| [[Primera División Venezolana 1961|1961]], [[Primera División Venezolana 1963|1963]], [[Primera División Venezolana 1966|1966]], [[Primera División Venezolana 1972|1972]], [[Primera División Venezolana 1998/99|1998/99]] --- ([[Copa Venezuela]]: 1949, 1961, 1962, 1970)<br />
|-<br />
|'''[[Galicia de Aragua|Deportivo Galicia]] Ganó 4 campeonatos y 5 subcampeonatos con el nombre ''Deportivo Galicia''. Actualmente se llama "Aragua Fútbol Club", despues de haber sido "Galicia de Aragua"<br />
| align=center | '''4<br />
| align=center | 5<br />
| [[Primera División Venezolana 1964|1964]], [[Primera División Venezolana 1969|1969]], [[Primera División Venezolana 1970|1970]] y [[Primera División Venezolana 1975|1975]] --- ([[Copa Venezuela]]: 1966, 1967, 1969, 1979, 1981)<br />
|-<br />
|'''[[Club Deportivo Portugués|Deportivo Portugués]]<br />
| align=center | '''4<br />
| align=center | 2<br />
| [[Primera División Venezolana 1958|1958]], [[Primera División Venezolana 1960|1960]], [[Primera División Venezolana 1962|1962]] y [[Primera División Venezolana 1967|1967]] ---- ([[Copa Venezuela]]: 1959, 1972)<br />
|-<br />
|'''[[Club Sport Marítimo de Venezuela|Sport Marítimo]] El Marítimo fue el sucesor del desaparecido "Deportivo Portugues" en los años ochenta y noventa<br />
| align=center | '''4<br />
| align=center | 1<br />
| [[Primera División Venezolana 1986/87|1986/87]], [[Primera División Venezolana 1987/88|1987/88]], [[Primera División Venezolana 1989/90|1989/90]] y [[Primera División Venezolana 1992/93|1992/93]] --- ([[Copa Venezuela]]: 1988, 1989)<br />
|-<br />
|'''[[Club Deportivo Español (Venezuela)|Deportivo Español]]<br />
| align=center | '''1<br />
| align=center | 2<br />
| [[Primera División Venezolana 1959|1959]]<br />
|-<br />
|-<br />
|'''[[Unión Deportiva Canarias]]<br />
| align=center | '''1<br />
| align=center | -<br />
| [[Primera División Venezolana 1968|1968]] --- ([[Copa Venezuela]]: 1963, 1968)<br />
|-<br />
|-<br />
|[[Tiquire Flores Fútbol Club|Tiquire Flores-Canarias]]<br />
| align=center | -<br />
| align=center | 1<br />
| -----<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
{{listaref|grupo="nota"}}<br />
En el contexto del fútbol venezolano, el ''doblete'' implica el ganar la liga [[Primera División de Venezuela]] y la [[Copa Venezuela]] en la misma temporada. El primer doblete fue obtenido por el Deportivo Italia en 1961, seguido por los del Canarias y Galicia pocos años despues. El ultimo doblete de los equipos de colonia fue obtenido por el sucesor del Deportivo Portugues, el Marítimo en 1988:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
!Año<br />
!Ganador<br />
!Trofeos<br />
!Notas<br />
|-<br />
|[[1961]]<br />
|[[Deportivo Italia]]<br />
|[[Primera División de Venezuela|Primera División]], [[Copa Venezuela]]<br />
|Primer equipo venezolano en completar un doblete en el siglo XX.<br />
|-<br />
|[[1968]]<br />
|[[Unión Deportiva Canarias]]<br />
|[[Primera División de Venezuela|Primera División]], [[Copa Venezuela]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[1969]]<br />
|[[Deportivo Galicia]]<br />
|[[Primera División de Venezuela|Primera División]], [[Copa Venezuela]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[1988]]<br />
|[[Club Sport Marítimo de Venezuela|CS Marítimo]]<br />
|[[Primera División de Venezuela|Primera División]], [[Copa Venezuela]]<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
== Los equipos de colonia en la "Libertadores de América" (1964-1985)==<br />
La siguiente es una reseña de las campañas de los equipos venezolanos de colonia en la [[Copa Libertadores de América]].<br />
{| class="wikitable" width="100%"<br />
|- align=center bgcolor=#006699 style="color:black;"<br />
! width=6%|Año<br />
! width=20%|Equipos participantes<br />
! width=10%|Campaña<br />
! width=6%|Partidos<br />
! width=6%|Victorias<br />
! width=6%|Empates<br />
! width=6%|Derrotas<br />
|-<br />
|- align=center bgcolor=#F5FAFF<br />
|[[Copa de Campeones de América 1964|1964]]<br />
|[[Deportivo Petare|Deportivo Italia]]<br />
|Primera fase<br />
|6<br />
|2<br />
|1<br />
|3<br />
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF<br />
|[[Copa Libertadores 1965|1965]]<br />
|[[Galicia de Aragua|Deportivo Galicia]]<br />
|Primera fase<br />
|4<br />
|0<br />
|1<br />
|3<br />
|- align=center bgcolor=#F5FAFF<br />
|rowspan=2|[[Copa Libertadores 1966|1966]]<br />
|- align=center<br />
|[[Deportivo Petare|Deportivo Italia]]<br />
|Primera fase<br />
|10<br />
|4<br />
|2<br />
|4<br />
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF<br />
|rowspan=2|[[Copa Libertadores 1967|1967]]<br />
|[[Deportivo Petare|Deportivo Italia]]<br />
|Primera fase<br />
|8<br />
|2<br />
|1<br />
|5<br />
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF<br />
|[[Deportivo Galicia]]<br />
|Primera fase<br />
|8<br />
|1<br />
|2<br />
|5<br />
|- align=center bgcolor=#F5FAFF<br />
|rowspan=2|[[Copa Libertadores 1968|1968]]<br />
|[[Deportivo Galicia]]<br />
|Primera fase<br />
|6<br />
|2<br />
|0<br />
|4<br />
|- align=center<br />
|[[Deportivo Portugués]]<br />
|Segunda fase<br />
|6<br />
|2<br />
|1<br />
|3<br />
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF<br />
|rowspan=2|[[Copa Libertadores 1969|1969]]<br />
|[[Deportivo Petare|Deportivo Italia]]<br />
|Segunda fase<br />
|6<br />
|1<br />
|2<br />
|3<br />
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF<br />
|[[Union Deportiva Canarias|Deportivo Canarias]]<br />
|Primera fase<br />
|4<br />
|1<br />
|1<br />
|2<br />
|- align=center bgcolor=#F5FAFF<br />
|rowspan=2|[[Copa Libertadores 1970|1970]]<br />
|- align=center<br />
|[[Deportivo Galicia]]<br />
|Primera fase<br />
|6<br />
|0<br />
|0<br />
|6<br />
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF<br />
|rowspan=2|[[Copa Libertadores 1971|1971]]<br />
|[[Deportivo Galicia]]<br />
|Primera fase<br />
|6<br />
|0<br />
|1<br />
|5<br />
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF<br />
|[[Deportivo Petare|Deportivo Italia]]<br />
|Primera fase<br />
|6<br />
|2<br />
|1<br />
|3<br />
|- align=center bgcolor=#F5FAFF<br />
|rowspan=2|[[Copa Libertadores 1972|1972]]<br />
|- align=center<br />
|[[Deportivo Petare|Deportivo Italia]]<br />
|Primera fase<br />
|4<br />
|1<br />
|1<br />
|2<br />
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF<br />
|rowspan=2|[[Copa Libertadores 1975|1975]]<br />
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF<br />
|[[Deportivo Galicia]]<br />
|Primera fase<br />
|6<br />
|1<br />
|3<br />
|2<br />
|- align=center bgcolor=#F5FAFF<br />
|rowspan=2|[[Copa Libertadores 1976|1976]]<br />
|- align=center<br />
|[[Deportivo Galicia]]<br />
|Primera fase<br />
|6<br />
|0<br />
|0<br />
|6<br />
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF<br />
|rowspan=2|[[Copa Libertadores 1979|1979]]<br />
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF<br />
|[[Deportivo Galicia]]<br />
|Primera fase<br />
|6<br />
|0<br />
|3<br />
|3<br />
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF<br />
|rowspan=2|[[Copa Libertadores 1985|1985]]<br />
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF<br />
|[[Deportivo Petare|Deportivo Italia]]<br />
|Primera fase<br />
|6<br />
|0<br />
|1<br />
|5<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
==Notas==<br />
==Bibliografía==<br />
* Briceño, Javier. ''Años de ensueño: la Era D'Ambrosio'' (de "Un sueño llamado Deportivo Petare"). Universidad Católica Andres Bello (Publicaciones y tesis). Caracas, 2013 ( <a href="http://biblioteca2.ucab.edu.ve/anexos/biblioteca/marc/texto/AAS4821.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://biblioteca2.ucab.edu.ve/anexos/biblioteca/marc/texto/AAS4821.pdf">http://biblioteca2.ucab.edu.ve/anexos/bi...</a>])<br />
==Vease tambien==<br />
[[File:PANTALLABI.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Foto de logo del Centro Italo FC en partido noctturno]]<br />
* [[Galicia de Aragua|Deportivo Galicia]]<br />
* [[Deportivo Petare|Deportivo Italia]]<br />
* [[Club Deportivo Portugués]]<br />
* [[Unión Deportiva Canarias]]<br />
* [[Club Sport Marítimo de Venezuela]]<br />
* [[Club Deportivo Español (Venezuela)|Deportivo Español]]<br />
* [[Sociedad Deportiva Centro Ítalo Fútbol Club|Centro Italo FC]]<br />
* [[Club Deportivo Italmaracaibo]]<br />
* [[Casa D'Italia Fútbol Club]]<br />
* [[Minervén Sport Club|Club Deportivo Iberoamericano]]<br />
* [[Deportivo Vasco]]<br />
* [[Tiquire Flores Fútbol Club|Tiquire-Canarias]]<br />
* [[Deportivo La Guaira Fútbol Club|Real Esppor]]<br />
[[Categoría:Fútbol en Venezuela]]<br />
<br />
=================================================<br />
================================================<br />
<a href="http://www.miol.it/stagniweb/mappe/FS989.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.miol.it/stagniweb/mappe/FS989.jpg">http://www.miol.it/stagniweb/mappe/FS989...</a> Ferrovie italiane MAPPA PRECISA (tipo quella che si trova sui treni)<br />
<a href="http://cronologia.leonardo.it/ferrovie/fer01.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://cronologia.leonardo.it/ferrovie/fer01.jpg">http://cronologia.leonardo.it/ferrovie/f...</a> Ferrovie italiane 1910 (con data inaugurazione)<br />
=================================================<br />
<a href="http://www.neresine.it/Storia%20Neresine.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.neresine.it/Storia%20Neresine.pdf">http://www.neresine.it/Storia%20Neresine...</a> Storia di NERESINO e di LUSSINO (Ottima per "Storia di Lussino" di ottobre 2016)<br />
================================<br />
<a href="https://eliezerperez.wordpress.com/category/futve-primera-division/page/2/" target="_blank" title="https://eliezerperez.wordpress.com/category/futve-primera-division/page/2/">https://eliezerperez.wordpress.com/categ...</a> tutti i club di colonia del Venezuela<br />
=======================================<br />
<a href="http://3harmfulfoods.com/video_160923.php" target="_blank" title="http://3harmfulfoods.com/video_160923.php">http://3harmfulfoods.com/video_160923.ph...</a> 3 harmful foods OTTIMO PER DIMAGRIRE!<br />
============================================<br />
<a href="http://www.culturalatinoamericanaplaneta.it/es/component/attachments/download/106" target="_blank" title="http://www.culturalatinoamericanaplaneta.it/es/component/attachments/download/106">http://www.culturalatinoamericanaplaneta...</a> Italia y el bloqueo de Venezuela<br />
=========================================<br />
CASA DE ITALIA<br />
{{Borrar|No enciclopédico|RESPUESTA:El edificio llamado Casa de Italia es citado en la famosa "Colección Cisneros" de obras de arte en Caracas. O sea tiene fama mundial! Este magnífico edificio, diseñado en 1955 por el arquitecto Domenico Filippone, es uno de los pocos lugares públicos en Caracas que aún (en el 2015) conserva gran parte de su diseño interior original. En particular se destacan las lámparas de cristal extraordinarias diseñadas por Max Ingrand para la firma italiana "Fontana Arte", los paneles decorativos de la barra con los fondos de oro y los muebles de caoba elegante con detalles de bronce. Ademas fue por muchas décadas el principal lugar de reunión de la comunidad italiana de Caracas, una de las mas importantes en Venezuela. Sinceramente no entiendo la razón de un usuario que lo define "no enciclopédico".Hvalencia<br />
}}<br />
{{Ficha de teatro<br />
|nombre = Salon - teatro y Auditorio de la "Casa de Italia"<br />
|otros nom =<br />
|imagen =<br />
|imagen_tamaño =<br />
|descripción =<br />
|tipo = Gran Salón de eventos y conciertos<br />
|ciudad = {{bandera2|Caracas}}<br />
|país = {{bandera2|Venezuela}}<br />
|arquitecto =<br />
|construc =<br />
|apertura = 1955<br />
|reapertura =<br />
|cierre =<br />
|demolición =<br />
|reconstrucción =<br />
|estilo =<br />
|capacidad =<br />
|superficie =<br />
|altura =<br />
|admin =<br />
|producción =<br />
|dirección =<br />
|coordenadas =<br />
|web =<br />
}}<br />
La '''Casa de Italia''' en [[Caracas]] es un edificio construído en los años cincuenta. Sirve a la [[italo venezolanos|comunidad italiana]] de la capital de [[Venezuela]].<br />
==Historia==<br />
El edificio fue hecho en 1955 por el arquitecto italiano Domenico Filippone en la central [[Parroquia La Candelaria (Caracas)|La Candelaria]] <a href="https://construidoencaracas.wordpress.com/2013/06/16/edif-casa-de-italia/" target="_blank" title="https://construidoencaracas.wordpress.com/2013/06/16/edif-casa-de-italia/">https://construidoencaracas.wordpress.co...</a> Fotos de la Casa de Italia].<br />
La estructura es una moderna construcción de diez pisos con decoraciones y murales externos de calidad. Tiene lateralmente un amplio salón-teatro/auditorio donde se presentaron espectáculos de orquestras internacionales: fue famoso, por ejemplo, el concierto de [[Renato Carosone]] en 1957. En este espacio se hicieron y todavía se celebran (aunque en menor escala) todo tipo de actividades culturales, teatrales, folclóricas, charlas, ponencias, talleres, presentaciones artísticas, presentaciones de libros, foros, ruedas de prensa, conciertos, y una variada gama de actividades institucionales. <br />
La Casa de Italia tiene un espacioso restaurante italiano, famoso en los años sesenta por celebrar reuniones y cerimonias de italianos locales. <a href="http://www.miropopic.com/l1587/CASA+DE+ITALIA" target="_blank" title="http://www.miropopic.com/l1587/CASA+DE+ITALIA">http://www.miropopic.com/l1587/CASA+DE+I...</a> Restaurante de la Casa de Italia]<br />
Actualmente la principal comunidad de Italianos en Venezuela es la de [[Caracas]], que cuenta como principales puntos de congregación la [[Iglesia de Pompei]] en la Alta Florida, la "Casa de Italia" con la [[Plaza Italia (Caracas)|Plaza Italia]] (especialmente en la segunda mitad del siglo XX) y ahora también el "Centro Italo-Venezolano" <a href="http://www.civ.com.ve/" target="_blank" title="http://www.civ.com.ve/">http://www.civ.com.ve/</a> C.I.V.]<br />
==Características==<br />
Este magnífico edificio, diseñado en 1955 por el arquitecto Domenico Filippone, es uno de los pocos lugares públicos que aún (en el 2015) conserva gran parte de su diseño interior original. El restaurante Casa de Italia (que se encuentra en el tercer piso), todavía deslumbra a sus clientes con su diseño, a pesar de algunas adiciones sucesivas. <br />
En particular se destacan las lámparas de cristal extraordinarias diseñadas por Max Ingrand <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1912755" target="_blank" title="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1912755">https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1912755</a> Max Ingrand] para la firma italiana "Fontana Arte", los paneles decorativos de la barra con los fondos de oro y los muebles de caoba elegante con detalles de bronce. <a href="http://www.coleccioncisneros.org/editorial/cite-site-sights/caracas" target="_blank" title="http://www.coleccioncisneros.org/editorial/cite-site-sights/caracas">http://www.coleccioncisneros.org/editori...</a> Colección Cisneros: la Casa de Italia (con fotos)]<br />
==Notas==<br />
==Véase también==<br />
*[[Italo venezolanos]]<br />
[[Categoría: edificios de Caracas]]<br />
===========================================<br />
COLEGIO AGUSTIN CODAZZI<br />
{{Borrar|Sin relevancia enciclopédica, solo es un colegio| RESPUESTA:Esta es una Voz traducida de la en.wikipedia:Acabo de hacer la versión en español de la voz omónima en la wikipedia inglesa. La he ensanchado con datos adicionales (y no es un simple colegio:es como el [[Colegio Humboldt (Caracas)|colegio Humboldt]] de Caracas). Sinceramente no entiendo por cual razon un usuario la califica de "no enciclopédica", ya que aparece en la wikipedia inglesia sin problemas.Hvalencia}}<br />
{{Ficha de escuela<br />
|nombre = Colegio Agustin Codazzi<br />
|nombre_original = Scuola Agostino Codazzi<br />
|acrónimo =<br />
|sobrenombre = Codazzi<br />
|lema =<br />
|imagen =<br />
|imagen_pie =<br />
<!-- Información --><br />
|tipo = Privado No Subvencionado<br />
|afiliación_religiosa= Laico<br />
|patrón =<br />
|establecida =<br />
|fundación = [[1951]]<br />
|fundador = Colectividad italiana en Venezuela<br />
|apertura =<br />
|estatus = Abierto<br />
|clausura =<br />
|distrito =<br />
|género = Mixto<br />
|escuelas_hermanas =<br />
|afiliaciones =<br />
<!-- Localización --><br />
|ubicación = [[Caracas]], {{VEN}}<br />
|dirección = Av.da Los Pinos, Quinta Elisa, La Florida - Caracas<br />
|coordenadas =<br />
<!-- Academia --><br />
|estudiantes = Sin definir<br />
|profesores =<br />
|sedes =<br />
|jornada = Lunes a Viernes<br />
|colores =<br />
|mascota =<br />
}}<br />
'''Colegio Agustín Codazzi ''' es una escuela italiana de [[Venezuela]], ubicada en la capital [[Caracas]]." <a href="http://www.viaggiaresicuri.it/paesi/dettaglio/altre-informazioni/venezuela/informazioni-utili-nel-paese.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.viaggiaresicuri.it/paesi/dettaglio/altre-informazioni/venezuela/informazioni-utili-nel-paese.html">http://www.viaggiaresicuri.it/paesi/dett...</a> Informazioni utili nel Paese]" ( <a href="http://www.webcitation.org/6dCKYPay7" target="_blank" title="http://www.webcitation.org/6dCKYPay7">http://www.webcitation.org/6dCKYPay7</a> Archive]). Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Italy (Farnesina). "A.C. AGUSTIN CODAZZI - SCUOLA ITALIANA (legalmente riconosciuta sia per le classi elementari che medie e liceali) Indirizzo: Escuela Agustín Codazzi, Av.da Los Pinos, Quinta Elisa, La Florida - Caracas".Su modalidad educativa es bicultural, es decir, que imparte una enseñanza basada en los sistemas educativos [[Italia|italiano]] y [[Venezuela|venezolano]], esto como parte de un convenio entre las entidades ministeriales en materia de Educación de ambas naciones.<br />
==Datos==<br />
La escuela fue fundada en 1951 en la [[Florida (Caracas)|urbanización La Florida]] para atender las necesidades escolares de la creciente comunidad italiana de Caracas. <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2050-411X.1994.tb00759.x/pdf" target="_blank" title="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2050-411X.1994.tb00759.x/pdf">http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.11...</a> Pedro Grau: Italian Presence in Modern Venezuela: Socioeconomic Dimension and Geo-cultural Changes, 1926-1990]<br />
Inicialmente se hacían solamente cursos de primaria en [[lengua italiana|italiano]], validados por el Ministerio de Educación de [[Roma]]. Es la principal institución educativa italiana de Caracas y toda Venezuela. <a href="http://www.edudatos.com/Data/Colegios/S0112D0101/Escudo.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.edudatos.com/Data/Colegios/S0112D0101/Escudo.jpg">http://www.edudatos.com/Data/Colegios/S0...</a> Escudo della "Scuola Codazzi"]<br />
Actualmente tiene cursos desde primaria (''Scuola elementare'' y ''Scuola Media'') hasta bachillerato (''Liceo scientifico italiano'') " <a href="http://www.esteri.it/mae/resource/doc/2015/03/elenco_scuole_paritarie_aggiornato_marzo_2015.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.esteri.it/mae/resource/doc/2015/03/elenco_scuole_paritarie_aggiornato_marzo_2015.pdf">http://www.esteri.it/mae/resource/doc/20...</a> SCUOLE PARITARIE ITALIANE ALL'ESTERO]" ( <a href="http://webcitation.org/6cNIwThr6" target="_blank" title="http://webcitation.org/6cNIwThr6">http://webcitation.org/6cNIwThr6</a> Archive]). Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Italy), p. 5/6<br />
Se le ha dado el nombre del famoso "Prócer de la independencia venezolana" y geógrafo [[Agustin Codazzi|Agostino Codazzi]]. Tiene desde 1986 un curso de bachillerato en lengua española reconocido por el gobierno venezolano Bafile, Mauro. " <a href="http://voce.com.ve/2011/04/17/4228/chiude-la-scuola-venezolana-della-nostra-%E2%80%9Cagustin-codazzi%E2%80%9D/" target="_blank" title="http://voce.com.ve/2011/04/17/4228/chiude-la-scuola-venezolana-della-nostra-%E2%80%9Cagustin-codazzi%E2%80%9D/">http://voce.com.ve/2011/04/17/4228/chiud...</a> SCUOLA AGUSTÍN CODAZZI Chiude la scuola venezolana della nostra “Agustín Codazzi”]" ( <a href="http://www.webcitation.org/6dCJ8SDTW" target="_blank" title="http://www.webcitation.org/6dCJ8SDTW">http://www.webcitation.org/6dCJ8SDTW</a> Archive]). ''[[La Voce d'Italia (Venezuela)|La Voce d'Italia]]''. 17 April 2011. <a href="http://www.faiv.com.ve/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/LA_VOCE_PG.2_18.04.11.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.faiv.com.ve/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/LA_VOCE_PG.2_18.04.11.pdf">http://www.faiv.com.ve/wp-content/upload...</a> in print] ( <a href="http://www.webcitation.org/6dCJaaRdm" target="_blank" title="http://www.webcitation.org/6dCJaaRdm">http://www.webcitation.org/6dCJaaRdm</a> Archive]): Monday April 18, 2011. p. 2. "Attualmente nel Collegio privato Codazzi, fondato nel 1951 da immigrati italiani, e funzionante solo come scuola italiana, dal 1986 funziona anche una “Unidad Educativa” che segue i programmi di studio locali. ".<br />
Recientemente el colegio ha sufrido problemas economicos a causa de la reciente crisis venezolana, pero los ha superado gracias en parte a la ayuda de la embajada italiana de Caracas. <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Asyit5bgSI" target="_blank" title="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Asyit5bgSI">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Asyit5b...</a> Video de la Fiesta de Navidad 2013 en el Codazzi]<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Italo-venezolanos]]<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
==Bibliografía==<br />
* Favero L. e Sacchetti G. ''Un secolo di emigrazione italiana:1876 - 1976''. Centro Studi Emigrazioni. Roma, 1978<br />
* Grau, Pedro. ''Italian presence in modern Venezuela''.Center for Migration Studies special issues (Volume 11, Issue 3).Universidad Central Venezuela. Caracas, 2012<br />
[[Categoría:Escuelas de Caracas]]<br />
[[Categoría:Inmigración italiana en Venezuela]]<br />
==============================================<br />
CARMELO B.PISANI (simple wiki)<br />
[[File:Carmelo-borg-pisani-18.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Carmelo B. Pisani]]<br />
'''Carmelo Borg Pisani''' ([[August 10]] [[1915]]–[[November 28]] [[1942]]) was a maltese who considered himself to be Italian. Politically he was a Pro-Italian [[Maltese people|Maltese]] and [[Italy|Italian]] [[nationalist]]. He was born in Senglea ([[Malta]]) and executed at ''Corradino'' prison in Malta for fighting for the [[Axis Powers]] as an Italian soldier. <br />
The Italian government considers him an "Italian citizen", having received the highest Italian military medal (the "''Medaglia d'oro al Valor Militare alla memoria''") from the King of Italy [[Victor Emmanuel III]]. <br />
==The Gold Medal of Military Valour of Carmelo B. Pisani==<br />
Carmelo Borg Pisani is the only maltese decorated with the Italian "Gold Medal of military honor". He is also the only man -not born inside the official territory of Italy- to have received this honor.<br />
{{Quote|''Irredento maltese e, come tale, esente dagli obblighi militari, chiedeva ripetutamente ed otteneva di essere arruolato, nonostante una grave imperfezione fisica. Come camicia nera partecipava alla campagna di Grecia, durante la quale contraeva una infermità per cui avrebbe dovuto essere sotto posto ad atto operatorio, al quale si sottraeva per non allontanarsi anche solo per pochi giorni dal campo di battaglia. Conseguita la nomina ad ufficiale della milizia artiglieria marittima, chiedeva insistentemente di essere utilizzato in una rischiosissima impresa di guerra, alla quale si preparava in lunghi mesi di allenamento e di studio, in perfetta serenità di spirito e in piena consapevolezza della gravità del pericolo. Catturato dal nemico, riaffermava di fronte alla corte marziale britannica di Malta la sua nazionalità italiana e cadeva sotto il piombo del plotone di esecuzione al grido di: " Viva l'Italia a Malta. Fulgido esempio di eroismo, di fede, di abnegazione e di virtù militari, che si riallaccia alle più pure tradizioni dell'irredentismo. - Malta, 1942.''}}<br />
Translation: "Maltese unredeemed and, as such, exempt from military service, repeatedly sought and was granted to be enlisted, despite a severe physical imperfections. As black shirt participated in the Greek campaign, during which contracted an illness that should have been under way for surgical procedure, which is subtracted for not even for a few days away from the battlefield. Awarded to the official appointment of the maritime militia artillery, insistently she asked to be used in a risky enterprise of war, to which he prepared in the long months of training and study, in perfect peace of mind and in full awareness of the severity of hazards. Captured by the enemy, reaffirmed in front of the British court martial of Malta his Italian nationality and came under the lead of the firing squad shouting "Long live Italy in Malta. The shining example of heroism, faith, sacrifice and virtue military, which is linked to the purest traditions of irredentism. Malta, 1942"<br />
==His awarded action==<br />
Born into a very well respected [[Catholic]] and Nationalist Maltese family, Pisani enrolled as a student at the ''Umberto Primo art lyceum'', where he won a scholarship to study in [[Rome]]. In Italy he showed support for fascism and Italian irredentism. <br />
{{Quote|''Malta is not British but for usurpation and I am not a British subject were it not because of this usurpation. My real fatherland is Italy. And so it is for it that I must fight. (Malta non è inglese che per usurpazione ed io non sono suddito britannico che per effetto di questa usurpazione. La mia vera Patria è l’Italia. È dunque per lei che devo combattere''). Carmelo Borg Pisani}}<br />
When [[World War II|war]] was declared on [[June 10]] [[1940]], Pisani (who had just requested the Italian citizenship) was still attending the ''Accademia di Belle Arti'' (the "National Academy of Arts" of Italy) in Rome.<br />
Pisani believed that Malta's [[Italian|Latin]] soul was being destroyed by [[United Kingdom|British]] rule. He also believed that the best opportunity to restore Malta to its original state was to expel the British. <br />
To this end, Pisani, along with many other Maltese students, joined the Fascist party of [[Italy]] and the "Black shirt" (Camicie Nere) movement. This led him to participate in the Italian occupation of [[Kefalonia]] in [[Greece]] with the ''Compagnia Speciale del Gruppo CC.NN. da sbarco della 50a Legione''. He decided to get the Italian citizenship in [[1940]]. In 1941 he was enrolled in the Italian Navy as a "Sottocapo Manipolo Milizia Artiglieria Marittima".<br />
On [[May 18]] [[1942]], Pisani was sent on a secret mission to be the first Axis spy on the island of Malta. This was in line with [[Benito Mussolini]]'s ambitions to have the British turn the island over to [[Italy]] (he believed the Italian people were the rightful & original inhabitants of Malta because of cultural and linguistic reasons).<br />
[[Image:Malta mapa2.jpg|thumb|right|380px|Map of Malta in the XVI century, when Italian was declared the official language by the Knights of Malta, showing ''Dingle'' (the landing place chosen by Carmelo Borg Pisani for his 1942 secret mission)]] <br />
Pisani disembarked at the "Dingli Cliffs" in Ras id-Dawwara, and transferred all his rations to the cave, which he knew well from his youth. The unusually inclement weather and the rough sea, however, washed all his possessions away within 48 hours and he was forced to wave down a British patrol boat. Upon rescue, he was brought to the Military Hospital at Mtarfa.<br />
There, Pisani was recognized by one of his childhood friends, Cpt. Tom Warrington. He was transferred to Corradino prison, questioned, and accused of [[treason]]. On [[November 12]] [[1942]], he stood trial. The public was excluded to avoid a possible hostile reaction from the Maltese Fascists; however, by this time, the fascists in Malta were either interned in [[Uganda]] or deported to Italy. <br />
Since the "Maltese Legal Code" was suspended during the war, a jury was not convened. In addition, the judges did not consider his renouncement of British citizenship and passport, his acquisition of Italian citizenship, and his participation in combat with the Italian Army. In fact, the latter only weakened his position, since he fought against Greece, an ally of the United Kingdom. On [[November 19]] [[1942]], he was sentenced to death for conspiring against His Majesty's government and for treason. His execution followed quickly in just nine days.<br />
The King of Italy, [[Victor Emmanuel III]], personally gave him a few days after his death the highest Italian military medal (the "Medaglia d'oro al Valor Militare alla memoria"), because he considered Carmelo Borg Pisani an Italian soldier with Italian citizenship. <br />
His family still awaits approval to bury his body outside the garrison where was executed. <br />
In Malta today some claim his trial was unfair and partial, while others also say he was a [[prisoner of war]] with Italian citizenship, and thus entitled to different treatment. Norman Lowell, the leader of a fringe Maltese radical right-wing political party, claims he was a national hero. <a href="http://www.borgpisani.it/Home/Pages/108" target="_blank" title="http://www.borgpisani.it/Home/Pages/108">http://www.borgpisani.it/Home/Pages/108</a> Website and 2 video about Carmelo Borg Pisani]<br />
[[Mussolini]] called him a "Maltese Martyr" and created in his honor in [[Liguria]] the "Battaglione Borg Pisani" in November 1943, where other Maltese irredentists fought. Indeed Carmelo Borg Pisani is still considered [[Italians|Italian]] by the Italian government and his "Gold Medal for military valor" is still valid. His tomb is -even now- inside the "Corradino" jail where he was executed. Inside his own jail was found written by him: "I vili ed i servi non sono graditi al Signore" (''The cowards and the servants are not esteemed by the Lord'').<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* L. Mizzi. ''Per il sogno della sua vita'' Volpe ed. Roma, 1981.<br />
* G. Vignoli. ''Gli Italiani dimenticati. Minoranze italiane in Europa'' Giuffré ed. Milano, 2000.<br />
* L. Mizzi. ''Il-Kaz Borg Pisani''. Sittin sena Wara, PEG publications. Valletta, 2003.<br />
* S. Fabei. ''Carmelo Borg Pisani (1915-1942) - eroe o traditore?'' Lo Scarabeo ed. Bologna, 2007. <br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Maltese people]]<br />
==External links==<br />
* <a href="http://www.carmeloborgpisani.20m.com/" target="_blank" title="http://www.carmeloborgpisani.20m.com/">http://www.carmeloborgpisani.20m.com/</a> Site which claims Pisani as a hero. It quotes Dom Mintoff, who served several times as the Prime Minister of Maltese government during British and independent times. ([[English language|English]] and [[Maltese language|Maltese]])<br />
* <a href="http://www.isses.it/borg.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.isses.it/borg.htm">http://www.isses.it/borg.htm</a> More Maltese irredentists are mentioned there.] {{It_icon}}<br />
* <a href="http://www.marina.difesa.it/storia/movm/" target="_blank" title="http://www.marina.difesa.it/storia/movm/">http://www.marina.difesa.it/storia/movm/</a>... "Medaglia d'oro al Valor Militare alla memoria" awarded to him after his death (with photo of Carmelo Borg Pisani).] {{It_icon}}<br />
* <a href="http://www.maltamigration.com/" target="_blank" title="http://www.maltamigration.com">http://www.maltamigration.com</a> Website with information about Carmelo Borg Pisani]<br />
[[Category:Maltese people]]<br />
[[Category:History of Italy]]<br />
==================================================================<br />
GENALE DAM<br />
Genale Dam is a dam on the river Shabelle which, together with an extensive network of canals, was built in the south of Somalia in the 1920s.[1] The dam was strongly promoted by Cesare Maria De Vecchi -Italian governor of Italian Somalia from 1924 to 1928- in order to provide water for irrigation of a vast territory between Genale, Merca and Vittorio d'Africa, to be given in concession to colonists.<br />
Contents [hide]<br />
1 The Dam<br />
2 Data<br />
3 See also<br />
4 Notes<br />
5 Bibliography<br />
The Dam[edit]<br />
The Genale Dam should be remembered not so much for the intrinsic importance (though fairly innovative by the 1920s, being built with reinforced concrete) but especially for the difficulties in the realization and for the great improvements for the social and economic life of the area. The dam also improved the image of colonial Italy in the world.<br />
Regarding the construction difficulties, the following are only the most significant among those who had to overcome the Italian builders according to Gaetano De Angelis:[2]<br />
The weather was inclement with frequent floods of the river, which naturally slowed the process and forced to work often 24 hours a day and with artificial light rather poor.<br />
The foundation ground was muddy and forced to work with the nearly continuous use of pumps.<br />
There were no cranes, excavators etc.: the work was done with shovels, buckets and especially "man strength".[3] At certain times to remove 40,000 cubic meters of soil worked together more than 1,000 indigenous workers.[4]<br />
The indigenous training -to enable them to perform the most delicate tasks (indeed in order to do the concrete mixes and the containment of carpentry works, you have to bend and tie the reinforcing steel, making it properly or lose it)- was really hard, because the Somalian men (mostly Bantu Somali) were used to do only subsistence farming.<br />
The material necessary to the work came from Mogadiscio, mainly for the iron and timber needed. The bulk (crushed stone, cement, sand, etc.) came from Merca (about 14 kms away) and because to reach this small town there was the need to bypass interposed moving sand dunes (in the 1920s there were no roads there), transportation was done with "caravans" of camels because the trucks could not be used. So, were required 120,000 transports by camel (or a caravan of 350-400 camels per day for the duration of the work).<br />
Construction began in January 1926 and despite the difficulties mentioned, ended in October of the same year. The inauguration took place on October 28, 1926 (anniversary of Fascism in Italy) and was christened by the countess Rina De Vecchi of Val Cismon, to whom the workers made homage of the model of the dam.[5]<br />
Actually for some experts (like Tripodi [6]) the question arises how it all could get to the end in such a short time and without major incidents: no loss of life happened. Fascist propaganda pinpointed that the dam was done without enhancing the distinction of class or color - although the work was done in very difficult conditions.<br />
Data[edit]<br />
The Shebelle ("river of leopards" in Somalian language), in the area of Genale where the dam was built, flows in a vast plain between 65–70 meters above sea level and is 13.5 km from the Indian Ocean (point of minimum distance, near Merca). Between the plain and the sea, however, there are sand dunes that are partly movable and rise in height up to 100–130 meters above sea level by preventing the river flowing into the Indian Ocean and forcing it to get to the Jubba river: there the Shebelle river flows only in the rainy periods because normally the water disperses before reaching the Jubba, forming swampy areas.<br />
Until a few years before the intervention in this stretch of plain, although composed of fertile land, there were mainly shrubs and bushes of various tree species. Furthermore, mainly along the banks of the river, there were small groups of huts and little land cultivated by the natives.<br />
In periods of peak demand of water for irrigation, the flow of the river was over 100 m³ per second; therefore -if the dam subtracted from that amount the flow rate of 40 m³/s necessary to irrigate 25-30,000 hectares of land, that were supposed to be the area of agricultural concessions- this fact did not let dry the Shebelle river.<br />
The water flow of the river went down below 40 m³/s only during periods when irrigation did not appear necessary (from January to March). For this reason, the dam was not built with the task of accumulation of water but was to serve as a weir or "intake structure" -to sent water toward the distribution channels- to a level quota to allow the water to reach the whole area.<br />
The water channeling -for an initial length of 45 kms, that later reached 80 kms- is separated upstream of the dam, redistributing into two basic channels:<br />
A first, called "main" channel, with a capacity of 25 m³/s (and a trapezoid section) with an average width of 13.5 m and 3 m deep.<br />
A second, called "1st secondary", with a capacity of 15 m³/s (and a trapezoid section) with an average width of 8 m and 3 m deep.<br />
See also[edit]<br />
Italian Somalia<br />
Genale<br />
Notes[edit]<br />
1.Jump up ^ Photo of the Genale Dam<br />
2.Jump up ^ Ingegnere Gaetano De Angelis. "Le opere italiane nelle Colonie. La diga di Genale per la derivazione dell'Uebi Scebeli" First Section/Volume<br />
3.Jump up ^ Photo of workers at the dam<br />
4.Jump up ^ Photo of workers building the Genale Dam<br />
5.Jump up ^ Photo of the Genale Dam when inaugurated<br />
6.Jump up ^ Tripodi Paolo. "The Colonial Legacy in Somalia". Introduction<br />
Location of Buundada Janaale (Janaale Bridge) on Wikimapia Coordinates 1°48'28"N 44°41'19"E<br />
Bibliography[edit]<br />
De Angelis, Gaetano. Le opere italiane nelle Colonie. La diga di Genale per la derivazione dell'Uebi Scebeli da L'Ingegnere – Rivista tecnica – Volume I N° 5 Novembre 1927 pag. 248-254.<br />
De Vecchi di Val Cismon, Cesare. Relazione sul progetto di Bilancio della Somalia Italiana per l'esercizio finanziario 1927-1928.<br />
Tripodi, Paolo. The Colonial Legacy in Somalia. St. Martin's P Inc. New York, 1999.<br />
La diga di Genale da L'Italia coloniale - Anno IV N° 1 Gennaio 1927 pag. 9.<br />
La diga sull'Uebi Scebeli da Esotica mensile di letteratura e valorizzazione coloniale - Anno II N° 3 15 marzo 1927.<br />
Guida d'Italia-possedimenti e colonie - Touring Club Italiano (TCI) del 1929<br />
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COLONIA AGRICOLA DE TUREN<br />
el gobierno venezolano decidió dar nuevo impulso a la inmigración europea en las región andina. En enero de 1947, el director del Instituto Técnico de Inmigración y Colonización, Manuel P . Graterol, escribió al IAAI la carta de presentación a un proyecto de colonización en el distrito de Turén, elaborado por un grupo de técnicos italianos82. Este contenía un anexo con cinco plantas de casa y un esquema de la zona donde hubiera surgido, en 1949, la Unidad Agrícola de Turén, la más ambiciosa experiencia de este tipo jamás realizada en un país caribeño. Ubicado, así como la colonia Tovar, en una zona de montañas, el futuro “Granero de Venezuela” abrigó, junto a una minoría de agricultores locales, una babel de inmigrantes de varios países. Inicialmente fueron sobretodo Europeos orientales, llegados por medio de la International Refugee Organization, pero ya en el comienzo de los años ’50 los italianos pasaron a constituir la mayoría relativa de la población. Esto se debió al hecho que el presidente<br />
Pérez Jiménez, sabiendo que Mussolini, para bonificar los pantanos pontinos, había hecho llegar del pobre Véneto centenas de familias de agricultores, envió en Latina su emisario, que a través de diapositivas, películas cortas y promesas, convenciera algunas familias para que tentaran la experiencia en Venezuela. […] Para estimular aquellos que deseasen trasladarse en esas tierras, el gobierno había hecho construir casas, una iglesia, un ambulatorio, una secadora de grano y algunos silos. Adhirieran al proyecto 54 familias que se embarcaron en el “Amerigo Vespucci” y llegaron a Puerto Cabello el 19 febrero de 195283. Cuatro años después, relata la ya citada relación de la UNESCO,<br />
de las 582 familias establecidas en Turén, 313 son de origen extranjera. Entre estas, el 30% son<br />
G. F . Benedini:Las Misiones de Asistencia Técnica y la emigración rural italiana en Latinoamérica (1950-1952)<br />
Journal of Agriculture and Environment for International Development - JAEID - 2013, 107 (1)<br />
132<br />
81 Petróleo de Venezuela Sociedad Anónima (PDVSA), S.D. Pioneros en Venezuela. URL: <a href="http://www.pdvsa.com/lexico/pioneros/codazzi.htm8" target="_blank" title="http://www.pdvsa.com/lexico/pioneros/codazzi.htm8">http://www.pdvsa.com/lexico/pioneros/cod...</a> 2 IAO, f. 341. 83 Morassut E., 2002. Veneti dell’Agro Pontino a Colónia Turén. Servizio Migranti, Roma. URL: <a href="http://www.chiesacattolica.it/pls/cci_new/bd_edit_doc_txt.edit_documento?p_id=8045" target="_blank" title="http://www.chiesacattolica.it/pls/cci_new/bd_edit_doc_txt.edit_documento?p_id=8045">http://www.chiesacattolica.it/pls/cci_ne...</a>.<br />
italianas, el 17% españolas, el 16% yugoslavas y el 14% rumanas; el otro 23% incluye representantes de 20 nacionalidades diferentes84.<br />
La colonia de Turen – donde, en los años de 1952-53, funcionaba una estación experimental para la cría bovina, con aplicación de la practica de la fecundación artificial y servicio veterinario, y habían vastas plantaciones de sisal, sésamo y bananas – no fue, sin embargo, la única destinación para los emigrantes italianos que se dirigían a los campos venezolanos.<br />
<a href="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:m4tMcVqZgGoJ:www.scielo.org.ve/scielo.php%3Fscript%3Dsci_arttext%26pid%3DS1316-03542001000200007+&cd=32&hl=es&ct=clnk&gl=es" target="_blank" title="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:m4tMcVqZgGoJ:www.scielo.org.ve/scielo.php%3Fscript%3Dsci_arttext%26pid%3DS1316-03542001000200007+&cd=32&hl=es&ct=clnk&gl=es">http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se...</a> INMIGRANTES, CAMBIOS TECNOLÓGICOS Y DIVERSIFICACIÓN AGRÍCOLA EN LOS ANDES VENEZOLANOS di Nelly Velázquez<br />
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<a href="http://gspi.unipr.it/it/brunopierri" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://gspi.unipr.it/it/brunopierri">http://gspi.unipr.it/it/brunopierri</a> OTTOMI SCRITTI DELL'UNIVERSITA DI PARMA SU POLITICA ESTERA ITALIANA DURANTE IL FASCISMO</div>
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<a href="http://www.ehrea.org/blocind.php" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://www.ehrea.org/blocind.php">http://www.ehrea.org/blocind.php</a> BLOCCO INDIPENDENZA in 1949 Eritrea</div>
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======================================================<br /> <a href="http://foreignpolicynews.org/2014/03/02/italy-albania-political-economic-alliance-italian-invasion-1939/#comments" target="_blank" title="http://foreignpolicynews.org/2014/03/02/italy-albania-political-economic-alliance-italian-invasion-1939/#comments">http://foreignpolicynews.org/2014/03/02/...</a> Italy & Albania (for Researchomnia)<br />=================================<br /> <a href="https://books.google.it/books?id=-Ji-CQAAQBAJ&pg=PA323&lpg=PA323&dq=nueva+italia+paraguay&source=bl&ots=NuMjjXOLEs&sig=2cHUh4s1qB4olqmL3addetbdAvs&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj_ncad0fnPAhUqqFQKHVTOAqA4PBDoAQhnMAg#v=onepage&q=nueva%20italia%20paraguay&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.it/books?id=-Ji-CQAAQBAJ&pg=PA323&lpg=PA323&dq=nueva+italia+paraguay&source=bl&ots=NuMjjXOLEs&sig=2cHUh4s1qB4olqmL3addetbdAvs&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj_ncad0fnPAhUqqFQKHVTOAqA4PBDoAQhnMAg#v=onepage&q=nueva%20italia%20paraguay&f=false">https://books.google.it/books?id=-Ji-CQA...</a> Nueva Italia in PARAGUAY (Resolución Ministerial:Resolución Nº:28 (11-X-02) Declara Patrimonio Histórico Cultural de la República del Paraguay)<br />
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<a href="http://archive.is/9EeM9" target="_blank" title="http://archive.is/9EeM9">http://archive.is/9EeM9</a> Adriani Mazzei muerte envenenado<br />========================================<br /> <a href="http://italianoucv.blogspot.com/2012/12/los-italianos-del-venezuela.html#more" target="_blank" title="http://italianoucv.blogspot.com/2012/12/los-italianos-del-venezuela.html#more">http://italianoucv.blogspot.com/2012/12/...</a> Italianos muertos por independencia de Venezuela<br />
<a href="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:Mbt0Ax7B7kkJ:www.rosmini.org/docs/Zante.doc+&cd=6&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" target="_blank" title="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:Mbt0Ax7B7kkJ:www.rosmini.org/docs/Zante.doc+&cd=6&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us">http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se...</a> Rosminiani a Maracaibo (COLEGIO ITALO_VENEZOLANO)<br />======================================================<br />
<a href="http://www.academia.edu/6358362/Roman_coins_in_Iceland_Roman_remnants_or_Viking_exotica" target="_blank" title="http://www.academia.edu/6358362/Roman_coins_in_Iceland_Roman_remnants_or_Viking_exotica">http://www.academia.edu/6358362/Roman_co...</a> ROMAN COINS IN ICELAND<br />==========================================================<br />
<a href="https://f.hypotheses.org/wp-content/blogs.dir/1262/files/2015/02/Carte-Jacques-finalisée.jpg" target="_blank" title="https://f.hypotheses.org/wp-content/blogs.dir/1262/files/2015/02/Carte-Jacques-finalisée.jpg">https://f.hypotheses.org/wp-content/blog...</a> Carte des populations du Maroc Septentrional<br />===========================================================<br />
<a href="http://orgullosvenezolanos.blogspot.com/2012/09/1938-el-nacimiento-de-la-vinotinto.html" target="_blank" title="http://orgullosvenezolanos.blogspot.com/2012/09/1938-el-nacimiento-de-la-vinotinto.html">http://orgullosvenezolanos.blogspot.com/...</a> VINOTINTO & Godigna Vittorio allenatore 1938<br />
<a href="http://www.el-nacional.com/deportes/Libertadores-Venezuela-samba-estadios-llenos_0_385761564.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.el-nacional.com/deportes/Libertadores-Venezuela-samba-estadios-llenos_0_385761564.html">http://www.el-nacional.com/deportes/Libe...</a> Augusto Nitti (Deportivo Italia)<br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjsfd3qCbbrlmKhaTRRkV_OPsPEDdZSjC6KQbxn6bPSGtEGuLNr7iniCi-CWhtwnm6BZnKetn6KFxIbnC7AfZYhHR7zaH_6_MSs1CCHUjoO5ZBD56m2PvzT9PK0SJqr3k3ceTHb1rFuk0Ma/s1600/19.png" target="_blank" title="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjsfd3qCbbrlmKhaTRRkV_OPsPEDdZSjC6KQbxn6bPSGtEGuLNr7iniCi-CWhtwnm6BZnKetn6KFxIbnC7AfZYhHR7zaH_6_MSs1CCHUjoO5ZBD56m2PvzT9PK0SJqr3k3ceTHb1rFuk0Ma/s1600/19.png">https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-0WWgtNHQolg/V...</a> foto di Nitti e Luis Mendoza<br />
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<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/207822?seq=26#page_scan_tab_contents" target="_blank" title="https://www.jstor.org/stable/207822?seq=26#page_scan_tab_contents">https://www.jstor.org/stable/207822?seq=...</a> Italian regions of mixed population, Olinto Marinelli 1919 with perfect maps at final page<br />
===========================================================<br />TOMMASO CARLETTI<br />{{Coin image box 1 double<br />| header = Four bese<br />| image = File:Somalia 4 bese 87001978.jpg<br />| caption_left = Vittorio Emanuele III<br />| caption_right = Denomination and date in four lines.<br />| width = 300<br />| footer = Æ; Rome mint, 1909<br />| position = right<br />| margin = 0<br />| background = <!-- opzionale--><br />}}<br />
'''Tommaso Carletti''' was born in [[Viterbo]] ([[Italy]]) and was [[List of colonial governors of Italian Somaliland|Governor]] of [[Italian Somalia]]. <a href="https://books.google.it/books?id=eH5EAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA193&lpg=PA193&dq=tommaso+carletti+nato+Viterbo&source=bl&ots=bueKmbooj6&sig=m-i14B534kHBbqvpT1UYem_VB3I&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwib-NTo_q3OAhWCYyYKHdWqAAcQ6AEIXDAJ#v=onepage&q=tommaso%20carletti%20nato%20Viterbo&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.it/books?id=eH5EAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA193&lpg=PA193&dq=tommaso+carletti+nato+Viterbo&source=bl&ots=bueKmbooj6&sig=m-i14B534kHBbqvpT1UYem_VB3I&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwib-NTo_q3OAhWCYyYKHdWqAAcQ6AEIXDAJ#v=onepage&q=tommaso%20carletti%20nato%20Viterbo&f=false">https://books.google.it/books?id=eH5EAQA...</a> Tommaso Carletti early biography]<br />
==Life==<br />
Tommaso Carletti was the ''Commissioner-General'' of the Italian colony in [[Banadir]] from 1907 to 1908. Later he was named ''Governor'' of the newly created ''Somalia italiana'', that he ruled from 1908 until July 1910 (when was substituted by [[Giacomo De Martino]].<br />
In July 1908 Carletti started the full conquest of the interior of Somalia <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TE2ldbz57eIC&pg=PA137&dq=tommaso+carletti+governatore&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwihwtXOna3OAhVG7SYKHXr5AkgQ6AEINTAE#v=onepage&q=tommaso%20carletti%20governatore&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=TE2ldbz57eIC&pg=PA137&dq=tommaso+carletti+governatore&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwihwtXOna3OAhVG7SYKHXr5AkgQ6AEINTAE#v=onepage&q=tommaso%20carletti%20governatore&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=TE2ldb...</a> Governor Carletti started the "pacification" of all Somalia; p.137], because until then the Italians controlled only the coastal area around [[Mogadishu under Italian rule|Mogadishu]] and other port cities.<br />
In 1909 Carletti introduced the [[Italian Somaliland rupia|Somali Rupia]] as the currency of Somalia in use, that lasted until 1925.Beltrami; p.140 The Somali Rupia was divided in ''bese'' coins.<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />* Beltrami, Vanni. ''Italia d'oltremare: storie dei territori italiani dalla conquista alla caduta''. Publisher Edizioni Nuova Cultura. Roma, 2011 ISBN 8861347029<br />* *Calchi Novati, Gian Paolo. ''L'Africa d'Italia'' Editori Carrocci. Roma, 2011.<br />
==See also==<br />*[[Italian Somalia]]<br />*[[Mogadishu under Italian rule]]<br />
{{Italian Governors of Eritrea and Somaliland}}<br />{{Somalia italiana (Colonia)}}<br />
[[Category:Governors of Italian Somaliland]]<br />
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<a href="http://tranaturaecultura.blogspot.com/p/storia-e-lettura-dello-spazio-sociale.html" target="_blank" title="http://tranaturaecultura.blogspot.com/p/storia-e-lettura-dello-spazio-sociale.html">http://tranaturaecultura.blogspot.com/p/...</a> COLONIALISMO ITALIANO IN ERITREA<br />
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Guido_Corni&diff=prev&oldid=732266673" target="_blank" title="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Guido_Corni&diff=prev&oldid=732266673">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?tit...</a> Guido Corni (strana sparizione da en.wiki)<br />
============================================================<br />VITTORIO D'AFRICA<br />'''Vittorio d'Africa ''' was a small town in southern [[Italian Somalia]], created by Italian colonists in the 1920s. <a href="http://images.delcampe.com/img_large/auction/000/263/923/923_001.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://images.delcampe.com/img_large/auction/000/263/923/923_001.jpg">http://images.delcampe.com/img_large/auc...</a> Map showing Vittorio d'Africa (green area was the farm concessions)]<br />
==History==<br />
The [[Genale Dam|Genale dam]] on the river [[Shebelle]], together with an extensive network of canals, was built in the south of [[Somalia]] in the late 1920s. It was strongly promoted by [[Cesare Maria De Vecchi]] -Italian governor of [[Italian Somalia]] from 1924 to 1928- in order to provide water for irrigation of a vast territory of 20000 hectares between [[Genale Dorya|Genale]], [[Merca]] and Vittorio d'Africa, to be given in concession to [[Italian Somalians|colonists]].<br />
One hundred of those colonists created in the south of the Genale concessions a small city named "Vittorio d'Africa", that had a population of nearly 1200 inhabitants in 1940. It was located 11 kms from [[Merca]]. The city was linked to the [[Port of Merca]] by a [[decauville]] railway <a href="http://www.internetculturale.it/jmms/iccuviewer/iccu.jsp?id=oai%3Awww.internetculturale.sbn.it%2FTeca%3A20%3ANT0000%3ARM0255_DIG_2234&mode=all&teca=MagTeca+-+ICCU" target="_blank" title="http://www.internetculturale.it/jmms/iccuviewer/iccu.jsp?id=oai%3Awww.internetculturale.sbn.it%2FTeca%3A20%3ANT0000%3ARM0255_DIG_2234&mode=all&teca=MagTeca+-+ICCU">http://www.internetculturale.it/jmms/icc...</a> Decauville Station], used to transport the huge production of bananas of the farms around Vittorio d'Africa <a href="http://www.postcardman.net/somalia/257566.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.postcardman.net/somalia/257566.jpg">http://www.postcardman.net/somalia/25756...</a> Aerial view of some "banana farms"].<br />
In 1929 was created in the city a special processing building (called "sgranatoio" in [[Italian language|Italian]]) where the [[cotton]] produced in the concessions was selected before the shipping to Italy. Given the importance of the area it was created, from the administrative point of view, the ''Vicecommissariato di Genale'' with Vittorio d'Africa as capital, where some industrial activities were focused also for the processing & shipping of agricultural products. <a href="https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/6b/27/84/6b2784154d17f9ecb08800a0674b95f5.jpg" target="_blank" title="https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/6b/27/84/6b2784154d17f9ecb08800a0674b95f5.jpg">https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736...</a> Foto of "sgranatoio" building in Vittorio d'Africa] <br />
During [[WW2]] in Vittorio d'Africa was done by the Italians the last battle against the British army before the Allied attacked [[Mogadiscio]] in 1941: because of this fight the small city suffered heavy damages. After the war all the Italians moved away and the farm production dwindled, reducing the city to a kind of [[ghost town]]. <br />
Actually is growing in the area of the disappeared Vittorio d'Africa a small village of Somalis, called ''Shalam boot''.<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* De Vecchi di Val Cismon, Cesare. ''Relazione sul progetto di Bilancio della Somalia Italiana per l'esercizio finanziario 1927-1928''.<br />* Tripodi, Paolo. ''The Colonial Legacy in Somalia''. St. Martin's P Inc. New York, 1999.<br />* <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gfg12XlAIqo" target="_blank" title="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gfg12XlAIqo">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gfg12XlA...</a> Video showing some colonists of Vittorio d'Africa in 1938 (in Italian)]<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Genale Dam]]<br />*[[Mogadiscio]]<br />*[[Genale Dorya|Genale]]<br />*[[Villabruzzi]]<br />*[[Italian Somalia]]<br />
{{Somalia italiana (Colonia)}}<br />
[[Category:Populated places in Lower Shebelle]]<br />
==================================<br /> <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gfg12XlAIqo" target="_blank" title="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gfg12XlAIqo">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gfg12XlA...</a> Video di Genale/Vittorio d'Africa 1938<br />
============================================================<br /> <a href="http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/salerno_" target="_blank" title="http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/salerno_">http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/sale...</a>(Federiciana)/ OTTIMA Storia di Salerno CAPUT/CAPITALE con Sichelgaita ed altri (TRECCANI!!!!)<br />
<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/--h1qHbXjx5U/VXAe2_PrhRI/AAAAAAAAAdw/8bOJRU9YPl0/w1200-h630-p-nu/regolo%2Bimperfetto%2Bcopertina.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/--h1qHbXjx5U/VXAe2_PrhRI/AAAAAAAAAdw/8bOJRU9YPl0/w1200-h630-p-nu/regolo%2Bimperfetto%2Bcopertina.jpg">http://2.bp.blogspot.com/--h1qHbXjx5U/VX...</a> Immagine dettagliata di Salerno nel 1239<br />=============================================================<br />
<a href="http://www.vivamalta.net/VMforum/index.php?topic=10512.0;wap2" target="_blank" title="http://www.vivamalta.net/VMforum/index.php?topic=10512.0;wap2">http://www.vivamalta.net/VMforum/index.p...</a> Camillo Bonanno e gli irredentisti di Malta<br />==============================================================<br />CARMELO BORG PISANI<br />
{{infobox military award<br />| name = Gold Medal of Military Valour<br />''Medaglia d'oro al valor militare''<br />| image = [[Image:Medaglia d'oro al valor militare.svg|100px]]<br />| caption = Italy's Gold Medal of Military Valour given to Carmelo Borg Pisani<br />| awarded_by =<br />| country = Italy<br />| type = Military decoration<br />| eligibility = Junior officers and soldiers<br />| for = Deeds of outstanding gallantry in war<br />| campaign =<br />| status =<br />| description =<br />| motto =<br />| clasps =<br />| post-nominals =<br />| established = 21 May 1793<br />| first_award =<br />| last_award =<br />| total =<br />| posthumous =<br />| recipients =<br />| precedence_label =<br />| individual =<br />| higher = [[Military Order of Italy]]{{cite web|url=http://www.esercito.difesa.it/Equipaggiamenti/Militaria/Decorazioni/DecorazionieOnorificenze/Nastrinidecorazioniinuso/Pagine/default.aspx |title=Esercito Italiano- Nastrini delle decorazioni in uso |publisher=Esercito.difesa.it |date= |accessdate=2012-05-30|language=Italian}}<br />| same =<br />| lower =<br />| related =<br />| image2 = [[Image:Valor militare gold medal BAR.svg|100px]]<br />| caption2 = Ribbon bar of the medal<br />}}<br />
'''Carmelo Borg Pisani Gold medal''' ([[August 10]] [[1915]]–[[November 28]] [[1942]]) was a Gold Medal of Military Valour given to [[Carmelo Borg Pisani]], a [[Fascio|fascist]] Pro-Italian [[Malta|Maltese]] and [[Italy|Italian]] [[nationalist]]. He was born in [[Senglea]] ([[Malta]]) and executed at ''Corradino'' prison in Malta for fighting for the [[Axis Powers]] as an Italian soldier. The Italian government considers him an "Italian citizen", having received the highest Italian military medal (the "''Medaglia d'oro al Valor Militare alla memoria''") from the King of Italy [[Victor Emmanuel III]]. <a href="http://www.quirinale.it/elementi/DettaglioOnorificenze.aspx?decorato=14144" target="_blank" title="http://www.quirinale.it/elementi/DettaglioOnorificenze.aspx?decorato=14144">http://www.quirinale.it/elementi/Dettagl...</a> Italian Republic official list and motivation]<br />
==The [[Gold Medal of Military Valour]] of Carmelo B. Pisani==<br />
[[Carmelo Borg Pisani]] is the only maltese decorated with the Italian Gold Medal of military honor. He is also the only man -not born inside the official territory of Italy- to have received this honor.<br />
{{Quote|''Irredento maltese e, come tale, esente dagli obblighi militari, chiedeva ripetutamente ed otteneva di essere arruolato, nonostante una grave imperfezione fisica. Come camicia nera partecipava alla campagna di Grecia, durante la quale contraeva una infermità per cui avrebbe dovuto essere sotto posto ad atto operatorio, al quale si sottraeva per non allontanarsi anche solo per pochi giorni dal campo di battaglia. Conseguita la nomina ad ufficiale della milizia artiglieria marittima, chiedeva insistentemente di essere utilizzato in una rischiosissima impresa di guerra, alla quale si preparava in lunghi mesi di allenamento e di studio, in perfetta serenità di spirito e in piena consapevolezza della gravità del pericolo. Catturato dal nemico, riaffermava di fronte alla corte marziale britannica di Malta la sua nazionalità italiana e cadeva sotto il piombo del plotone di esecuzione al grido di: " Viva l'Italia a. Fulgido esempio di eroismo, di fede, di abnegazione e di virtù militari, che si riallaccia alle più pure tradizioni dell'irredentismo. - Malta, 1942.''}}<br />
Translation: "Maltese unredeemed and, as such, exempt from military service, repeatedly sought and was granted to be enlisted, despite a severe physical imperfections. As black shirt participated in the Greek campaign, during which contracted an illness that should have been under way for surgical procedure, which is subtracted for not even for a few days away from the battlefield. Awarded to the official appointment of the maritime militia artillery, insistently she asked to be used in a risky enterprise of war, to which he prepared in the long months of training and study, in perfect peace of mind and in full awareness of the severity of hazards. Captured by the enemy, reaffirmed in front of the British court martial of Malta his Italian nationality and came under the lead of the firing squad shouting "Long live Italy in. The shining example of heroism, faith, sacrifice and virtue military, which is linked to the purest traditions of irredentism. Malta, 1942"<br />
==His awarded action==<br />
Born into a very well respected [[Catholic]] and Nationalist Maltese family, Pisani enrolled as a student at the ''Umberto Primo art lyceum'', where he won a scholarship to study in [[Rome]]. In Italy he showed support for fascism and [[Italia irredenta|Italian irredentism]]. <br />
{{Quote|''Malta is not British but for usurpation and I am not a British subject were it not because of this usurpation. My real fatherland is Italy. And so it is for it that I must fight. (Malta non è inglese che per usurpazione ed io non sono suddito britannico che per effetto di questa usurpazione. La mia vera Patria è l’Italia. È dunque per lei che devo combattere''). Carmelo Borg Pisani}}<br />
When [[World War II|war]] was declared on [[June 10]] [[1940]], Pisani (who had just requested the Italian citizenship) was still attending the ''Accademia di Belle Arti'' (the "National Academy of Arts" of Italy) in Rome.<br />
Pisani believed that Malta's [[Italian people|Latin]] soul was being destroyed by [[United Kingdom|British]] rule. He also believed that the best opportunity to restore Malta to its original state was to expel the British. <br />
To this end, Pisani, along with many other Maltese students, joined the Fascist party of [[Italy]] and the [[Black shirt]] (Camicie Nere) movement. This led him to participate in the Italian occupation of [[Kefallinia]] in [[Greece]] with the ''Compagnia Speciale del Gruppo CC.NN. da sbarco della 50a Legione''. He decided to get the Italian citizenship in [[1940]].<br />
On [[May 18]] [[1942]], Pisani was sent on a secret mission to be the first Axis spy on the island of Malta. This was in line with [[Benito Mussolini]]'s ambitions to have the British turn the island over to [[Italy]] (he believed the Italian people were the rightful & original inhabitants of Malta because of cultural and linguistic reasons).<br />[[Image:Malta mapa2.jpg|thumb|right|380px|Map of Malta in the XVI century, when Italian was declared the official language by the Knights of Malta, showing ''Dingle'' (the landing place chosen by Carmelo Borg Pisani for his 1942 secret mission)]] <br />
Pisani disembarked at the [[Dingli Cliffs]] in Ras id-Dawwara, and transferred all his rations to the cave, which he knew well from his youth. The unusually inclement weather and the rough sea, however, washed all his possessions away within 48 hours and he was forced to wave down a British [[patrol boat]]. Upon rescue, he was brought to the Military Hospital at [[Mtarfa]].<br />
There, Pisani was recognized by one of his childhood friends, Cpt. Tom Warrington. He was transferred to Corradino prison, [[interrogated]], and accused of [[treason]]. On [[November 12]] [[1942]], he stood trial. The public was excluded to avoid a possible hostile reaction from the Maltese Fascists; however, by this time, the fascists in Malta were either interned in [[Uganda]] or deported to Italy. <a href="http://www.maltamigration.com/news/times89353.shtml" target="_blank" title="http://www.maltamigration.com/news/times89353.shtml">http://www.maltamigration.com/news/times...</a> Exile of 43 Maltese 60 years ago : One of the most shameful episodes of Malta's history]<br />
Since the "Maltese Legal Code" was suspended during the war, a jury was not convened. In addition, the judges did not consider his renouncement of British citizenship and passport, his acquisition of Italian citizenship, and his participation in combat with the [[Italian Army]]. In fact, the latter only weakened his position, since he fought against Greece, an ally of the United Kingdom. On [[November 19]] [[1942]], he was sentenced to death for conspiring against His Majesty's government and for treason. His execution followed quickly in just nine days.<br />
The King of Italy, [[Victor Emmanuel III]], personally gave him a few days after his death the highest Italian military medal (the "Medaglia d'oro al Valor Militare alla memoria"), because he considered Carmelo Borg Pisani an Italian soldier with Italian citizenship. <br />
His family still awaits approval to bury his body outside the garrison where was executed. <br />
In Malta today some claim his trial was unfair and partial, while others also say he was a [[prisoner of war]] with Italian citizenship, and thus entitled to different treatment. [[Norman Lowell]], the leader of a fringe Maltese radical right-wing political party, claims he was a national hero. <a href="http://www.vivamalta.org/main/" target="_blank" title="http://www.vivamalta.org/main/">http://www.vivamalta.org/main/</a> Website and Forum where Norman Lowell defends Carmelo Borg Pisani]<br />
[[Mussolini]] called him a "Maltese Martyr" and created in his honor in [[Liguria]] the "Battaglione Borg Pisani" in November 1943, where other Maltese irredentists fought. Indeed Carmelo Borg Pisani is still considered [[Italians|Italian]] by the Italian government and his "Gold Medal for military valor" is still valid. His tomb is -even now- inside the "Corradino" jail where he was executed. Inside his own jail was found written by him: "I vili ed i servi non sono graditi al Signore" (''The cowards and the servants are not esteemed by the Lord'').<br />
==Notes==<br />{{reflist}}<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* L. Mizzi. ''Per il sogno della sua vita'' Volpe ed. Roma, 1981.<br />* G. Vignoli. ''Gli Italiani dimenticati. Minoranze italiane in Europa'' Giuffré ed. Milano, 2000.<br />* L. Mizzi. ''Il-Kaz Borg Pisani''. Sittin sena Wara, PEG publications. Valletta, 2003.<br />* S. Fabei. ''Carmelo Borg Pisani (1915-1942) - eroe o traditore?'' Lo Scarabeo ed. Bologna, 2007. <br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Italia irredenta]]<br />*[[Greater Italia]]<br />*[[Carmelo Borg Pisani|Carmelo B. Pisani]]<br />
==External links==<br />
* <a href="http://www.carmeloborgpisani.20m.com/" target="_blank" title="http://www.carmeloborgpisani.20m.com/">http://www.carmeloborgpisani.20m.com/</a> Site which claims Pisani as a hero]. It quotes [[Dom Mintoff]], who served several times as the Prime Minister of Maltese government during British and independent times. ([[English language|English]] and [[Maltese language|Maltese]])<br />
* <a href="http://www.isses.it/borg.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.isses.it/borg.htm">http://www.isses.it/borg.htm</a> More Maltese irredentists are mentioned there.] {{It_icon}}<br />
* <a href="http://www.marina.difesa.it/storia/movm/parte06/movm6019.asp" target="_blank" title="http://www.marina.difesa.it/storia/movm/parte06/movm6019.asp">http://www.marina.difesa.it/storia/movm/...</a> "Medaglia d'oro al Valor Militare alla memoria" awarded to him after his death (with photo of Carmelo Borg Pisani).] {{It_icon}}<br />* <a href="http://www.maltamigration.com/" target="_blank" title="http://www.maltamigration.com">http://www.maltamigration.com</a> Website with information about Carmelo Borg Pisani]<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Borg Pisani, Carmelo}}<br />[[Category:1915 births]]<br />[[Category:1942 deaths]]<br />[[Category:Maltese people]]<br />
[[it:Carmelo Borg Pisani]]<br />[[mt:Carmelo Borg Pisani]]<br />[[pl:Carmelo Borg Pisani]]<br />
==================================================================<br /> <a href="http://www.bandaarcgeophysics.co.uk/arch/roman_marching_camps_uk.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.bandaarcgeophysics.co.uk/arch/roman_marching_camps_uk.html">http://www.bandaarcgeophysics.co.uk/arch...</a> OTTIME MAPPE DEL 2015 DI ROMAN BRITAIN CON SCOZIA, RIFERIMENTI DETTAGLIATISSIMI A STRADE E FORTI (copyrighted by English krown!)<br />
<a href="http://cdn0.vox-cdn.com/assets/4825134/All_Roman_coins_1997_-_2010__2_.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://cdn0.vox-cdn.com/assets/4825134/All_Roman_coins_1997_-_2010__2_.jpg">http://cdn0.vox-cdn.com/assets/4825134/A...</a> Roman coins map (1997-2010)<br />================================================================<br />
BERBERS AND CHRISTIANITY<br />
[[File:Sainte Monique.jpg|thumb|rught|400px|The Christian Berbers [[Saint Augustine]] and his mother [[saint Monica]]]]<br />
There was a huge diffusion of [[Christianity]] between [[Berbers]], during the [[Rome|Roman rule]] of the actual [[Maghreb]] in [[Antiquity]]. <a href="http://www.30giorni.it/us/articolo.asp?id=3553" target="_blank" title="http://www.30giorni.it/us/articolo.asp?id=3553">http://www.30giorni.it/us/articolo.asp?i...</a> "The African roots of Latin Christianity", by Henri Teissier]<br />
==Notable ancient Christian Berbers==<br />
[[Theodore Mommsen]] wrote in his famous "The Provinces of the Roman empire" that, at the beginning of the century when happened the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]], practically all the [[Berbers]] living inside the borders of Roman Africa were Christians. <br />
Accomplished Christian Berbers included writers such as [[Martianus Capella]]. There were also Christian saints such as [[Cyprian]], Roman popes such as Pope [[Victor I]] and even the Roman emperor [[Septimius Severus]]. Most of these figures appeared in a socio-cultural period of development in [[Roman Africa]] following the introduction of Christianity. However most of these figures are historical, and the Christians in North Africa do not have as much of a dominant community as they used to have in Roman times.<br />
Christian Berbers were Roman writers such as [[Terentius]], [[Lactantius]], [[Martianus Capella]], [[Marcus Cornelius Fronto]], [[Apuleius]] and [[Tertullianus]]. Christian saints included [[Scillitan Martyrs]], [[Cyprian]], [[Victor Maurus]], [[Saint Monica]] and [[Saint Augustine]] (and even Roman popes like Pope [[Victor I]], Pope Miltiades, Pope [[Gelasius I]]). Roman emperors such as [[Septimius Severus]], [[Macrinus]] and [[Emilianus]] were also famous Christian Berbers.<br />
Christian Berber kings of exclusive Christian Berber realms known as the "Romano-Berber states" includes [[Masuna]] of [[Garmul]] or the [[Kingdom of Altava]]. They are known for making Christian "jedars" and mausoleums such as the "Tomb of the Christians" near [[Caesarea of Mauretania|Caesarea]] (also known as the "Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania").<br />
Actually, even after the Arab domination of the Maghreb since the eight century (interrupted only by the century of [[French empire|French colonialism]]), estimates show that there are nearly half a million [[Christianity|Christian]] Berbers, many living in a situation of diaspora in Western [[Europe]] and the [[Americas]] and nearly 300,000 living in the [[Maghreb]] region of [[North Africa]] (ranging from [[Morocco]] to [[Libya]])<br />
==History during the Roman Empire==<br />
Christian Berbers are Berbers who worship or worshipped the Christian faith. Usually the term is referred to the centuries when North Africa was ruled by the [[Roman Empire]]. These initial Christian Berbers started to greatly diminish after the eight century and probably disappeared around the fifteenth century, because of the conquest of north Africa by the [[Arabs]] who promoted in all ways their muslim religion in the region.<br />
===Tertullian===<br />The first record of Christians in Africa is a document known as the "Acts of the Martyrs scillitans" dating from 180 AD. This documents a dozen Christian (known as [[Scillitan Martyrs]]) in a village of [[Africa Proconsularis]], which is yet to be named, in front of the proconsul of Africa.<br />The major figures in early Christian North Africa was [[Tertullian]], (born of pagan parents; a Roman centurion father and possibly a Romanised Berber mother) who joined the Christian community in [[Carthage]] in 195 AD and became close to the local administrative elite, who protected him from pagan repression against his religion. After becoming a priest, he argued in his early writings that Christianity should be recognized as a legitimate religion by the Roman Empire.<br />
"African Christianity" grew in followers after Tertullian found a way to merge Christianity with popular Berber life through religious doctrine. This would conflict with the Roman institutions promoting pagan worship at the time. The most major cause of anger between the two sides was the refusal of Christians to serve in the Roman army. For Tertullian Christians joining the army and killing opponents, hence violating the sixth commandment, was a great dilemma.<br />
The Romans began to persecute early Christians as they were hence endangering the Roman Empire by refusing military service (this period was a time of dire need for more soldiers). Tertullian provoked the authorities until they lead to killing Christians, making them martyrs.<br />
It is a known fact the African Church began with martyrdom. Tertullian later wrote about the rapid growth of Christianity among Africans, it had spread across North Africa to eventually reach peoples south and southeast of the [[Aurès Mountains]]. Around the year 200 AD there was a violent attack at Carthage and in provinces held by the Romans against Christians. This was the persecution in which [[St. Perpetua]] died, which we know of form the writings of Tertullian. Despite persecution, Christianity did not cease to expand. Christian epitaphs were found at Sour el Ghozlane in 227 AD and [[Tipasa]] at 238 AD.<br />
By the third century there was a substantial Christian population in Africa. It consisted not only of the poor but also those of the highest rank. A council held in Carthage around the year 220 AD attracted 18 bishops from [[Numidia]]. By the middle of the third century, another was held which was attended by 87 bishops. At the end of this century Christianity was already the faith of the majority in Berber lands ruled by the Romans.<br />
Though at this time the African Church suffered a crisis. Emperor [[Decius]] published an edict to persecute Christians further. Bishops followed by their whole communities were planned to be executed. Many people had already bought certificates of apostasy for money, so much that they believed they could command the church by the law, and demand their restoration to communion. A lot of controversy was seen at this period.<br />
===Conflict between Catholics and Donatists===<br />When [[Constantine]] arose to power the African Church had become torn apart by heresies and controversies, like the [[Donatism]]. Catholics and Donatists conflicted for power in a violent way. In 318 AD Constantine deprived Donatists of churches, most of which had been taken from Catholics. The Donatists were so numerous that this could not stop them and a Donatist council held at Carthage in 327 AD was attended by 270 bishops.<br />
Attempts by [[Constantius II]] at reconciliation only lead to armed repression. [[Gratus]], the Primate of Carthage, declared in 349 AD that "God has restored Africa to religious unity." However, with Emperor [[Julian]]'s accession in 361 and his permission to allow all religious exiles back to their homes, the African Church saw more troubles. Donatist bishops were centered around a seceded "See" in Carthage opposed to orthodox bishops. One act of violence followed another and bred new conflicts. [[Optatus]], Bishop of Milevi, wrote works combating the sect. <br />
Meanwhile [[St. Augustine]], converted at [[Milan]], returned to his home land. Since then, [[Paganism]] was no longer a menace to the church. In 399 AD temples were closed in Carthage. From 390 to 430 AD, the Councils of Carthage discussed with Donatists, gave sermons, homilies and scriptural commentaries persisted almost without stop. Augustine had managed to train clergy and instruct the faithful that Christianity was now strong in Africa.<br />
<blockquote>
''Of all the fathers of the church, St. Augustine was the most admired and the most influential during the Middle Ages ... Augustine was an outsider—a native North African whose family was not Roman but Berber ... He was a genius—an intellectual giant.''{{Citation |first=Norman |last=Cantor |authorlink=Norman Cantor |title=The Civilization of the Middle Ages |publisher=Harper |year=1993 |page=74 |isbn=0-06-092553-1}}</blockquote>
In 412 AD the Council of Carthage condemned [[Pelagianism]]. Donatism and Semi-Pelagianism were done away with, at a time which changed the history and destiny of the African Church. There was Conflict between Carthage and Rome on how the African Church would be run when [[Apiarius of Sicca]] appealed his excommunication to Rome and thus challenged Carthage.<br />
==History in late Antiquity==<br />[[File:Spread of Christianity to AD 600 (1).png|thumb|350px|The spread of Christianity in Europe by 600 AD, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. In dark blue the areas fully Christian, like former [[Africa Proconsularis]]]]<br />
With the fifth century started the [[barbarian invasions]] in western Europe. When Saint Augustine worshipped, Berbers in Roman Africa were fully [[romanisation|romanised]] and were nearly all Christians. The region was a quiet "granary" of the Roman empire, that enjoyed a peaceful and rich period of a plentiful economy. This attracted the [[Vandals]], a German tribe living in north-central Europe. <br />
Outside the borders of the Roman empire, the berber tribes were mostly not Christian and worshipped their own [[paganism]].<br />
===Vandal Invasion===<br />{{Main article|Vandal Kingdom}}<br />[[Count Boniface]] summoned the Vandals to Africa in 426 AD, and by 429 AD their invasion was complete. The Vandals conquered many cities and provinces. 9 years after Augustine died in 430, during the siege of [[Hippo]], king [[Geiseric]] of the Vandals took Carthage. <br />
The Vandals were Arians. They established their [[Arianism]] and set about destroying Catholicism. Churches surviving the invasion were to be transferred to the Arians or closed to public worship. This was only stopped briefly when Emperor [[Zeno]] intervened and made an agreement with Geiseric that the Catholics be allowed to choose a bishop. This was in 476 AD. But [[Hunneric]], the new king following the death of Geiseric, by 484 AD passed an edict which made matters much worse. The Christians of Africa did not display much resistance to this persecution, even in this terror, as writer Victor of Vita has told us.<br />
Later in the Vandal rule in Africa, [[St. Fulgentius]], Bishop of Ruspe, managed to influence the princes of the Vandal dynasty, who had become more Roman and Byzantine in culture. The Vandal monarchy, which had lasted for nearly a century, was also dwindling in power.<br />The Vandals permitted the creation of some "Romano-Berber states" at their borders, but were later conquered by the [[Byzantine Empire|Roman eastern empire]], which established and African prefecture, later the [[Exarchate of Carthage]]. At this point some paganism was still worshipped in the Atlas mountains despite the strong Christian influence in Africa. Pope [[Gelasius I]] was able to convert the pagans of the Aures who became the most loyal Christians who ended up defending Romanised north-western Africa to the death with their queen [[Kahina]] during the Muslim invasion centuries later.<br />
===Romano-Berber States & the Bizantines===<br />The "Neo-Latin" states in North Africa are called so as they are ''post-Roman''. They were no longer under Roman Empire authority, and Byzantine rule in Africa was collapsing. Their culture was a special form of Latin mixed with the local Berber language and the Christian religion.<br />
The Christians living there initially followed a Christian sect previously mentioned known as Donatism. By the 6th century they only existed within communities of Berber Christians. The Christian kings of the Romano-Berber states left "Djeddars".<br />
The Byzantines had never managed to conquer land far from Carthage, leaving these states alone for much of their development. The African Church was in decline. The Byzantine invasions had not given it any more of a base it had during the Vandal rule. The church was ridden with those who had failed their duties and those involved in fruitless and petty theological debates. Pope [[Gregory the Great]] attempted to send priests to Africa to help deal with this issue. The priest Hilarus became a papal legate and had authority over African Bishops, he reminded them of their duty and instructed them. He had managed to help restore peace, unity and discipline among the African Church.<br />[[Justinian]] also helped strengthen the Romano-Berber's Christian elements by establishing Christian centers such as the one in [[Abyla|Septem]] (actual [[Ceuta]]).<br />
===Arab invasion===<br />
The Arabs, who had conquered [[Egypt]], made their way into [[Byzantine]] Africa. In 647 AD the Caliph Othman gave orders for a direct attack on Berber Africa, and an army that had gained a victory at Sbeitla against Byzantine and Christian Berber armies, withdrew on payment of a large ransom. Some years of respite ensued. <br />
The African Church showed its firm attachment to orthodoxy by remaining loyal to Pope[[ Martin I]] (649-655 AD) in his conflict with the Emperor of Byzantium. The last forty years of the seventh century witnessed the gradual fall of the fragments of Byzantine Africa into the hands of the [[Arabs]]. <br />
The Berber, or native tribes, which before this had seemed to accept full conversion to the [[Gospel]], passed in a short time, and without resistance, to [[Islam]]. Carthage was taken by the Arabs in 695 AD after an [[Battle of Carthage (698)|historically decisive battle]]. Two years later it was re-entered by the Byzantine Patrician John, but only for a brief period; in 698 AD Hassan once more took possession of the capital of Northern Africa, destroying totally the city. He killed half the inhabitants and enslaved the other half, erasing forever in this way the main center of Greco-Roman presence and influence in the Maghreb.<br />
==Fate of indigenous Christianity after the Arab conquest ==<br />
The conventional historical view is that the conquest of North Africa by the Islamic Umayyad Caliphate between AD 647–709 effectively ended Christianity in Africa for several centuries.http://www.bethel.edu/~letnie/AfricanChristianity/WesternNorthAfricaHomepage.html <br />
The prevailing view is that the Church at that time lacked the backbone of a [[Monasticism|monastic tradition]] and was still suffering from the aftermath of heresies including the so-called [[Donatist]] heresy, and that this contributed to the early obliteration of the Church in the present day Maghreb.The Disappearance of Christianity from North Africa in the Wake of the Rise of Islam<br />C. J. Speel, II<br />Church History, Vol. 29, No. 4 (December , 1960), pp. 379-397 Some historians contrast this with the strong monastic tradition in Coptic Egypt, which is credited as a factor that allowed the [[Coptic Church]] to remain the majority faith in that country until around after the 14th century despite numerous persecutions.<br />
However, new scholarship has appeared that disputes this. There are reports that Christianity persisted in the region from [[Tripolitania]] (present-day western Libya) to present-day Morocco for several centuries after the completion of the Arab conquest by 700 AD. A Christian community is recorded in 1114 AD in Qal'a in central [[Algeria]]. There is also evidence of religious pilgrimages after 850 AD to tombs of Christian saints outside of the city of Carthage, and evidence of religious contacts with Christians of Arab [[Spain]]. In addition, calendrical reforms adopted in Europe at this time were disseminated amongst the indigenous Christians of Tunis, which would have not been possible had there been an absence of contact with Rome.<br />
Local Catholicism came under pressure when the Muslim fundamentalist regimes of the [[Almohad dynasty|Almohads]] and [[Almoravid dynasty|Almoravids]] came into power, and the record shows persecutions and demands made that the local Christians of Tunis to convert to Islam. We still have reports of Christian inhabitants and a bishop in the city of [[Kairouan]] around 1150 AD – a significant report, since this city was founded by [[Arab Muslims]] around 680 AD as their administrative center after their conquest. A letter from the 14th century shows that there were still four bishoprics left in North Africa, admittedly a sharp decline from the over four hundred bishoprics in existence at the time of the Arab conquest.http://www.orthodoxengland.org.uk/maghreb.htm Berber Christians continued to live in Tunis and Nefzaoua in the south of Tunisia until the early 15th century, and ''"[i]n the first quarter of the fifteenth century, we even read that the native Christians of Tunis, though much assimilated, extended their church, perhaps because the last of the persecuted Christians from all over the Maghreb had gathered there."''http://www.orthodoxengland.org.uk, citing Mohamed Talbi, "Le Christianisme maghrébin", in M. Gervers & R. Bikhazi, ''Indigenous Christian Communities in Islamic Lands''; Toronto, 1990; pp. 344-345.<br />
By 1830, when the French came as conquerors to [[Algeria]] and [[Tunis]], local Christianity had been extinguished. The growth of Christianity in the region after the French conquest was initially built on European settlers, and these immigrants and their descendants mostly left when the countries of the region became independent. However actually (2012) there it is a revival of Christianity between Berbers (mainly in the [[Algeria|Algerian Kabylie]]).<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />*Will Durant, ''The History of Civilization: Part IV—The Age of Faith''. 1950. New York: Simon and Schuster.<br />*Edward Gibbon, ''History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', <a href="http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/gibbon/edward/g43d/chapter51.html" target="_blank" title="http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/gibbon/edward/g43d/chapter51.html">http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/g...</a> Chapter 51.]<br />*Yves Modéran: "Kusayla, l'Afrique et les Arabes." In ''Identités et Cultures dans l'Algérie Antique'', University of Rouen, 2005 (ISBN 2-87775-391-3).<br />* Mommsen, Theodore. ''The Provinces of the Roman Empire''. Barnes & Noble editors. New York, 2008<br />* {{cite book | last=Pringle | first=Denys | title=The Defence of Byzantine Africa from Justinian to the Arab Conquest: An Account of the Military History and Archaeology of the African Provinces in the Sixth and Seventh Century | location=Oxford, United Kingdom | publisher=British Archaeological Reports | year=1981 | isbn=0-86054-119-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4DIjAQAAIAAJ}}<br />
[[Category:African Christians]]<br />
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<a href="http://www.ivgenealogia.org.ve/index_archivos/trabajos_pag1/fco_graterol.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.ivgenealogia.org.ve/index_archivos/trabajos_pag1/fco_graterol.pdf">http://www.ivgenealogia.org.ve/index_arc...</a> Biografia originale del veneziano Francisco de Graterol<br />
<a href="http://www.mcnbiografias.com/app-bio/do/show?key=graterolo-francisco" target="_blank" title="http://www.mcnbiografias.com/app-bio/do/show?key=graterolo-francisco">http://www.mcnbiografias.com/app-bio/do/...</a> "GraterolO Francesco" (viene citato cambio nome )<br />
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<a href="http://cumbotoaragua.blogspot.com/2011/11/un-gran-amigo-de-araira.html#comment-form" target="_blank" title="http://cumbotoaragua.blogspot.com/2011/11/un-gran-amigo-de-araira.html#comment-form">http://cumbotoaragua.blogspot.com/2011/1...</a> Biografia de italiano de Araira (ex-colonia bolivar)<br />
<a href="http://santuariodelasmercedes.org/06especialint/esp_12/032espint.html" target="_blank" title="http://santuariodelasmercedes.org/06especialint/esp_12/032espint.html">http://santuariodelasmercedes.org/06espe...</a> Araira (Ottimo, con foto)<br />
====================================================================<br />COLONIA BOLIVAR (ARAIRA)<br />
[[Archivo:Fundadores de Araira.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Placa conmemorativa con los nombres de los fundadores italianos de la "Colonia Bolivar" en Araira ([[Estado Miranda]]).]]<br />
La '''Colonia Bolivar''' en [[Araira]] fue una colonia de immigrantes europeos (inicialmente franceses y luego en su mayoría [[Italo venezolanos|italianos]]), fundada en 1874 en el [[estado Miranda]] de [[Venezuela]].<br />
==Historia==<br />
La colonización europea -en forma programada- empieza en Venezuela inmediatamente despues de las guerras de independencia, que habían depopulado enormemente la nación suramericana.<br />
En 1841 el general [[Carlo Castelli|Castelli]] viajó a [[Italia]] y trató de hacer llegar a Venezuela un barco con unos 300 italianos, que desafortunadamente se hundió en el [[Mediterráneo]] apenas salido del puerto de [[Livorno]] (Toscana). En 1843 [[Agustín Codazzi]] trajo a [[La Guaira]] unos 389 inmigrantes alemanes, de los cuales 239 eran hombres y 150 mujeres, con el fin de construir y organizar el asentamiento de la recién creada [[Colonia Tovar]] ( en [[Aragua (estado)|Aragua]]), nombrada así en honor a los Tovar Ponte. <br />
En [[1874]] el presidente [[Antonio Guzmán Blanco]] fundó tras ''colonias'' ("Bolivar", "Guzman Blanco" y "Libertador") en Venezuela y compró una extensa porción de las 2300 hectáreas de lo que era la antigua "Hacienda Araira" con la finalidad de crear una colonia agrícola (de nombre "Bolívar") con inmigrantes franceses al este de [[Caracas]]. <br />
El 15 de enero de 1874 el Gobierno del General Antonio Guzmán Blanco promulga un Decreto promoviendo la “Inmigración”, especialmente de personas aptas para la agricultura, las artes y el servicio doméstico. Para coordinar todo el proceso se creó la "Dirección General de Inmigración" (1874) con sede en Caracas y dependiente del Ministerio de Fomento. Con ese contingente humano se quizo fomentar y organizar el establecimiento de "Colonias agrícolas" en la República, con un beneficio importante para Venezuela, como lo fue el posible desarrollo de tierras con vocación agrícola hasta entonces baldías. <a href="https://tucuy.wordpress.com/2012/03/27/guatopo-en-la-historia/" target="_blank" title="https://tucuy.wordpress.com/2012/03/27/guatopo-en-la-historia/">https://tucuy.wordpress.com/2012/03/27/g...</a> Guzman Blanco y la fundacion de colonias]<br />
El 21 de septiembre de ese año, mediante decreto, creó la ''Colonia Bolívar''. Los primeros en asentarse en el lugar fueron quince familias francesas: los Clement, los Olivier, los Penau, entre otros. No todos permanecieron mucho tiempo en el lugar. Segun autoridades venezolanas estos franceses no eran agricultores y no se acostumbraron a la vida de campo en un lugar tropical, aunque localizado en la [[Cordillera de la Costa (Venezuela)|Cordillera de la Costa]] a casi 400 metros de altura: fue un fracaso, por lo que se decidió hacer llegar sucesivamente un barco de italianos para repoblar la colonia.<br />
Tres años más tarde, el [[17 de febrero]] de [[1877]] llegaba al puerto de La Guaira el barco ''Il Veloce'' con sesenta y cuatro familias de origen italiano, específicamente de la provincia de [[Belluno]] en el norte de Italia. Esas familias se asentaron con suceso en el entonces llamado ''Distrito colonial Bolivar'', refundando la despoblada "Colonia Bolívar". En efecto cuando en 1882, los ultimos colonos franceses dejaron definitivamente la colonia, el entonces gobernador de la Colonia, José Mara González, hizo gestión ante los italianos adjudicados a las cercanas haciendas de El Rincón, El Ingenio, Santa Cruz y La Siria de [[Guatire]], a fin de que se ubicaran en la colonia. El Gobierno nacional entonces, asignó oficialmente cada parcela a estas familias italianas.<br />
Entre ellos estaban: los Begnosi, Bertorelli, Blondi, Brignole, Daló, Dal Magro, De Lion, Fanti, Fregona, Livinalli, Melcior (Melchor), Pittol <a href="http://araira.com/portal/index.php/historia-y-tradiciones/3-tradiciones/120-historia-de-mi-abuelo-materno-victor-giacomo-pittol-zanella-1868-1922" target="_blank" title="http://araira.com/portal/index.php/historia-y-tradiciones/3-tradiciones/120-historia-de-mi-abuelo-materno-victor-giacomo-pittol-zanella-1868-1922">http://araira.com/portal/index.php/histo...</a> Vida y emigración de Vittorio Giacomo Pittol], Pellin, Possamai, Sandon, Sponga, Sumabila, Zanella, Zanin, entre otros. <br />
Cincuenta y tres (53) de las 64 familias permanecieron en la “Colonia Bolívar” durante toda su vida y algunos de sus descendientes permanecen aun en el sitio que les fue adjudicado a sus antepasados por haber sido pagado de acuerdo a lo estipulado en el contrato concordante con el "Decreto del 14 de enero de 1874", por lo cual vinieron a Venezuela.<br />
Para 1897, de acuerdo con un registro del "Ministerio de Fomento" en Caracas, la "Colonia Bolívar" ya era mixta con una población de 523 venezolanos (la mayoría hijos de los primeros colonos italianos), 143 italianos, 10 franceses y 8 alemanes. Contaba con 73 parcelas, 302 hectáreas cultivadas y 372 sin cultivar.<br />
El Gobierno nacional sucesivamente fundó oficialmente el pueblo de [[Araira]] en 1900. En ese mismo año fue cancelada la "Colonia Bolivar", quedando substituída por el ''Municipio de Araira''.<br />
{{Quote|''PARA 1912 LOS INMIGRANTES Y SUS DESCENDIENTES O FAMILIARES ESTABLECIDOS EN ARAIRA ERAN:<br />''1)Pueblo de Araira: Eugenio Beñosi (italiano), Ricardo Possamai (italiano), María Possamai (italiana, tenía tren de rayar yuca para almidón), Antonio Troján (venezolano), Juana Mares de Troján (italiana), María Loire de Pastry (francesa, plantación de café), Desiderio Fanti (italiano, tren de rayar yuca para almidón), María Moró de Delión (italiana, tren de rayar yuca para almidón, molino de maíz y siembra de café), Víctor Pitol (italiano, oficina para beneficiar yuca para almidón), Maximiliano Pitol (italiano, oficina para beneficiar yuca para almidón y potrero), Antonio Daló (italiano, siembra de café y potrero), Luis Fulda (alemán, siembra de café), Antonio y Carlos Fulda (venezolanos, en la posesión de su padre), Francisco Bristot (italiano, siembra de café), Mariana Demín de Beñosi (italiana), Pedro Porto (italiano, comerciante de víveres), Luis Delión (italiano, comerciante de víveres) y Luis Porto B. (venezolano, comerciante), y 38 familias venezolanas.2)Quebrada de Ceniza: Ángel Reveane (italiano, comerciante, potrero y siembras), Antonio Kiley (inglés, carpintero) y Pedro Jaspe (venezolano, en los terrenos que fueron de su tía la inmigrante francesa María Olivier de Jaspe), José Ruiz (español, siembra de cacao) y 16 familias venezolanas.3)Río Araira: Juan Stiz (italiano, siembras de conuco), José Gerardi (italiano, siembra de café), Magdalena Sandón de Zanella (italiana, siembra de conuco), Ángel Stiz (italiano, siembra de conuco), y 15 familias venezolanas.4)Santa Rosalía: No vivían familias de los inmigrantes sino 9 familias de origen venezolano.5)Quebrada Canela: Pedro Dalmagro (italiano, tren de rayar yuca para almidón, potrero y conuco), Francisco Melchor (Marchioro) (venezolano, conuco, siembra de café y potrero), Federico Salazar (español, café y conuco), y 8 familias venezolanas.6)El Bautismo: No vivían familias de los inmigrantes sino 17 familias venezolanas con siembras de café y conucos.7)San Rafael: Luis Zanella (italiano, siembra de café).'' Dra. Angelina Citty Pittol}}<br />
En 1912 se contaban unos 800 habitantes en Araira, que habian desarrollado una pujante agricultura local basada especialmente sobre la produccion de mandarinas. En 2014 Araira es la capital de la Parroquia Bolivar en el [[Municipio Zamora (Miranda)|Municipio Zamora]], a unos 40 kms al este del area metropolitana de Caracas.<br />
==Gobernadores de la "Colonia Bolivar"==<br />
En la colonia hubo 13 gobernadores entre 1874 y 1900, durante los 26 años de su existencia:<br />
*General Félix María Domínguez (1874-1875)<br />*General Luis Charboné (1875-1876)<br />*Pedro Porto (1876-1879)<br />*General José María González (1879-1885)<br />*Coronel Federico Pacheco Jurado (1885-1886)<br />*Heriberto Paúl (1886-1888)<br />*Víctor M. Bigott (1888-1891)<br />*LaO Borges (1891)<br />*José María González (1891-1894)<br />*Guillermo Tell Carranza (1894-1895)<br />*Máximo Tirado (1895-1896)<br />*Natividad Rojas (1896-1899)<br />*J. P. Borges Requena (1899-1900)<br />
==Notas==<br />
== Bibliografía ==<br />* Jean-J. Dauxion Lavaysse. ''A statistical, commercial, and political description of Venezuela, Trinidad, Margarita, and Tobago: containing various anecdotes and observations, illustrative of the past and present state of these interesting countries''. Publisher G. and W.B. Whittaker, 1820 (Original from Harvard University: <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=u0QUAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.com/books?id=u0QUAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false">http://books.google.com/books?id=u0QUAAA...</a> Texto entero en inglés])<br />* Santander Laya-Garrido, Alfonso. ''Los Italianos forjadores de la nacionalidad y del desarrollo económico en Venezuela''. Editorial Vadell. Valencia, 1978.<br />* Vannini, Marisa. ''Italia y los Italianos en la Historia y en la Cultura de Venezuela''. Oficina Central de Información. Caracas, 1966<br />
==Vease tambien==<br />*[[Colonia Tovar]]<br />*[[Italo venezolanos]]<br />
==Enlaces externos==<br />* <a href="http://araira.com/portal/index.php/historia-y-tradiciones/1-historia/101-fundacion-e-historia-de-la-colonia-bolivar" target="_blank" title="http://araira.com/portal/index.php/historia-y-tradiciones/1-historia/101-fundacion-e-historia-de-la-colonia-bolivar">http://araira.com/portal/index.php/histo...</a> Historia de la Colonia Bolívar en Araria]<br />
[[Categoría:Historia de Venezuela]]<br />[[Categoría:Inmigración en Venezuela]]<br />
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<a href="http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/2307/3174/1/Memorie%20della%20Somalia.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/2307/3174/1/Memorie%20della%20Somalia.pdf">http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/...</a> Memoria di Somalia 1970 (OTTIMO DIARIO)<br />
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<a href="http://www.giuliocesaro.it/pdf/storici/004%20L'Impero%20degli%20Italiani%20-%20Il%20Libro%20della%20V%20Classe%20Elementare%201940" target="_blank" title="http://www.giuliocesaro.it/pdf/storici/004%20L'Impero%20degli%20Italiani%20-%20Il%20Libro%20della%20V%20Classe%20Elementare%201940">http://www.giuliocesaro.it/pdf/storici/0...</a>(pdf).pdf L'impero degli italiani -OTTIMO!- scritto nel 1940<br />
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<a href="http://oaktrust.library.tamu.edu/bitstream/handle/1969.1/156301/DIMUCCI-THESIS-2015.pdf?sequence=1" target="_blank" title="http://oaktrust.library.tamu.edu/bitstream/handle/1969.1/156301/DIMUCCI-THESIS-2015.pdf?sequence=1">http://oaktrust.library.tamu.edu/bitstre...</a> Romans in India/Ceylon (ottima tesi per Researchomnia!)<br />
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<a href="http://images.delcampe.com/img_large/auction/000/233/911/395_001.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://images.delcampe.com/img_large/auction/000/233/911/395_001.jpg">http://images.delcampe.com/img_large/auc...</a> Foto del palazzo Governatore ad Asmara italiana<br />
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<a href="http://www.longobardidelsud.beniculturali.it/home.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.longobardidelsud.beniculturali.it/home.htm">http://www.longobardidelsud.benicultural...</a> OTTIMO su SALERNO MEDIEVALE!!!!!!<br />
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<a href="http://www.linkiesta.it/it/blog-post/2011/05/01/croati-pigliatutto/246" target="_blank" title="http://www.linkiesta.it/it/blog-post/2011/05/01/croati-pigliatutto/246">http://www.linkiesta.it/it/blog-post/201...</a> "Croati pigliatutto", di Giacomo Scotti (per ilmioweblogaromuno)<br />
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<a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lKVzCQAAQBAJ&dq=romance+population+in+balkans&source=gbs_navlinks_s" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=lKVzCQAAQBAJ&dq=romance+population+in+balkans&source=gbs_navlinks_s">https://books.google.com/books?id=lKVzCQ...</a> OTTIMO LIBRO DI TRAJAN STOIANIOVICH, un accademico Serbo statunitense che ha scritto sui VLACHS nei Balcani<br />
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<a href="http://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=3&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwja65zX-JrLAhWCcz4KHTiGCU4QFggnMAI&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cddelbocafekini.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2012%2F10%2F00-ISDR03-Completo.pdf&usg=AFQjCNHSYE1VkP-IMcxBIdotbuhSeW3NfA" target="_blank" title="http://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=3&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwja65zX-JrLAhWCcz4KHTiGCU4QFggnMAI&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cddelbocafekini.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2012%2F10%2F00-ISDR03-Completo.pdf&usg=AFQjCNHSYE1VkP-IMcxBIdotbuhSeW3NfA">http://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j&...</a> Olga Corsini in AOI guerriglia e inoltre brano su generale italiano nella disfatta in libia 1940<br />
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<a href="https://diacronie.revues.org/272" target="_blank" title="https://diacronie.revues.org/272">https://diacronie.revues.org/272</a> La Somalia coloniale: una storia ai margini della memoria italiana<br />
===============================================================<br />ASMARA CIRCUIT<br />
[[File:Circuito Asmara 1950.JPG|thumb|right|500px|The ''Circuito Asmara'' was started in 1938. Photo of the 1950 car race, in the "III Circuito Asmara"]]<br />'''Asmara circuit''' (in Italian called ''Circuito Asmara'' and in English sometimes "Circuit of Asmara") was a car race done in the main streets of [[Asmara, Eritrea|Asmara]], when was a colony of the [[Kingdom of Italy]]. The Circuito was created in 1938 [[Italian Eritrea]] and was later done -with many interruptions- until 1972.<br />
==History==<br />
The Italian government after [[WWI]] gave importance to sport activities in the [[Italian Empire|Italian colonies]]. One of the most followed were those related to car races. Indeed, in Italian Libya was created the famous "[[Tripoli Grand Prix|Gran Premio di Tripoli]]", one of the most important in the world during the late 1930s, but even minor car races were done in the other Italian colonies, like the one in Asmara.<br />
{{Quote|'' (The Italians in Asmara) organised an automobile club and started running competitions, one of the first of which was the 26 Kms Nefasit to Asmara Hillclimb for the "Coppa del Governatore dell’Eritrea" on 23 May 1937. I am sure that there was more competition but the next major event was held on Christmas Day 1938 which attracted two Alfa Romeos from Italy as well as lots of locals. There were two races for cars up to, and over, 1.5 litres. The former was won by a 4CS Maserati, whilst Romano’s Alfa Romeo 8C2300 Monza won the main event. There were no fewer than fourteen 6C1750 Alfa entered in the race for larger capacity cars so it is not surprising that an Alfa Romeo agency was opened in Asmara.'' Simon Moore}}<br />
So, in Italian Asmara (capital of Eritrea), was done in 1938 the "Primo Circuito di Asmara". <a href="https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/564x/a3/f4/85/a3f485e658db90f674476d55110aac4e.jpg" target="_blank" title="https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/564x/a3/f4/85/a3f485e658db90f674476d55110aac4e.jpg">https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/564...</a> Photo of the 1938 "start", in front of the Asmara Opera House] It was won by an "[[Alfa Romeo]] 8C 2300 Monza" driven by Emilio Romano on the Christmas race called ''Coppa di Natale''. <a href="http://sgrallying.blogspot.com/2014/06/1936-alfa-romeo-8c.html" target="_blank" title="http://sgrallying.blogspot.com/2014/06/1936-alfa-romeo-8c.html">http://sgrallying.blogspot.com/2014/06/1...</a> Alfa Romeo in Asmara (in French)] Before there has been a race for smaller cars with less the 1500cc, that was won by a 4CS Maserati and was called ''Coppa Governatore''. In the main race there were 14 Alfa Romeo 1750 <a href="http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/Immagini2/0335.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/Immagini2/0335.jpg">http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/Immagini2/0...</a> Photo of one of the Alfa Romeo 1750] and was enthusiastically followed by many thousands of Italians and Eritreans <a href="http://www.artcurial.com/en/departments/classic_and_racing_cars/alfa-romeo-8c.asp" target="_blank" title="http://www.artcurial.com/en/departments/classic_and_racing_cars/alfa-romeo-8c.asp">http://www.artcurial.com/en/departments/...</a> Simon Moore on the "1936 Alfa 8C"]<br />[[File:Alfa Romeo Bimotore 1936.jpg|thumb|right|300px|An Alfa Romeo 8C 2300, like the one that won the 1938 Asmara circuit]]<br />The "Primo Circuito di Asmara" was made of two car races, the first being the most important:<br />
* "Coppa di Natale": 1. Emilio Romano (Alfa Romeo 2.8L) (108,810 km - 67,613 mi); 2. Antonio D'Agata (Maserati 2.6L)<br />* "Coppa del Governatore": 1. Ferdinando Gay (Maserati 1100) in 51’26"2 (72,540 km - 45,075 mi), at 84,891 km/h - 52,750 mph; 2. Cristoforo Bigi (Fiat 508) in 53’22"4<br />
The race was done on the streets of Italian Asmara, with the start in front of the [[Asmara's Opera|Asmara Opera]]: it was long nearly 2865 meters on each side of the "Viale Milano" and "Viale Roma" (now called "Sematat avenue") and lasted 40 laps (in Italian called "Giri") for a total of 108 km <a href="http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/Immagini2/0401.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/Immagini2/0401.jpg">http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/Immagini2/0...</a> The 1952 Circuito di Asmara, with a map]<br />
==Other years==<br />
The second "Circuito Asmara" was to be done on December 1939, but the beginning of [[WWII]] blocked it. Only in 1948 was done the second and was won by Salvatore Ettori on Maserati, even if was done with reduced participation of cars. <a href="http://www.gdecarli.it/php/circuit.php?var1=189&var2=2" target="_blank" title="http://www.gdecarli.it/php/circuit.php?var1=189&var2=2">http://www.gdecarli.it/php/circuit.php?v...</a> De Carli: Asmara circuits]<br />
After the end of the war the circuit was also done in 1950, 1951 and 1952, but was only for local people. The fifth done in 1952 was followed by huge crowds. <a href="http://motorsportinangola.blogspot.com/2010/02/eritrea-asmara-street-circuit-1952.html" target="_blank" title="http://motorsportinangola.blogspot.com/2010/02/eritrea-asmara-street-circuit-1952.html">http://motorsportinangola.blogspot.com/2...</a> Photos of the 1952 Asmara Circuit] Later it was done with some interruptions until 1969, with the "Coppa SM Haile Selassie". <a href="http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/Immagini1/546.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/Immagini1/546.jpg">http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/Immagini1/5...</a> 1969 Circuito] The last that was done in 1972 <a href="http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/Immagini1/553.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/Immagini1/553.jpg">http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/Immagini1/5...</a> 1972 race](when was called "Gran Premio Automobilistico Expo'72" <a href="http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/Immagini1/558.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/Immagini1/558.jpg">http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/Immagini1/5...</a> Award personally given by Ethiopia emperor]) with the presence of emperor [[Haile Selassie]] <a href="http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/cassetto10-3.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/cassetto10-3.htm">http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/cassetto10-...</a> Chichingiolo: Asmara corse (in Italian)]<br />
With the start of the [[Eritrean Civil Wars]] related to the struggle for the independence of Eritrea from Ethiopia all the car races were stopped in Asmara. But in the 2010s the car races are again done in Asmara, even if with "local cars". <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i9mbtqdY-Gk&ebc=ANyPxKoZ_wgEY7y5GApJYJqXPD8vN2v0v79iQ_LrxSBjrfoYiyEoHv3PzFwaOBd8iDJG8AjNCoOkGOc10-yK53m-eMh21AezSw" target="_blank" title="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i9mbtqdY-Gk&ebc=ANyPxKoZ_wgEY7y5GApJYJqXPD8vN2v0v79iQ_LrxSBjrfoYiyEoHv3PzFwaOBd8iDJG8AjNCoOkGOc10-yK53m-eMh21AezSw">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i9mbtqdY...</a> Video of 2014 local race cars in Asmara]<br />
==See also==<br />* [[Tripoli Grand Prix]]<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Antonicelli, Franco. ''Trent'anni di storia italiana 1915 - 1945''. Mondadori Editore. Torinop, 1961<br />* Di Meglio, Rita. ''Gli Italiani in Eritrea''. Italian Embassy in Eritrea. Asmara, 2004.<br />* Pool, David. (2001-12-01). ''From Guerrillas to Government: The Eritrean People's Liberation Front''. Ohio University Press. ISBN 0-8214-1387-2<br />
{{Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)}}<br />
[[Category:Italian Eritrea]]<br />
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<a href="http://www.msn.com/en-us/travel/news/this-102-year-old-ship-is-about-to-become-one-of-the-worlds-quirkiest-hotels/ar-BBpxa8g?ocid=spartandhp" target="_blank" title="http://www.msn.com/en-us/travel/news/this-102-year-old-ship-is-about-to-become-one-of-the-worlds-quirkiest-hotels/ar-BBpxa8g?ocid=spartandhp">http://www.msn.com/en-us/travel/news/thi...</a> La mia "Franca C", foto e articolo sul fatto che ancora esiste dopo cent'anni di uso<br />
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<a href="http://ilgiornaleoff.ilgiornale.it/2016/02/17/94242/" target="_blank" title="http://ilgiornaleoff.ilgiornale.it/2016/02/17/94242/">http://ilgiornaleoff.ilgiornale.it/2016/...</a> Articolo sui profughi da Fiume<br />
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ITALIAN INVASION OF FRENCH SOMALIA<br />
[[File:Ali-Sabieh, c. 1940.jpg|thumb|right|300px|French military post at Ali-Sabieh, where happened heavy fightings in June & July 1940]]<br />The '''Italian invasion of French Somalia''' is a tentative of occupation of [[French Somaliland]], that happened in the first two months after Italy's declaration of war in [[WWII]] against the [[Allies]]. It resulted in a temporary occupation of the border western areas of the French Somaliland, until the British conquest of all [[Italian East Africa|Africa Orientale Italiana]] in early 1941.<br />
==Background==<br />
Since late 1937 [[Mussolini]] had requested from [[France]] the possession of French Somaliland (then called ''Cote Francaise des Somalis'', or CFS), together with [[Tunisia]] in Africa. In January 1938 an Italian force moved down onto the plain of [[Hanlé]] (in the south of the [[Danakil Desert]] of [[Djibouti]]) inside the French territory and encamped there.<br />[[File:Camillo Bechis alla testa delle truppe cammellate.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Dubat camel troops of colonel Camillo Bechis]]<br />
A detachment of "Italian Méharistes" (camel corps of the Italian [[Dubats]]) subsequently crossed the unmarked border between [[Italian East Africa]] and the French Somali Coast and travelled more than 40 kilometers into French territory until the proximity of [[Gorabous|Galamo]]. Under the orders of Colonel Camillo Bechis, they mainly served as "light infantry" and developed a reputation as effective fighters.Philip S. Jowett, Stephen Andrew, ''The Italian Army 1940-45: Africa 1940-43'', Volume 2, (Osprey Publishing: 2001), p.7.<br />
Italian Dubats in the late 1930s were concentrated along the [[British Somaliland]] and French Somaliland, [[Ethiopia]]n and [[East Africa Protectorate]] frontiers, while Camel mounted detachments (''Recul'') were also employed for patrol work in the Ogaden region and in the Ethiopian area bordering Djibouti. Italy claimed that this territory occupied by the camel troops was on the [[Ethiopia]]n side of the border, as per the Franco-Ethiopian treaty of 1897.{{sfn|Thompson|Adloff|1968|p=14}}<br />
On 30 November, after anti-French protests in Rome, the Italian foreign minister, [[Galeazzo Ciano]], demanded the cession of French Somaliland to Italy. On 18 December there was a counter-protest in Djibouti: the Italians, however, created a group of small fortifications (Abba, [[Dagguirou]], Gouma, etc.) inside the western border of French Somalia, claiming at the end of 1939 that the territory was inside their colonial area.{{sfn|Imbert-Vier|2008|p=171|ps=: map titled "Postes français et italiens fin 1939".}} At the start of 1940 Italians still occupied most of these small border forts.<br />
==The 1940 invasion==<br />[[File:GeneraleGuglielmo Nasi.jpg|thumb|right|100px|General Gugielmo Nasi]]<br />In June 1940 and until September 1940 the Italians did a series of attacks in Africa: one was in the "Cote Francaise des Somalis" <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbRjAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA42&dq=italian+invasion+of+french+somaliland&source=gbs_selected_pages&cad=2#v=onepage&q=italian%20invasion%20of%20french%20somaliland&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbRjAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA42&dq=italian+invasion+of+french+somaliland&source=gbs_selected_pages&cad=2#v=onepage&q=italian%20invasion%20of%20french%20somaliland&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbRjAw...</a> Map showing the 1940 Italian attacks in Africa]<br />[[File:General Le Gentilhomme Djibouti.jpg|thumb|left|200px|French general Legentilhomme in Djibouti]]<br />
In June 1940 the French commander in Djibouti, Brigadier-General [[Paul Legentilhomme]], had nearly 9,000 men in seven battalions of Senegalese and Somali infantry. Legentilhomme also had three batteries of field guns, four batteries of anti-aircraft guns, a company of 16 light [[Renault R35]] tanks, four companies of militia and irregulars, two platoons of camel corps, and an assortment of 18 aircraft. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbRjAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA41&lpg=PA41&dq=italian+invasion+of+french+somaliland&source=bl&ots=UzCS0rCM-i&sig=bKAULDCUrcFmO3TR1WP5TIBfWC4&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi9_NzG0-HKAhUJuRQKHfrtBns4ChDoAQgwMAQ#v=onepage&q=italian%20invasion%20of%20french%20somaliland&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbRjAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA41&lpg=PA41&dq=italian+invasion+of+french+somaliland&source=bl&ots=UzCS0rCM-i&sig=bKAULDCUrcFmO3TR1WP5TIBfWC4&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi9_NzG0-HKAhUJuRQKHfrtBns4ChDoAQgwMAQ#v=onepage&q=italian%20invasion%20of%20french%20somaliland&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbRjAw...</a> Patrick Coutler: Djibouti, p.41]<br />
The Italians had on the eastern border of their [[Italian Ethiopia]] -under the "Commander" General [[Guglielmo Nasi]] and with the support of the ''Regia Aeronautica''- nearly 40,000 soldiersVirginia Thompson: "Djibouti and the Horn of Africa"; p.16: the [[40th Infantry Division Cacciatori d'Africa]] of General Giovanni Varda, the [[65th Infantry Division Granatieri di Savoia]] of general Amedeo Liberati and 6 colonial brigades supported by 4 tank companies (mainly Fiat [[L3/35]] tankettes) and by one Armored Car Company with Fiat 611 "autoblindo" <a href="http://utenti.quipo.it/mc68/Italtank/autoblindo-storia.htm" target="_blank" title="http://utenti.quipo.it/mc68/Italtank/autoblindo-storia.htm">http://utenti.quipo.it/mc68/Italtank/aut...</a> Fiat 611 armored cars]. But only the Italian colonial troops (the brigades were made mainly of [[Eritrean Ascari]]) fought inside the French Somaliland, while the division "Cacciatori D'Africa" only entered southern coastal French Somalia during the [[Italian conquest of British Somaliland| August attack]] on British [[Zeila]].<br />
After Italy's declaration of war on France and Great Britain on June 10, there were in the following week some skirmishing between the French and Italians around the [[Ethio-Djibouti Railways|railroad connecting Addis Abeba to Djibouti]]: the nearby French fort of [[Ali-Sabieh]] was hit by Italian colonial troops {{sfn|Thompson|Adloff|1968|p=16}} <br />
{{Quote|''Italy entered the war in Europe on June 10, Daddato was evacuated by the French on June 17 and reoccupied by the Italians; and skirmishes took place in the Hanle region until "the CFS (Cote Francaise des Somalis) ceased to be a war theater" on July 28....Local armistice negotiations were done from 8 August 1940 in Dewele. The CFS (French Somaliland) was then integrated into the Ethiopian space - the Italians now had important facilities - it was therefore subject to the maritime blockade imposed by the Allies. The evolution of the situation in the interior of the colony was described in a French note on August 1940: "The Italians occupied fighting our fortifications at Daddato and Balambolto, and took a number of those we evacuated: including Daguirou and Agna in Henle, Hadela to the northern point of Lake Abbé, and also Alailou". An internal memo from the Italian government, in April 1940, defined the new border (Ethiopia-French Somalia) on the line: "Adola-Arcadoda-Sudda-M.Diddà-Bolomboltà-Daimoli-Maghul-Daddato".''Simon Imbert-Vier, p. 172}}<br />
The invasion was started from [[Italian Ethiopia]]'s [[Harrar Governorate]], when colonial troops of general Guglielmo Nasi attacked the fort of Ali-Sabieh in the south and Daddato in the north. There were initial skirmishes even in the area of Dagguirou and around the lakes Abhe & Ally.Rovighi, Alberto; p.107<br />
After the first week the Italian aviation started to attack: on 17 June some Italian [[IMAM Ro.37|Meridionali Ro.37bis]] aircraft undertook a reconnaissance of Djibouti, noting five or six warships in the port and about twenty aircraft at a nearby aerodrome.{{sfn|Shores|1996|p=23}} On 21 June eleven [[Caproni Ca.133]]s bombed Djibouti in the largest raid of the colony's brief war. Anti-aircraft fire was intense and two Italian aircraft failed to return, but fires and explosions were seen in Djibouti.{{sfn|Shores|1996|p=26}} Overnight, several waves of [[Savoia-Marchetti SM.81]] bombers attacked the port facilities. On 22 June the Italians suspected the British might try to establish a forward base at Djibouti, and five Ro.37bis, four [[Fiat CR.42|CR.42]] and one [[Fiat CR.32|CR.32]] aircraft hit the airfield there.{{sfn|Shores|1996|p=27}} Some French [[Potez 25|Potez 25 TOE]] reconnaissance aircraft bombed Italian installations at [[Dewele]] in retaliation.{{sfn|Ferry|2005|p=148}}<br />
The invasion was also done inside the "''[[Territorial waters]]''" of French Somaliland in the gulf of [[Tadjoura]]. Since the first week the Italian Navy sent two submarines ("Torricelli" & "Perla") to patrol the waters in front of [[Djibouti city]], Tadjoura and Oblock.Alberto Rovighi, p. 105<br />
The [[Armistice of Villa Incisa]] (previously written on June 24) requested officially on June 25 the ''forced demilitarisation of Gibuti'', according to articles 3, 5 and 9. <a href="http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/somalia_res-e78abff0-87e6-11dc-8e9d-0016357eee51_" target="_blank" title="http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/somalia_res-e78abff0-87e6-11dc-8e9d-0016357eee51_">http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/soma...</a>(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/ Treccani: armistice in Gibuti (in Italian)]<br />
By the end of June the Italians had also occupied the border fortifications of: Magdoul, Daimoli, Alambolto, Birt Eyla, Asmailo, Tewo, Abba, Alailou, Madda and RahaleAlberto Rovighi, p.109<br />
However [[Paul Legentilhomme|Legentilhomme]] (governor of French Somaliand) procrastinated in carrying out the armistice terms, claiming that he had lost contact with the government in France. On 28 June, when the Italians demanded that he fulfill certain clauses, he denied all knowledge of any such clauses.{{sfn|Shores|1996|p=30}}<br />[[File:Cheik-Saïd 1938.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Map showing the new Italian Eritrea-French Somaliland border as per the Laval-Mussolini Accord of January 1935. The coast of French Somalia was reduced south until the Bab-el-Mandeb strait. After WWII, the border was pushed back north, to what it had been before 1935]]<br />
As a consequence between 1 and 10 July several clashes with the Italians took place again on the plain of Hanlé, at Ali-Sabieh and along the railroad.{{sfn|Thompson|Adloff|1968|p=17}} The border area of western French Somalia was occupied by Italian troops, who withdrew from Hanlé in October 1940 and only in March 1941 from Dagguirou.{{sfn|Imbert-Vier|2008|p=}} Since July the Italians occupied nearly 1/5 of French Somaliland, but it was nearly all a semi-desert and depopulated region.<br />
Meanwhile, as a consequence of the problems about Legentilhomme withdrawal, the Italians reinforced their garrisons in Hanlé and Daggirou. Dagguirou remained under Italian control until March 1941, when the British conquered [[Assab]] in southern [[Italian Eritrea]] and the Italian garrison went to defend this last Italian outpost in Eritrea.<br />
During the period of uncertainty in Djibouti, the Italian viceroy of East Africa, [[Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta]], urged an attack on British Somaliland in order to cut off the French colony from British support. [[Benito Mussolini]] approved the campaign on 19 July, but the situation in Djibouti changed rapidly in Italy's favour after that (with the new Vichy government). Nonetheless, in August [[Italy conquered British Somaliland]] in a swift assault, encircling Djibouti: on August 6, units of the Italian Division "Cacciatori d'Africa conquered [[Loyada]] on the southern CFS coast and from there moved south reaching and occupying Zeila -just the next day- in British Somaliland.<br />
With the British attack on "Africa Orientale Italiana" in early 1941, the Italian garrisons inside French Somaliland were withdrawn and the troops returned mainly toward Assab in southern Eritrea.<br />
==Submarine blockade==<br />
Since the first week of war the invasion was supported by the occupation of the "Territorial waters" of French Somaliland, done by the Italian Navy units based in Eritrea.<br />
Indeed the [[Red Sea Flotilla]] was a unit of the [[Regia Marina|Italian Royal Navy]] (''[[Regia Marina|Regia Marina Italia]]'') based in [[Massawa]] and [[Assab]] when Eritrea was part of [[Italian East Africa]]. On June 1940 the submarines of this Italian Navy unit did a submarine blockade of the Djibouti coast.<br />
Several attempts were made after Italy's entry into the war in June 1940 to stage offensive actions from [[Italian Eritrea]] against the British [[Royal Navy]] and Allied convoys in the Horn of Africa: some were made in the Djibouti waters. Indeed, the earliest failed when Italian submarine [[air conditioning]] systems intended to reduce temperatures in the warm water of the Red Sea proved dangerous under wartime operating conditions. Leakage of [[chloromethane]] refrigerants caused [[central nervous system]] poisoning in the recirculating air during submerged operations. Approximately a dozen Italian sailors died aboard ''[[Italian submarine Archimede|Archimede]]''. ''Perla'' and ''Macallè'' ran aground in the Bab-el-Mandeb strait, while their crews were intoxicated; and the latter could not be salvaged.{{cite web|url=http://www.icsm.it/regiamarina/redsea.htm|title=THE MILITARY OPERATIONS OF THE ITALIAN FLEET ON RED SEA JUNE 1940 - APRIL 1941|publisher=Arnaldo Borsa}}<br />
On June 12 the Italian ''82nd Submarine Squadron'' started to patrol the waters off Djibouti. The submarine ''Galilei'' sank the [[Norway|Norwegian]] freighter ''James Stove'' off [[Djibouti]] before British counter measures forced the submarines to depart the area. The submarine ''Torricelli'' and the ''Perla'' blocked all navy traffic to the port of Djibouti, while Italian colonial troops occupied western areas of French Somaliland.<br />
However the Italian [[Brin class submarine]] ''Torricelli'' <a href="http://www.navypedia.org/ships/italy/it_ss_brin.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.navypedia.org/ships/italy/it_ss_brin.htm">http://www.navypedia.org/ships/italy/it_...</a> Brin class submarines, with photo] was spotted on 23 June approaching the [[Bab-el-Mandeb|Bab-el-Mandeb strait]] while returning from Djibouti waters, because of problems with leakage of [[chloromethane]] refrigerants. An intensive search ensued involving four British warships and aircraft from [[Aden]]. The four British ships encircled the Italian submarine, that attacked with its cannon. After a fierce resistance on surface, during which the sloop [[Shoreham-class sloop|HMS ''Shoreham'']] was damaged by return fire, the ''Torricelli'' was sunk in combat. After the engagement, the British destroyer [[HMS Khartoum (F45)|''Khartoum'']] was destroyed by an internal explosion probably initially originated by the Torricelli cannon shots.Giorgio Giorgerini, "Uomini sul fondo. Storia del sommergibilismo italiano dalle origini a oggi", p. 404 The British destroyer sank in shallow water off [[Perim Island]]. As a mark of respect for ''Torricelli'' crew's gallantry, the Italian captain was guest of honour at a dinner at the British naval base.<br />
Meanwhile, the ''Galvani'' sunk the [[India]]n HMIS ''Pathan''{{cite web<br /> | last = Kindell<br /> | first = Don<br /> | authorlink =<br /> | coauthors =<br /> | title = Sunday, 23 June<br /> | work = British and Other Navies in World War 2 Day-by-Day<br /> | publisher =<br /> | date =<br /> | url = <a href="http://www.naval-history.net/xDKWW2-4006-19JUN04.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.naval-history.net/xDKWW2-4006-19JUN04.htm">http://www.naval-history.net/xDKWW2-4006...</a><br /> | doi =<br /> | accessdate = 29 Dec 2008 }} Disputes that ''Pathan'' was sunk by ''Torricelli''. at the same time that her sisters were fighting and was herself sunk on the following day.Jackson, pp.281-283<br />
After July 1940 the Red sea flotilla' submarines -even because of lack of fuel- retreated from operations in the French Somalia waters.<br />
==See also==<br />*[[Italian conquest of British Somaliland]]<br />*[[French Somaliland in World War II]]<br />*[[Italian Eritrea]]<br />*[[Italian Ethiopia]]<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />{{refbegin}}<br />* Coutler, Patrick. ''Regio Esercito: The Italian Royal Army in Mussolini's Wars, 1935-1943''. Publ. "Lulu". New York, 2013 ISBN 1105074013<br />*{{cite book |ref={{harvid|Ferry|2005}}|title=Croix de Lorraine et Croix du Sud, 1940–1942: aviateurs belges et de la France Libre en Afrique |first=Vital |last=Ferry |publisher=Éditions du Gerfaut |year=2005 |isbn=2-914622-92-9}}<br />*Jowett, Phillip & Stephen Andrew. ''The Italian Army 1940-45: Africa 1940-43'' Volume 2. Osprey Publishing. London, 2001<br />*{{cite thesis |ref=harv |first=Simon |last=Imbert-Vier |title=Frontières et limites à Djibouti durant la période coloniale (1884–1977) |type=PhD thesis |institution=[[University of Provence|Université de Provence–Aix-Marseille I]] |year=2008 |url=https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00736163}}<br />*{{cite book |ref={{harvid|Knox|1982}}|title=Mussolini Unleashed, 1939–1941: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War |last=Knox |first=MacGregor |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1982}}<br />* Maugini,Alberto. ''La colonizzazione della Somalia'', in "L'Italia in Africa", a cura della Società geografica italiana. Roma, 1948.<br />* Rovighi, Alberto. ''Le operazioni in Africa orientale'' (Giugno 1940 - Novembre 1941). Volume II Documenti - Stato Maggiore dell'Esercito. Roma, 1995<br />*{{cite book |ref={{harvid|Shores|1996}} |title=Dust Clouds in the Middle East: Air War for East Africa, Iraq, Syria, Iran and Madagascar, 1940–42 |first=Christopher |last=Shores |year=1996 |location=London |publisher=Grub Street}}<br />*{{cite book |ref={{harvid|Thompson|Adloff|1968}}|title=Djibouti and the Horn of Africa |first1=Virginia McLean |first2=Richard |last1=Thompson |last2=Adloff |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1968}}<br />{{refend}}<br />
[[Category:French Somaliland]]<br />[[Category:History of Djibouti]]<br />[[Category:Military history of Italy during World War II]]<br />
======================================================================<br />
HAFUN SALT FACTORY<br />
[[File:Hafun2.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Remaining transport-towers & buildings of The "Hafun Salt Factory", built in the 1930s by the [[Italian Somalians|Italians]]]]<br />'''Hafun Salt Factory''' (called initially ''Saline Dante'' in Italian) was the biggest salt factory in the world during the 1930s. It was created in the area of actual [[Hafun]] (then called "Dante") by the [[Italian Somalians|Italians]] in northern [[Italian Somalia]]. <a href="https://italiacoloniale.wordpress.com/2015/03/03/hafun-la-piu-grande-salina-del-mondo/" target="_blank" title="https://italiacoloniale.wordpress.com/2015/03/03/hafun-la-piu-grande-salina-del-mondo/">https://italiacoloniale.wordpress.com/20...</a> The biggest Salt mine in the world (in Italian)] In 1941 it was destroyed during [[WWII]]'s British conquest of [[Italian East Africa]].<br />
==History==<br />
In 1930, an Italian firm called ''Società Saline e Industrie della Somalia settentrionale Migiurtina'' invested huge capital to exploit salt deposits in Hafun/Dante and Hurdiyo. The "Hafun Salt Factory" was created and was the main producing facility of sea [[salt]] on the world in the 1930s. By 1933-34, the Hafun/Dante salt works were producing more than 200,000 metric tons of salt, most of which was exported to [[India]] & the [[Far East]].{{cite journal|last1=Ahmed|first1=Ahmed Abbas|title=Transformation Towards a Regulated Economy|page=74}} <br />
The industrial facility gave work to 600 Italians and 2000 natives (nearly all the native males in Hafun/Dante), giving a huge boost to the local Somalian economy: Dante grew to more than 5000 inhabitants in 1939. Electrical plants were built in the Dante area for the facility, together with an acqueduct, solving the semi-desert area problems for the first time in its history. The production reached nearly half a million tons per year in the late 1930s and was supposed to increase in the 1940s, but [[WWII]] stopped it.<br />
{{Quote|''Soon after the First World War, the Italians realized that the shallow bay of Hafun, which had a long, low beach along the mainland side, was a perfect place for a large salt works. The "Società Saline e Industrie della Somalia Settentrionale" built on both sides of the peninsula of Ras Hafun (Hafun and Hurdiyo) what would be the largest salt-works in the world. The firm, constituted in Milan in 1922, rebuilt a town for 5,000 inhabitants in what was ancient Hafun and called it with the name "Dante". Construction began in 1922 and was completed by 1929. In 1931, production began at the salt factory and soon the enterprise at Ras Hafun was exporting by sea over three hundred thousand tons of salt a year for industrial use. In 1941, during World War II, the British, who had lost British Somaliland to an Italian attack, sent north into Somalia from Kenya an expeditionary force that captured all of Italian East Africa and in the process destroyed the salt works.''Wikimapia <a href="http://wikimapia.org/3994872/Old-Italian-salt-production-facility" target="_blank" title="http://wikimapia.org/3994872/Old-Italian-salt-production-facility">http://wikimapia.org/3994872/Old-Italian...</a> Facility history & map]}}<br />
The salt was treated with a total of 27.5 km long [[Ropeway conveyor]] of the salt pans: about 14 km were across the lagoon to a station on the opposite bank and then another 16 km were to the Treatment plant at Dante (now called [[Hafun]]).<br />[[File:Hafun3.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Remains of the Treatment plant in the outskirts of Hafun]]<br />
From there the cable car went to be up to 1.5 km into the sea extending loading facilities. The cable car and the ropeway was built around 1925 by the German company "Ernst Heckel". <a href="https://italiacoloniale.files.wordpress.com/2015/03/teleferica_saline-hafun_somalia-italiana1.jpg" target="_blank" title="https://italiacoloniale.files.wordpress.com/2015/03/teleferica_saline-hafun_somalia-italiana1.jpg">https://italiacoloniale.files.wordpress....</a> Photo of the cableway]<br />The British destroyed the salt factory in 1941 during their conquest of [[Italian Somalia]] and since then the productivity has been reduced to a minimal activity until the 1950s, when was totally abandoned. The result was that Hafun in the 1970s was reduced to a small village of nearly 500 native inhabitants surviving mainly on fishing.<br />
However in late 2014, the Udug Ltd. company in conjunction with the US-based Redd Engineering consultancy firm began conducting feasibility studies for the renovation of the salt production plants in Hafun and Hurdiyo. The first phase of the initiative was completed in March 2015, and saw the historic salt works in both towns refurbished following community-wide consultations. "Redd Engineering" official Lowry Redd indicated that the initiative aims to make the Hafun plant again one of the main global suppliers of salt.{{cite news|title=Somalia salt industry revives|url=http://www.garoweonline.com/page/show/post/1948/somalia-salt-industry-revives|agency=Garowe Online}}<br />
==Notes==<br />
==See also==<br />*[[Italian Somalia]]<br />*[[Hafun]]<br />
==External links==<br />* <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RFrHjp9cReU" target="_blank" title="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RFrHjp9cReU">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RFrHjp9c...</a> Migiurtina salt factory video]<br />* <a href="http://s168.photobucket.com/user/Riighaye/media/Hafun1.jpg.html" target="_blank" title="http://s168.photobucket.com/user/Riighaye/media/Hafun1.jpg.html">http://s168.photobucket.com/user/Riighay...</a> Photos of the Hafun/Dante Salt Factory]<br />
{{Somalia italiana (Colonia)}}<br />
[[Category:Italian Somaliland]]<br />
======================================================================<br />COSTANTE FERRARI<br />
{{Ficha de persona<br />|nombre = Costante Ferrari<br />|fecha de nacimiento = 1785<br />|lugar de nacimiento = [[Reggio Emilia]] (Italia)<br />|fecha de fallecimiento = 1851<br />|lugar de fallecimiento = [[Massa Lombarda]]<br />|ocupación = militar, escritor<br />|conocido = patriota italiano (que también luchó con [[Simon Bolívar|Bolívar]])<br />}}<br />
'''Costante Ferrari''' ([[Reggio Emilia]], 1785 - [[Massa Lombarda]], 1851) fue un patriota italiano de las guerras de independencia de [[Italia]], que luchó incluso en [[Venezuela]] y Centroamérica por su independencia. <a href="http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/costante-ferrari_" target="_blank" title="http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/costante-ferrari_">http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/cost...</a>(Dizionario_Biografico)/ Treccani: Costante Ferrari] Es famoso por haber dejado sus memorias, un escrito muy conocido en Italia en el siglo XIX.<br />
==Vida==<br />
Costante Ferrari nació en Reggio Emilia (llamada "Reggio di Modena" en esos años) el 5 de enero de 1785 <a href="http://www.codazzi.mitreum.net/imgs/010501c.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.codazzi.mitreum.net/imgs/010501c.jpg">http://www.codazzi.mitreum.net/imgs/0105...</a> Imagen de Costante Ferrari]. Su padre y su madre eran Francesco y Maddalena Messori, ricos comerciantes de ideas liberales. Desde muy temprana edad mostró una pasión por la confrontación física y por las armas, de modo que -cuando en 1796 los ejércitos franceses al mando del general Augerau entraron en su ciudad natal- se alistó en el "Conde Bolognini" (un batallón de voluntarios) sin el conocimiento de la familia y a sólo doce años de edad (al poco tiempo alcanzó el grado de "Cabo" del batallon).<br />
Entonces -entusiasmado por las ideas liberales e igualitarias propagadas en toda [[Europa]] por el [[Revolución francesa|ejército revolucionario francés]]- entró en el ejército de la [[República Italiana (1802-1805)|República Italiana]], y más tarde en el del [[Reino de Italia (1805-1814)|Reino napoleónico de Italia]]: participó en los sitios de Colberg y Stralsund, en la expedición de [[Nápoles]], y desde 1808 hasta 1813 luchó con honor en [[España]], lo que le valió la condecoración de la "Corona de Hierro" (marzo de 1811) y, unos meses más tarde, el grado de "Teniente" (agosto de 1811).<br />
En 1814 Ferrari fue testigo del colapso del Reino de Italia. Después de negarse a ingresar en el ejército austríaco, optó por luchar por la causa de la independencia nacional italiana bajo el mando de [[Joachim Murat]], rey de Nápoles. Después de la derrota de Murat, se embarcó desde Italia rumbo a países de Europa del Este.<br />[[Archivo:Viajes de Agustín Codazzi.svg|250px|thumb|right|Viajes de Costante Ferrari con Agustín Codazzi (1816-1822)]]<br />
A continuación hizo amistad con [[Agustin Codazzi|Agostino Codazzi]], ex suboficial de la artillería del ejército del Reino de Italia, y -ofreciendo sus servicios militares- viajó con él a través de [[Grecia]], [[Moldavia]], [[Valaquia]], [[Polonia]], [[Prusia]] y [[Dinamarca]] hasta llegar a [[Holanda]]. Luego desde [[Amberes]] fue hacia [[Baltimore]] en los Estados Unidos de America. A partir de ahí, los dos se trasladaron a [[Florida]], donde fueron jefes de un batallón de las fuerzas armadas locales.<br />
Costante Ferrari más tarde participó en las guerras de liberación en el Caribe y Venezuela (en donde se le conoció también en lengua española como "Constante" Ferrari). Participó en la [[Toma de Amelia|Toma de la isla Amelia]], un episodio de las [[Guerras de Independencia Hispanoamericana]], en el cual un grupo de patriotas venezolanos con el apoyo de milicianos norteamericanos y europeos tomaron la [[isla de Amelia]] en la costa de [[Florida]] en junio de [[1817]] y proclamaron la [[República de Florida (1817)|República de Florida]]. Los expedicionarios fueron dirigidos en primera instancia por el general [[Gregor MacGregor]] y posteriormente por el general (corsario) francés [[Luis Aury]] con la participación entre otros de [[Pedro Gual]], [[Luis Brión]], [[Juan Germán Roscio]] y su amigo [[Agustín Codazzi]]. La operación se realizó con la autorización de [[Simón Bolívar]] y tuvo sus causas en el apoyo que otorgaban los [[Estados Unidos]] a los españoles en [[Venezuela]], [[Provincias Unidas de la Nueva Granada|Nueva Granada]] y el [[Mar Caribe|Caribe]]. Agustín Codazzi y Costante Ferrari se unieron inicialmente a la expedición en apoyo a la campaña libertadora de Bolívar en las costas de Venezuela, que organizaba el contraalmirante de la armada venezolana Agustín Gustavo Villeret <a href="http://www.venezuelatuya.com/biografias/agustin_codazzi.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.venezuelatuya.com/biografias/agustin_codazzi.htm">http://www.venezuelatuya.com/biografias/...</a> Venezuela tuya]. Pero por desavenencias de Villeret con el almirante [[Luis Brión]], comandante de la escuadra, en vez de navegar hacia la [[isla de Margarita]], se desviaron hacia la [[isla de Amelia]], frente a las costas de la Florida.<br />
El general Aury lo nombró ''Capitan del batallón europeo'', cuando Costante Ferrari se le unió en la isla de Amelia junto a 250 voluntarios, casi todos ex militares napoleónicos.<br />
{{Quote|''Ahí (en Amelia) nos unimos en numero de 250 a las tropas del general Aury..que dispuso la creación de tres batallones para garantizar el control de la isla, uno de británicos y norteamericanos bajo el mando del colonel Wals, el segundo de "moros" y negros bajo el mando del colonel Molo y el tercero de europeos sucesivamente bajo mi mando....en fecha 8 de febrero de 1818 con Decreto (sucesivo) del general Aury mi amigo Agustin Codazzi fue nombrado "Teniente de artillería" y yo fui promovido a "Capitan de batallon".'' Costante FerrariFerrari."Memorie postume"; p.425}}<br />
De las costas de la Florida Costante Ferrari y su amigo Codazzi pasaron -bajo el mando del general Aury, que recibía orderes directas de Bolivar- a las costas caribeñas de Centroamérica, participando en la guerra de liberación de [[Honduras]] y [[Nicaragua]]. En [[1818]] la [[Capitanía General de Guatemala]], la manera en que estaba organizada la colonia española en [[América Central]], seguía bajo control "realista" y por lo tanto era una plaza fuerte de España contra los intentos emancipadores del poder colonial tanto de [[Norteamérica]] como de [[Suramérica]]. Para asegurar su independencia, la [[Gran Colombia]] de Bolívar lanzó entonces una expedición combinada por tierra y mar en contra de los puertos de [[Omoa]] y [[Trujillo (Honduras)| Trujillo]]. Ferrari se distinguió en esos combates. Aury junto con su flota, entre cuya tripulación se encontraban Codazzi y Ferrari, se dirigió a la [[isla de Providencia]] frente a las costas de [[Nicaragua]], la cual capturó en julio de [[1818]] y donde estableció una base para sus operaciones corsarias por varios años, constituyendo así el primer territorio libre de la [[Provincias Unidas de la Nueva Granada|Nueva Granada]]. Después de este acontecimiento Aury, Codazzi y Ferrari navegaron hasta [[Buenos Aires]] para ponerse al servicio de las [[Provincias Unidas del Río de la Plata]].<br />
En 1822 decidió volver a Italia, siempre con el amigo de confianza Codazzi.<br />
Una vez en Reggio Emilia en diciembre de 1822, con el dinero ahorrado luchando en América del Sur, los dos compraron en Massa Lombarda (en la provincia de [[Ravenna]]), una enorme finca agrícola - ''Villa Serraglio'' - que fue el feudo de la Marquesa Albergati Capacelli de Bolonia. En esos años Ferrari se casó con una muchacha local de apellido Tesla Ferrari."Memorie postume"; p.475<br />
Sin embargo, Costante Ferrari se mantuvo esencialmente un hombre de guerra y acción. Por lo tanto, no mucho después, se embarcó para luchar por Grecia, sublevada contra el Imperio Otomano en busca de su independencia nacional. En Grecia se dio cuenta de que los insurgentes griegos no toleraban la presencia de voluntarios extranjeros de Italia y así decidió -aunque de malas ganas- a volver a su actividad de agricultor. Trabajó en su granja durante seis años, mientras que Codazzi (que había perdido su propiedad) en 1826 prefirió volver a América Latina, donde comenzó su exitosa carrera como cartógrafo y científico militar en Venezuela y [[Colombia]].<br />
En 1831, al estallar la revuelta en el centro de Italia con el inicio del [[Risorgimento]], Costante Ferrari ofreció inmediatamente sus servicios a la causa liberal italiana. En febrero 1831, el "Gobierno provisional de la Comisión de Imola" le nombró comandante en jefe de la ciudad, dándole diez días después el grado de "Colonel". Con la derrota de la insurrección, Ferrari dejó Italia para escapar de la detención y el encarcelamiento y huyó a [[Marsella]]. Al regresar a casa después de la amnistía general de 1833, en octubre del año siguiente se embarcó para América quiriendo abrazar al amigo Codazzi. Sin embargo, la larga separación había enfriado la vieja amistad, por lo que Costante Ferrari volvió tristemente a la finca de Villa Serraglio, que se había convertido enteramente suya.<br />
Siguieron años de inacción inconcluyentes: la finca era demasiado grande para sus recursos: él no era un buen administrador y como agricultor era aún peor.<br />
Por último, en 1848, durante la primera guerra de la independencia de Italia, tomó el mando de un batallón de voluntarios, entre las tropas bajo el mando del general Durando, y luchó en el [[Veneto]], tomando parte en el sitio de [[Vicenza]] al defender la ciudad de los ataques de los austriacos. Después de la capitulación de la ciudad (11 de junio, 1848), Ferrari y sus hombres se concentraron en [[Bolonia]] y estuvieron involucrados en los enfrentamientos que llevaron a la expulsión de los austriacos. <br />
Finalmente regresó al aislamiento en su tranquila Villa Serraglio, en donde escribió sus famosas "Memorie postume". Su último acto político fue en abril de 1849, con su adhesión a la vibrante, pero estéril, protesta contra la [[República Romana (1849)|expedición francesa de Roma]]. Sin embargo no pudo participar en la defensa de la ciudad ya que fue impedido por su edad y por sus muchas dolencias.<br />
Costante Ferrari murió en su residencia de Villa Serraglio en Massa Lombarda el 30 de abril 1851, siendo honrado por muchos patriotas italianos y <a href="http://conciudadanos.com/" target="_blank" title="http://conciudadanos. ">conciudadanos.Com</a>memorazione del cav. colonnello Costante Ferrari fatta a Villa Serraglio il 27 maggio 1894: con note e documento in parte inediti<br />Editore Tip. d'I. Galeati e figlio, 1895 ( <a href="https://books.google.it/books?id=osAsAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA3&lpg=PA3&dq=costante+ferrari+in+venezuela&source=bl&ots=gLsd0Kquuu&sig=S3ghA6kumAPz4M-90lF-dXmGa-k&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiw-ani7PXKAhVGbz4KHY3cB2UQ6AEIKTAD#v=onepage&q=costante%20ferrari%20in%20venezuela&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.it/books?id=osAsAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA3&lpg=PA3&dq=costante+ferrari+in+venezuela&source=bl&ots=gLsd0Kquuu&sig=S3ghA6kumAPz4M-90lF-dXmGa-k&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiw-ani7PXKAhVGbz4KHY3cB2UQ6AEIKTAD#v=onepage&q=costante%20ferrari%20in%20venezuela&f=false">https://books.google.it/books?id=osAsAAA...</a>])<br />
==Notas==<br />
==Bibliografía==<br />
* Cassani Pironti, Fabio. ''Gli italiani in Venezuela dall’Indipendenza al Secondo Dopoguerra''. Ed. Mondadori. Roma, 2004<br />* Ferrari, Constante. ''Memorie postume del Cav. Costante Ferrari, capitano delle Guardie reali del regno italico, tenente-colonnello nelle Americhe e colonnello effettivo in Italia ''. Editore Tip. di F. Cappelli Bologna, 1855 (Harvard University: <a href="https://books.google.it/books?id=B3kqAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA482&lpg=PA482&dq=costante+ferrari+in+venezuela&source=bl&ots=ISIRXKDw5u&sig=GIllJzZp0YATA2_6yQHzrQ4s8Wc&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjr2bPp6vXKAhWCNT4KHbg6BowQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=costante%20ferrari%20in%20venezuela&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.it/books?id=B3kqAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA482&lpg=PA482&dq=costante+ferrari+in+venezuela&source=bl&ots=ISIRXKDw5u&sig=GIllJzZp0YATA2_6yQHzrQ4s8Wc&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjr2bPp6vXKAhWCNT4KHbg6BowQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=costante%20ferrari%20in%20venezuela&f=false">https://books.google.it/books?id=B3kqAAA...</a> Versión original del libro escrito por Costante Ferrari]<br />* Vannini Marisa. ''Memorias Póstumas de Constante Ferrari y Agustin Codazzi''. Banco de la Republica. Caracas, 2000 ( <a href="http://www.banrepcultural.org/blaavirtual/geografia/codazzi-1/acodazzi6a.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.banrepcultural.org/blaavirtual/geografia/codazzi-1/acodazzi6a.htm">http://www.banrepcultural.org/blaavirtua...</a>]) <br />
==Ver también==<br />* [[Agustin Codazzi]]<br />* [[Luis Aury]]<br />* [[Italo venezolanos|Italianos en Venezuela]]<br />
[[Categoría:Historia de Italia]]<br />[[Categoría:Militares de Italia del siglo XIX]]<br />[[Categoría:Militares de la Guerra de Independencia de Venezuela]]<br />
=======================================================================<br />ALBERTO ADRIANI MAZZEI<br />
[[File:Alberto Adriani.jpg|thumb|tight|200px|Alberto Adriani Mazzei]]<br />
'''Alberto Adriani Mazzei''' ([[Zea (Mérida)]], 14/06/1898 - [[Caracas]], 10/08/1936) fue un destacado economista y politico [[Italo venezolanos|venezolano de origen italiano]]. Durante el gobierno de [[Eleazar López Contreras]], siendo Ministro, llevó a cabo una importante reorganización de la "Hacienda Pública Nacional". <a href="http://archivo.globovision.com/alberto-adriani-sembrar-el-petroleo/" target="_blank" title="http://archivo.globovision.com/alberto-adriani-sembrar-el-petroleo/">http://archivo.globovision.com/alberto-a...</a> Articulo con foto de Alberto Adriani Mazzei (es el primero a la izquierda de la foto) con el presidente Contreras]<br />
==Vida== <br />
Alberto Adriani Mazzei nació en una familia de italianos que emigraron a Merida en 1892. Desde niño fue un estudiante muy destacado y en 1918 ingresó en la [[Universidad Central de Venezuela]] donde estudió para ser abogado. Inicialmente hizo carrera diplomática y fue nombrado cónsul en [[Ginebra]], donde representó [[Venezuela]] por tres años como secretario de la delegación venezolana delante de la [[Sociedad de Naciones]]. Al mismo tiempo se graduó de economista.<br />
{{Quote|'' Al morir el general Gómez, regresó a Caracas y en marzo de 1936 es parte del gabinete del presidente Eleazar López Contreras en el nuevo ministerio de Agricultura y Cría que organiza en dos meses. Y el 29 de abril de 1936 Contreras lo designa al ministerio de Hacienda para que reorganice la Hacienda Pública. Adriani Mazzei había propuesto crear el "Banco de la Nación", que diez años después fue fundado como "Banco Central de Venezuela".'' Juan Jose Peralta}}<br />
Adriani Mazzei hablaba cuatro idiomas perfectamente (italiano, español, ingles y francés) y también se graduó de periodista en [[Londres]] en 1928. Sucesivamente fue alumno del famoso premio Nobel [[John Maynard Keynes]] y trabajó en [[Washington]], como jefe de la División o Departamento de Cooperación Agrícola. En 1927 representó a la Cámara de Comercio de Caracas en la tercera "Conferencia Panamericana".<br />
En 1931 Alberto Adriani propuso crear el "Banco de la Nación", con objeto de que fuera la entidad emisora de la moneda nacional: exactamente diez años después de esa propuesta se fundó el [[Banco Central de Venezuela]]. En ese año planteó la necesidad de favorecer la emigración en masa a Venezuela desde [[Europa]].<br />
Adriani describió en sus escritos desde su ciudad natal Zea, entre 1932 y 1934, cómo el auge de un recurso natural da lugar a una sobrevaluación de la moneda local que abarata los productos importados y encarece la oferta exportadora agrícola e industrial, desplazando y atrofiando la actividad agropecuaria y manufacturera a favor de bienes y servicios no transables como la construcción y la especulación inmobiliaria y financiera, con el consecuente empobrecimiento de las zonas rurales y el enriquecimiento ficticio de las ciudades. Para Adriani la solución estaba en un estado fuerte que controlara eficazmente la distribución de la riqueza: en esto se acercó al [[corporativismo]] del fascismo italiano, aunque rechazando su excesivo autoritarismo y favoreciendo el [[liberalismo]] keynesiano.<br />
En 1935 escribió dos de sus mejores análisis sobre la economía venezolana: ''La crisis, los cambios y nosotros'' y el famoso ''El dilema de nuestra moneda y la situacion economica venezolana''Consalvi: Pensamiento de Adriani; p. 180, poniendo sucesivamente las bases para la creación del partido político "ORVE" ("Movimiento de Organización venezolana") junto con el merideño [[Mariano Picón-Salas]].<br />
{{Quote|''El Movimiento de Organización Venezolana tuvo mayor fortuna. ORVE, fundada por Alberto Adriani y Mariano Picón-Salas, atrajo a innumerables intelectuales. ORVE nació el 1º de marzo 1936 en una concentración en el "Nuevo Circo". Atrajo a la gran mayoría de intelectuales. Bajo el liderazgo de Adriani y Picón-Salas surge como un factor de moderación. Condenan los apresuramientos ideológicos, la lucha de clases, como si adivinaran la fragilidad de la transición política. Muy pronto, Adriani ingresó al gabinete como ministro de Agricultura, y Picón-Salas fue enviado al servicio exterior en Praga.'' Simon Consalvi}}<br />
En diciembre 1935 volvió a Caracas, donde el presidente López Contreras lo hizo "Ministro de Agricultura y Cría" a principios de 1936. En esos meses dió un impulso enorme a la reforma de la Hacienda publica de Venezuela, creando las bases para la futura creación del Banco Central de Venezuela como principal garante de la emisión de moneda.<br />[[File:Hotel majestic-1933.jpg|thumb|right|180px|El Hotel Majestic, donde murió el dr. Alberto Adriani]]<br />Al mismo tiempo, según [[Arturo Uslar Pietri]], Adriani Mazzei formuló la famosa frase ''Sembrar el Petroleo'', refiriéndose a la necesidad de que las entradas del petróleo -que en esa época empezaban a inundar abundantemente las cajas del gobierno venezolano- no fueran desperdiciadas en enriquecer solamente un grupo de políticos y empresarios oligarcas. Adriani Mazzei como economista era partidario de un estado fuerte que nivelara la oligarquía de los tiempos del dictador Gomez <a href="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:oNf9jrHKwV4J:gumilla.org/biblioteca/bases/biblo/texto/SIC1998609_418-419.pdf+&cd=6&hl=es&ct=clnk&gl=es" target="_blank" title="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:oNf9jrHKwV4J:gumilla.org/biblioteca/bases/biblo/texto/SIC1998609_418-419.pdf+&cd=6&hl=es&ct=clnk&gl=es">http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se...</a> Simon Consalvi: "Alberto Adriani, el hombre de estado"]<br />
A causa de su determinación de llevar la economía venezolana a niveles modernos (atacando la oligarquia "gomecista" con la creación de impuestos y devaluando el bolívar para salvar la producción agropecuaria), fue muy criticado en los meses que fue ministro: Adriani Mattei fue encontrado muerto en el [[Hotel Majestic (Caracas)|Hotel Majestic]] de Caracas el 10 de agosto de 1936. Muerto -según las autoridades- de ataque cardíaco. Hubo sucesivamente muchos comentarios sobre su muerte, ya que era un hombre de buena salud y sana fortaleza física. Pedro Pablo Paredes opinó que fue envenenado, supuestamente con substancias que le provocaron un [[infarto]] <a href="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:t4j3zC141DcJ:www.pedropabloparedes.com/FORMATO/pdf/Alberto_Adriani.pdf+&cd=19&hl=es&ct=clnk&gl=es" target="_blank" title="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:t4j3zC141DcJ:www.pedropabloparedes.com/FORMATO/pdf/Alberto_Adriani.pdf+&cd=19&hl=es&ct=clnk&gl=es">http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se...</a> Alberto Adriani Mazzei fue posiblemente envenenado].<br />
Lo cierto es que la devaluación del bolívar no se hizo y la economía agropecuaria se vino para abajo después de su muerte, substituida por una artificial basada en el petróleo. El presidente [[Rómulo Betancourt]] -que en 1936 era un joven ayudante de Adriani Mazzei- en los años sucesivos siempre criticó este hecho.<br />
{{Quote|''Adriani nunca escribió un libro para su publicación, pero sus trabajos fueron publicados en diarios y revistas de Venezuela y el extranjero.Al cumplirse un año de la muerte de Alberto Adriani, sus amigos Arturo Uslar Pietri y Diego Nacerte Sardi recopilaron sus principales trabajos en libro titulado: “labor Venezolanista”''. Narciso Parra <a href="http://nguaramato3.blogspot.com/2009/06/alberto-ariani-mazzei.html" target="_blank" title="http://nguaramato3.blogspot.com/2009/06/alberto-ariani-mazzei.html">http://nguaramato3.blogspot.com/2009/06/...</a> Biografía del Dr. Adriani Mazzei] }}<br />
En 1955 ha sido creado en los Andes venezolanos un distrito en el [[Mérida (estado)|estado Merida]] con su nombre: el [[Municipio Alberto Adriani]].<br />
En 1999 sus restos fueron trasladados al [[Panteón Nacional de Venezuela]], haciendo de Alberto Adriani uno de los [[Anexo:Personajes sepultados en el Panteón Nacional|Personajes venezolanos sepultados en el Panteón Nacional]].<br />
==Notas==<br />
==Bibliografía==<br />* Santander Laya-Garrido, Alfonso. ''Los Italianos forjadores de la nacionalidad y del desarrollo económico en Venezuela''. Editorial Vadell. Valencia, 1978.<br />* Vannini, Marisa. ''Italia y los Italianos en la Historia y en la Cultura de Venezuela''. Oficina Central de Información. Caracas, 1966<br />
==Vease también==<br />*[[Anexo:Personajes sepultados en el Panteón Nacional]]<br />*[[Italo venezolanos]]<br />
[[Categoría:Historia de Venezuela]]<br />[[Categoría:Ministros de Venezuela]]<br />[[Categoría:Venezolanos de ascendencia italiana]]<br />[[Categoría:Políticos de la Venezuela contemporánea]]<br />
======================================================================<br />
<a href="http://www.codazzi.mitreum.net/imgs/010501c.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.codazzi.mitreum.net/imgs/010501c.jpg">http://www.codazzi.mitreum.net/imgs/0105...</a> Immagine di Costante ferrari<br /> <a href="http://www.difesaonline.it/news-forze-armate/storia/16-dicembre-1902-blocco-internazione-al-venezuela-i-debiti-non-pagati" target="_blank" title="http://www.difesaonline.it/news-forze-armate/storia/16-dicembre-1902-blocco-internazione-al-venezuela-i-debiti-non-pagati">http://www.difesaonline.it/news-forze-ar...</a><br />
Blocco costa Venezuela nel 1902<br />
<a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2050-411X.1994.tb00759.x/pdf" target="_blank" title="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2050-411X.1994.tb00759.x/pdf">http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.11...</a> Italians in contemporary Venezuela (OTTIMO)<br />
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ITALIAN MOGADISHU<br />
[[File:Fiatmogadiscio1940.png|thumb|right|400px|Fiat's Boero Building in Mogadishu (1940).]]<br />
'''Mogadishu''' or '''Mogadiscio''' was the capital of [[Italian Somalia]] in the first half of the XX century. In [[Italian language]], the city was called ''Mogadiscio italiana'' and the inhabitants were called ''Mogadini''. Italian Mogadiscio <a href="https://mogadishuimages.files.wordpress.com/2008/05/1911map1.gif" target="_blank" title="https://mogadishuimages.files.wordpress.com/2008/05/1911map1.gif">https://mogadishuimages.files.wordpress....</a> Map of Mogadiscio Somalia in 1930] was under Italian control from 1885 until February 1941: officially it disappeared in 1947 after the "Peace Treaty" following [[WWII]] when Italy lost all the colonies.<br />
==History==<br />
{{Quote|''Mogadishu (or Mukdishu) is mentioned by Marco Polo and described by Ibn Batuta as an “immense” city. This was in the early part of the 14th century.....In 1892 it was transferred to Italy. The name of the town is spelt in a great variety of ways, including Madeigascar, whence the name of the island of Madagascar. Alfred Grandidier points out that the Portuguese, misled by Marco Polo's description of Mukdishu as an island, fancied they had discovered the land of which he wrote when they touched at Madagascar'' 1911 E. Britannica}}<br />
The first [[Italian people|Italian]] to write about Mogadiscio was [[Marco Polo]], who knew of the city during his merchant travels in [[Asia]]. But only in the late XIX century the commerce company "Filonardi" from [[Italy]] took control of facilities in the port of Mogadishu.<br />
By 1882, Mogadishu was under the joint control of the Somali [[Geledi Sultanate]] (which was also holding sway over the [[Shebelle Valley]] region in the interior called [[Benadir]]) and the [[Oman]]i [[List of Sultans of Zanzibar|Sultan of Zanzibar]].I. M. Lewis, ''A modern history of Somalia: nation and state in the Horn of Africa'', (Westview Press: 1988), p.38 In 1885, [[Ali bin Said of Zanzibar|Ali bin Said]] leased the city to an Italian [[chartered company]] owned by [[Vincenzo Filonardi]]. This "Compagnia Filonardi" (1893–96) and later the "Società Anonima Commerciale Italiana del Benadir" (1899-1905) was finally taken by the Italian government, that obtained the control of the entire region of Benadir with the port of Mogadishu through an agreement with the British government in 1892. From 3 August 1889 to 15 May 1893 Filonardi was the first [[List of colonial heads of Italian Somaliland|Governor]] of the "Somalia italiana" (he was governor again from 1896 to 1897).<br />[[File:Mogadishu, Bank of Italy.jpg|thumb|left|300px|"Banca d'Italia" building]]<br />The [[Kingdom of Italy]] purchased the city in 1905 and made Mogadishu the capital of the newly established [[Italian Somaliland|Somalia italiana]]. The Italians subsequently referred to the city as ''Mogadiscio''.<br />
The city was soon modernized in the early 1910s with the creation of the first sewage system, the first hospital, the first paved roads and the new electricity facilities. In the 1910s and 1920s the Italians enlarged the [[Port of Mogadishu]] and created the first airport (initially only for military airplanes). In the 1910s was created the first radio-telegraph station in eastern Africa, under the supervision of [[Guglielmo Marconi]], that was able to connect Mogadishu directly with [[Italian Eritrea]] and [[Rome]]: it was worldwide celebrated.<br />
From 5 April 1908 to 5 May 1936, the [[Royal Corps of Somali Colonial Troops]] (''Regio corpo truppe coloniali della Somalia Italiana''), originally called the "Guard Corps of Benadir", served as the territory's formal military corps with headquarters in Mogadiscio. At the start of its establishment, the force had 2,600 Italian officers.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Italian_colonialism_in_Somalia.html?id=33QWAAAAIAAJ |title=Italian colonialism in Somalia |author=Robert L. Hess |page=91}} Between 1911 and 1912, over 1,000 Somalis from Mogadishu served as combat units along with Eritrean and Italian soldiers in the [[Italo-Turkish War]].{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?ei=_vexU_fCEYeEqgaqkYKIBQ& |title=Journal of the Royal United Service Institution, Whitehall Yard, Volume 57, Issue 2 |author=W. Mitchell |page=997}} Most of the troops stationed never returned home until they were transferred back to Italian Somaliland in preparation for the [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War|invasion of Ethiopia]] in 1935.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4O0vAAAAIAAJ&|title=War Over Ethiopia |author=William James Makin |page=227}}<br />
In November 1920, the [[Banca d'Italia]], the first modern bank in Italian Somaliland, was established in Mogadishu.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=03QwAQAAIAAJ& |title=Putting the cart before the horse: contested nationalism and the crisis of the nation-state in Somalia |author=Abdi Kusow |page=179}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UGEwAQAAIAAJ&q |title=Huddur & the history of Southern Somalia |author=Salah Mohamed Ali |page=68}} Later were founded in the city the branches of other Italian banks: in 1936 [[Banco di Roma]] and in 1938 [[Banco di Napoli]] established a branch (Banco di Napoli replaced [[Cassa di Risparmio di Torino]], which had opened an office in Mogadishu in 1932). After [[WWII]] from the Banca d'Italia was developed the [[Central Bank of Somalia]].<br />
On December 5, 1923, [[Cesare Maria De Vecchi|Cesare Maria De Vecchi di Val Cismon]] was named [[List of colonial governors of Italian Somaliland|Governor]] in charge of the new colonial administration and promoted the process of complete pacification of the Somalia italiana, with the initial integration of the native population. Italian colonial policy followed two principles in Italian Somaliland: preservation of the dominant clan and ethnic configurations and respect for Islam as the territory's religion.Ben-Ghiat, p. 311<br />
In 1928, the Italian authorities built the [[Mogadishu Cathedral]] (''Cattedrale di Mogadiscio''). It was constructed in a [[Norman architecture|Norman]] [[Gothic Revival architecture|Gothic]] style, based on the [[Cefalù Cathedral]] in [[Cefalù]], [[Sicily]].{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?ei=8LVAU9nDEYqmsASVs4HQAQ&id=ulXZAAAAMAAJ |title=Consolata Missionaries in the World (1901-2001) |author= Giovanni Tebaldi |page=127}} Following its establishment, Crown Prince [[Umberto II of Italy|Umberto II]] made his first publicized visit to Mogadishu.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tm6uVwH03hAC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Mussolini's Italy: Life Under the Fascist Dictatorship, 1915-1945 |author= R. J. B. Bosworth |page=48}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vaDkDZmrZmYC&source=gbs_navlinks_s |title=Safirka: An American Envoy |author= Peter Bridges |page=71}} To commemorate the visit, the Arch of Umberto was constructed. The arch was built at the center of Mogadishu Garden.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_dotAQAAIAAJ& |title=The road to zero: Somalia's self-destruction |author= Mohamed Osman Omar |page=35}} The [[Mogadishu International Airport]] was constructed that same year. The facility was regarded as one of the finest in the region.<br />
In the early 1930s, the new Italian Governors, Guido Corni and Maurizio Rava, started a policy of full assimilation of the Somalis. Many Somalis were enrolled in the Italian colonial troops, and thousands of Italian colonists moved to live in Mogadishu. The city grew in size and some small manufacturing companies opened up. The Italians also settled in agricultural areas around the capital, such as Jowhar and [[Janale]] (''Genale'').Bevilacqua, Piero. ''Storia dell'emigrazione italiana''. p. 233<br />{| border="0" align="right" style="border: 1px solid #999; background-color:#FFFFFF"<br />|-align="right" bgcolor="#ffbbbb"<br />! year !! Italians !! Mogadishu population<br />!%<br />|-bgcolor="#fff0ee"<br />|1905<br />|100<br />|5,000<br />|2%<br />|-bgcolor="#fff0ee"<br />|1914<br />|900<br />|18,000<br />|5%<br />|-bgcolor="#fff0ee"<br />|1930<br />|17,000<br />|50,000<br />|30%<br />|-bgcolor="#fff0ee"<br />|1940<br />|30,000<br />|90,000<br />|33%<br />|-bgcolor="#fff0ee"<br />|1945<br />|40,000<br />|100,000<br />|40%<br />|- bgcolor="#fff0ee"<br />|1960<br />|9,000<br />|118,000<br />|<10%<br />|-bgcolor="#fff0ee"<br />|1970<br />|1,962<br />|230,000<br />|<1%<br />|-<br />|- bgcolor="#fff0ee"<br />|1989<br />|500<br />|800,000<br />|<0,1%<br />|-<br />| colspan="8" |'''The Italian population in Mogadishu, from 1905 to 1989'''<br />|}<br />
In 1930, there were 22,000 Italians living in Italian Somaliland, representing 2% of the territory's population. The majority resided in the capital Mogadishu, with other Italian communities concentrated in Jowhar (''Villabruzzi''), [[Adale]] (''Itala''), Janale (''Genale''), [[Jamame]] and [[Kismayo]]. <a href="http://xoomer.alice.it/fernandotermentini/somalia.htm" target="_blank" title="http://xoomer.alice.it/fernandotermentini/somalia.htm">http://xoomer.alice.it/fernandotermentin...</a> Article with photos on a 2005 visit to 'Villaggio Duca degli Abruzzi' and areas of former Italian Somaliland (in Italian)] <a href="http://www.populstat.info/Africa/somaliac.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.populstat.info/Africa/somaliac.htm">http://www.populstat.info/Africa/somalia...</a> Population of Somalia in 1939]<br />
By 1935, Mogadishu began to serve as a major naval base and port for the Italians.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7qV5AgAAQBAJ& |title=Strategic Basing and the Great Powers, 1200-2000 |author= Robert E. Harkavy |page=87}} Then [[Prime Minister of Italy|Prime Minister]] of Italy [[Benito Mussolini]] regarded [[Greater Somalia]] (''La Grande Somalia'') with capital Mogadiscio as the crown jewel in Italy's colonial empire in eastern [[Africa]]. Consequently, from 1936 to 1940, new roads were constructed in the region around Mogadiscio, such as the "Imperial Road" from Mogadishu to [[Addis Abeba]]. New railways (114 km from Mogadishu to Jowhar) and many schools, hospitals, ports and bridges were also built.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N2IMAQAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Beginning Somali History |author=Paul S. Gilbert, Scott Winfield Street, Robert A. Blume |page=75}}<br />
Mogadishu airport was established in 1928 with the name ''Petrella-Mogadiscio aeroporto'', the first such facility to be opened in the [[Horn of Africa]]. It served as the main military airport for [[Italian Somaliland]]. In the mid-1930s, the airport began offering civilian and commercial flights. A regular [[Asmara]]-[[Assab]]-Mogadishu commercial route was started in 1935, with an [[Ala Littoria]] [[Caproni Ca.133|Caproni 133]] providing 13-hour flights from the Mogadishu airport to [[Italian Eritrea]]. The aircraft had a maximal capacity of 18 passengers, which at the time was a record. In 1936, Ala Littoria launched an intercontinental connection between Mogadishu-Asmara-[[Khartoum]]-[[Tripoli]] and Rome. The voyage lasted four days and was one of the first long range flights in the world.{{cite web|last=Flavio Riccitelli (A.I.D.A.)|title=ALA LITTORIA S.A. (1934–1941)|url=http://www.ilpostalista.it/unico2004pag55.htm|publisher=Il Postalista|accessdate=7 October 2013}}<br />
The port of Italian Mogadiscio had an exportation in 1934 of 43.467 tons of agricultural products (mainly bananas) toward Italy and Europe. For this commercial transport were used the service of special container-ships called "RAMB" (that were built with the possibility to be converted to be an [[auxiliary cruiser]]). The [[Ramb II]] was a [[banana boat (ship)|banana boat]] based even in Mogadishu. Ramb II was the second of four sister ships all built to the same design: the other ships were the [[Ramb I]], the [[Ramb III]], and the [[Ramb IV]]. The four ships were built for the Royal Banana Monopoly Business ("Regia Azienda Monopolio Banane") to transport refrigerated bananas from Italian Somalia to Italy.<br />[[File:Italy-motonave-Vulcania-1948.jpg|thumb|300px|left|The Italian [[ocean liner]] Vulcania was the biggest ship to serve the port of Mogadishu]]<br />
From 1936 the port started to have a weekly international ship line for passengers, connecting Mogadishu with [[Massaua]] in [[Eritrea]] and [[Genova]] in [[Italy]] with the Italian [[Lloyd Triestino]] and [[Italian Line]]. <a href="http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-porti.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-porti.htm">http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-porti.ht...</a> Ship lines of Mogadishu port (in Italian)] The [[MS Vulcania]] was a transatlantic ship that served the port of Mogadiscio. Later, in 1941 the port was damaged by British bombings during [[WWII]].<br />
In the 1930s, Italian authorities began to organize professional [[sport]] in Somalia. These sports were initially concentrated only in the capital [[Mogadishu]]. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SW_q8y721EwC&pg=PA235" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=SW_q8y721EwC&pg=PA235">https://books.google.com/books?id=SW_q8y...</a> Sport e fascismo (in Italian); p. 248] In 1931 governor Maurizio Rava created the ''Federazione Sportiva della Somalia'', which organized competences of athletics, tennis and football for the Italian community and promoted the first sport activities among the young native population. In 1933 the first Somalian football championship was created in Mogadishu, called ''Coppa Federazione Sportiva'', with three teams ("Societa' Mogadiscio", "Marina" and "Milizia"). In 1938 the football championship was won by the "Amaruini" team, made up mainly of local [[Somalis|Somalians]]; in 1939 the winning team was the "Araba". In 1938 competitions of other sports, like swimming and cycling, were held.<br />
In summer 1938 was created the ''Circuito Mogadiscio'' (called even "Circuito di Mogadiscio" and in English: "Mogadishu Circuit"), a car race done in the main streets of Mogadishu that was one of the firsts in Africa. <a href="http://www.bibibruschi.com/#!mogadiscio-1%C2%B0-circuito-auto-1938/zoom/ch9e/image_o76" target="_blank" title="http://www.bibibruschi.com/#!mogadiscio-1%C2%B0-circuito-auto-1938/zoom/ch9e/image_o76">http://www.bibibruschi.com/#!mogadiscio-...</a> Photo of the Circuit Stands] The main Italian newspaper of Mogadiscio and the Italian colonies, "Il Littoriale", <a href="http://dlib.coninet.it/bookreader.php?&f=3301&p=1&c=1#page/1/mode/2up" target="_blank" title="http://dlib.coninet.it/bookreader.php?&f=3301&p=1&c=1#page/1/mode/2up">http://dlib.coninet.it/bookreader.php?&a...</a> "Il Littorale" on the 1938 Auto Circuit on page 5 (in Italian)] reported that on mid-August 1938 was done the first car race circuit of Mogadiscio. Indeed, on August 15 the Governor Francesco Saveno flagged the start of a car race followed by many thousands in the "Corso Vittorio Emanuele" (actual "Somalia Boulevard") of Somalia's capital, where there were the main stands. On Mogadiscio streets many native Somalis enjoyed enthusiastically to the first car race in their country. It was followed even by a motorcycle race, done with 250 cc and 350 cc category. The "Circuito di Mogadiscio" was repeated in 1939, but the edition of 1940 was not done because of the beginning of the war.<br />
In the first years of the XX century there were only one hundred Italian civilians (mostly members of the colonial administration with their families) in Mogadishu, but soon started to arrive thousands of colonists (with some merchants and entrepreneurs) from Italy: by March 1940, over 30,000 Italians lived in Mogadishu, representing around 33% of the city's total 90,000 residents.{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9ukPAAAAIAAJ& |title=Yearbook of the Encyclopedia Americana |author=Alexander Hopkins McDannald |accessdate=2014-04-06}}{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hAI5AAAAIAAJ& |title=Development of Italian East Africa |author=Ferdinando Quaranta di San Severino (barone) |accessdate=2014-06-22}} They frequented local Italian schools that the colonial authorities had opened, such as a local "Liceum".{{cite web|url=http://picasaweb.google.com/giannmari/ScuolaMediaDiMogadiscio#5262938895776011394 |title=Photo of a mixed Italian and Somali school in Mogadishu |date= 11 October 2008 |accessdate=2014-03-29}}<br />
During [[WWII]] Italian Mogadiscio was conquered by the British in February 1941: nearly all the Italians in Somalia took refuge in the city -for security reasons- during those war years until 1945. Because of these refugees Mogadishu in those years had a population that was nearly half Italian, when added the 7000 descendants of Italian soldiers who had illegitimate offsprings with Somalian girls.According to historian Tripodi, in Somalia nearly 10,000 children were born from Italians (mainly soldiers) and Somalian native girls during the half a century of colonial presence in Italian Somalia. Most of them lived in the Mogadishu area<br />
Since then the [[Italian Somalis|Italian population]] of Mogadiscio started to diminish, mainly after 1948 when there was the killing of Italians by the [[Somali Youth League]], <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=icoirpafOvY" target="_blank" title="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=icoirpafOvY">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=icoirpaf...</a> Video related to January 1948 massacre] and practically disappeared a few decades later. Indeed somali nationalist agitation against the possibility of renewed Italian rule reached the level of violent confrontation in 1948, when on 11 January, large riots broke out that left fifty-two Italians dead in the streets of Mogadishu and other coastal cities in which many more were injured.<br />
Even if there was an important community of nearly 10,000 Italians in Mogadishu in the 1950s, when Italy administrated the country with a [[ONU]] mandate, in the late 1990s practically there were no more Italians in Mogadishu.<br />
===Legacy===<br />
The legacy of the Italian presence in [[Mogadishu]] is mainly related to the decision to develop this city as the capital of actual Somalia: in 1885 the Italians found a small city/village with 3,000 inhabitants living in ruined medieval buildings and in just half a century the city was transformed in a modern capital (of one of the biggest countries in eastern Africa) with 100,000 inhabitants, that was nicknamed ''the White Pearl of the Indian Ocean''.<br />
However some other legacies of the Italian presence in Mogadishu still remain: from the diffused use of pasta (''baasto'') such as [[spaghetti]] and of [[polenta]] (''mishaari''), <a href="http://www.liutprand.it/articoliMondo.asp?id=142" target="_blank" title="http://www.liutprand.it/articoliMondo.asp?id=142">http://www.liutprand.it/articoliMondo.as...</a> Somalian recipes (in Italian)] that comes from the [[Italian Somalis]] families, to the [[latin script]] in the [[Somalian language]] and to the architecture of the city.<br />
==Architecture==<br />
{{Quote|''The story of Mogadishu’s Modernist buildings begins during the time of Italian colonial rule. Unlike Asmara in Eritrea and Tripoli in Libya, where the Italians built their colonial city alongside the native walled town, in Mogadishu the walls of the old medina were torn down and the occupiers’ buildings imposed in the city centre.''Rakesh Ramchum <a href="http://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/culture/mogadishus-modernist-heritage/8660095.article" target="_blank" title="http://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/culture/mogadishus-modernist-heritage/8660095.article">http://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/cultu...</a> Italian era modernist buildings in Mogadishu]}}<br />
In 1905 was started a plan to develop the city, that the Italians found divided in two medieval areas: Amaruini and Scingani. In the middle was built the new "Corso Vittorio Emanuele III" (the main avenue) and governmental buildings with a garden area (that in 1934 was beautified with the "Arch of Umberto"). In 1928 was created the "Piano regolatore di Mogadiscio", the first urban planification for the city, when the medioeval Scingani was demolished and was created a modern area with new buildings and tree lined roads.<br />
Since then in Mogadishu were made many architectural improvements before [[WWII]]. <a href="https://italiacoloniale.wordpress.com/2015/03/20/arte-e-architettura-nella-mogadiscio-scomparsa/" target="_blank" title="https://italiacoloniale.wordpress.com/2015/03/20/arte-e-architettura-nella-mogadiscio-scomparsa/">https://italiacoloniale.wordpress.com/20...</a> Italian architecture -with images- in 1935 Mogadiscio (in Italian)] The most inportant are:<br />
1) [[Villa Somalia]]. It is the [[official residence|official residential]] [[presidential palace|palace]] and principal workplace of the [[President of Somalia]], [[Hassan Sheikh Mohamud]]. It sits on high ground that overlooks the city on the Indian Ocean, with access to both the [[Port of Mogadishu|harbour]] and [[Aden Adde International Airport|airport]].{{cite book|title=Reports Service: Northeast Africa series, Volume 13, Issue 1|year=1966|publisher=American Universities Field Staff|url=http://www.google.com/books?id=SlUaAQAAIAAJ}}<br />
The edifice was built -in partially modern [[art deco]] style- by the colonial authorities in [[Italian Somaliland]], serving as a residence for the Governors. <a href="http://senato.archivioluce.it/senato-luce/scheda/foto/IL0600000962/8/Campo-sportivo.html" target="_blank" title="http://senato.archivioluce.it/senato-luce/scheda/foto/IL0600000962/8/Campo-sportivo.html">http://senato.archivioluce.it/senato-luc...</a> 1938 Foto, showing the athletic race track near the newly built Villa Somalia]<br />Villa Somalia sits on high ground that overlooks Mogadishu on the [[Indian Ocean]], with nearby the first athletic structure for sport in Somalia. It was originally a large, squarish [[stucco]] building with a modern tiled roof.{{cite book|title=Reports Service: Northeast Africa series, Volume 13, Issue 1|year=1966|publisher=American Universities Field Staff|url=http://www.google.com/books?id=SlUaAQAAIAAJ}}<br />
Villa Somalia was built in the new section of the city created by the Italians in the late 1930s: it was a famous symbol of modernist (art deco) architecture.<br />
[[File:1931-quaderno-Mogadiscio-palazzo-del-governatore.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Image of the Governor Palace]]<br />2) The [[Governor's Palace of Mogadishu]]. In the 1930s it was the seat of the [[List of colonial governors of Italian Somaliland|governor]] of Italian Somaliland, and then the administrator of the [[Trust Territory of Somalia]].It was built during the colonial period (in the late 1920s) in the capital city of [[Mogadishu]]: in those decades the city was improved with Italian architecture and urbanism: this palace was one of the most representatives of the colonial fascist architecture. <a href="http://www.artefascista.it/mogadiscio__fascismo__architettu.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.artefascista.it/mogadiscio__fascismo__architettu.htm">http://www.artefascista.it/mogadiscio__f...</a> Mogadiscio's colonial architecture]<br />
It was located on the "Corso Umberto", the main street of Italian Mogadiscio, and overlooked the ocean & the port. The architecture was a mixture of Italian and Arab styles, with the second floor decorated with [[Italian Renaissance]] furniture. A huge garden was created in front of the main entrance.<br />
In the Palace, among other things, there were the following halls in the lower floor:<br />
* Arab hall with decorations, which were derived from the Islamic architecture of the old Mogadishu.<br />* Rooms of "Queen Elena of Italy" with tapestries.<br />* "Sala della Giustizia" with furniture in the Gothic style of the [[Aosta]] Valley.<br />* Hall of deliberations, with the wall-scenes taken from the classical style of the Italian architecture and with a huge panel showing "San Giorgio".<br />
The second floor was for private use, with rooms for royal guest.<br />
It was inaugurated by Italian governor [[Cesare Maria De Vecchi]], who ruled from 1923 to 1929. He ordered excavations in the gardens in front of the Palace that proved to be the ancient Arab palace of "El Muzaffar". <a href="https://mogadishuimages.files.wordpress.com/2014/11/aerial-view-1935.jpg" target="_blank" title="https://mogadishuimages.files.wordpress.com/2014/11/aerial-view-1935.jpg">https://mogadishuimages.files.wordpress....</a> Foto of 1935 showing the gardens around the Governor's Palace and the ruins of "El Muzaffar" (enlarge the photo center)]<br />
In 1975 the Palace was completely razed to the ground (for political reasons) and the site was dedicated to the new construction of the luxurious "Al Uruba" (Curuuba) Hotel. <a href="http://vintagesomalia.com/post/62528595756/yesteryears-from-al-uruba-hotel-in-mogadishu" target="_blank" title="http://vintagesomalia.com/post/62528595756/yesteryears-from-al-uruba-hotel-in-mogadishu">http://vintagesomalia.com/post/625285957...</a>. Photo of the "Al Uruba" Hotel]<br />[[File:Mogadishu1936.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The main avenue of Mogadishu in 1936, the "Corso Vittorio Emanuele III", with the "Arch of Umberto" and the "Mogadiscio Catholic Cathedral" in the background]]<br />
3) [[Mogadishu Cathedral]]. Known as the ''"Cattedrale di Mogadiscio"'' (when inaugurated on March first, 1928), the Mogadishu Cathedral was constructed in a [[Norman architecture|Norman]] [[Gothic Revival architecture|Gothic]] style, based on the [[Cefalù Cathedral]] in [[Cefalù]], [[Sicily]]. It was built in nearly six years by the Italian authorities in their former [[Italian Somaliland]], in a central area of the capital not far from the [[Governor's Palace of Mogadishu|Governor's Palace]]{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?ei=8LVAU9nDEYqmsASVs4HQAQ&id=ulXZAAAAMAAJ |title=Consolata Missionaries in the World (1901-2001) |author= Giovanni Tebaldi |page=127 |date= |accessdate=2014-04-06}}<br />
Indeed the Cathedral was built as the biggest in eastern Africa by order of [[Cesare Maria De Vecchi]], a catholic governor of "Somalia italiana" who promoted the "Missionari della Consolata" christianization of Somalian people. <a href="http://www.asei.eu/it/2011/11/le-missioni-cattoliche-italiane-allestero-il-caso-della-consolata-nella-somalia-di-cesare-maria-de-vecchi-1924-1928/" target="_blank" title="http://www.asei.eu/it/2011/11/le-missioni-cattoliche-italiane-allestero-il-caso-della-consolata-nella-somalia-di-cesare-maria-de-vecchi-1924-1928/">http://www.asei.eu/it/2011/11/le-mission...</a> The catholic missionaries of "Consolata" promoted by governor De Vecchi (in Italian)] It was built between 1923 and 1928 and was used as a model the "Cathedral of Cefalu" (in northern [[Sicily]]), created to commemorate the Christian reconquest of Sicily from the Arabs in the X century.<br />
The Cathedral was done in "Norman" [[Gothic style]], designed by architect Antonio Vandone. The facade, with an impressive appearance, was delimited to the sides by two towers, each 37.50 meters high. The plan of the building was a Latin cross; inside was divided into three naves separated by piers with pointed arches. <a href="http://senato.archivioluce.it/senato-luce/scheda/foto/IL0600007567/8/Celebrazione-religiosa-nella-cattedrale-di-Mogadiscio.html" target="_blank" title="http://senato.archivioluce.it/senato-luce/scheda/foto/IL0600007567/8/Celebrazione-religiosa-nella-cattedrale-di-Mogadiscio.html">http://senato.archivioluce.it/senato-luc...</a> Religious ceremony inside the naves]<br />
The church was entrusted to the "Consolata" missionaries, then replaced by the Franciscans (Friars Minor). The altar had a huge statue -done by sculptor Cesare Biscarra- of the Virgin Mary of Consolata, <a href="http://www.internetculturale.it/opencms/opencms/it/viewItemMag.jsp?case=&id=oai%3Awww.internetculturale.sbn.it%2FTeca%3A20%3ANT0000%3ARM0255_DIG_1160" target="_blank" title="http://www.internetculturale.it/opencms/opencms/it/viewItemMag.jsp?case=&id=oai%3Awww.internetculturale.sbn.it%2FTeca%3A20%3ANT0000%3ARM0255_DIG_1160">http://www.internetculturale.it/opencms/...</a> Statue & decorations inside the Mogadiscio Cathedral] that looked at the parishioners in an impressive way like a statue of Roman Gods inside an ancient imperial temple. <a href="http://www.internetculturale.it/jmms/iccuviewer/iccu.jsp?id=oai%3Awww.internetculturale.sbn.it%2FTeca%3A20%3ANT0000%3ARM0255_DIG_1159&mode=all&teca=MagTeca+-+ICCU" target="_blank" title="http://www.internetculturale.it/jmms/iccuviewer/iccu.jsp?id=oai%3Awww.internetculturale.sbn.it%2FTeca%3A20%3ANT0000%3ARM0255_DIG_1159&mode=all&teca=MagTeca+-+ICCU">http://www.internetculturale.it/jmms/icc...</a> Image of the Virgin Mary over the Altar]<br />
4) [[National Museum of Somalia|Garesa Museum]]. In 1933, the building that used to be the "Garesa" residence of the Zanzibar Sultanate was totally reconstructed by the Italian governor Rava and adapted to the Somalia Museum ({{lang|it|''Museo della Somalia''}}). <a href="http://www.ebay.it/itm/1930-ca-MOGADISCIO-SOMALIA-AOI-Lavori-restauro-GARESA-Fotografia-/310385221122?pt=LH_DefaultDomain_101&hash=item4844669e02" target="_blank" title="http://www.ebay.it/itm/1930-ca-MOGADISCIO-SOMALIA-AOI-Lavori-restauro-GARESA-Fotografia-/310385221122?pt=LH_DefaultDomain_101&hash=item4844669e02">http://www.ebay.it/itm/1930-ca-MOGADISCI...</a> Postcard showing the works done to the "Garesa" in the early 1930s] It was the most important cultural place in Italian [[Mogadishu|Mogadiscio]]. <a href="http://sebinaol.unior.it/sebina/repository/catalogazione/documenti/Il%20museo%20della%20Somalia%20" target="_blank" title="http://sebinaol.unior.it/sebina/repository/catalogazione/documenti/Il%20museo%20della%20Somalia%20">http://sebinaol.unior.it/sebina/reposito...</a>(84210).pdf Museo della Garesa: original detailed information when inaugurated in 1934 (in Italian)]<br />
The "Museo della Garesa" (as was called by the [[Italian Somalians|Italian colonists]]) was officially opened to the public the next year by [[List of colonial governors of Italian Somaliland|Governor]] Maurizio Rava.{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=DPwOsOcNy5YC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Historical Dictionary of Somalia |author= Mohamed Haji Mukhtar |page=xxxi |date= |accessdate=2014-04-06}} The museum suffered heavy damages during [[WWII]].<br />After WWII, the old Garesa Museum was turned into the ''National Museum of Somalia''. The National Museum was later moved in 1985, renamed to the Garesa Museum, and converted to a regional museum.{{cite news|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0007/000787/078773eo.pdf|title=Museum development and monuments conservation: Somalia|author=Crespo-Toral, H.|work=[[UNESCO]]|year=1988|accessdate=23 January 2014}}{{cite news|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0005/000519/051939eo.pdf|title=National Museum of Somalia, Mogadiscio: Roof Restoration Project|author=Lengyel, Oguz Janos|work=[[UNESCO]]|year=1982|accessdate=23 January 2014}} After shutting down, the National Museum later reopened. As of January 2014, it holds many culturally important artefacts, including old coins, bartering tools, traditional artwork, ancient weaponry and pottery items.{{cite web|title=Mogadishu Points of interest|url=http://mogadishuairport.com/discover-mogadishu/mogadishu-attractions/|publisher=Aden Adde International Airport|accessdate=24 January 2014}}<br />
5) ''Arch of Umberto''. In 1934 Crown Prince [[Umberto II of Italy|Umberto II]] made his first publicized visit to Mogadishu.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tm6uVwH03hAC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Mussolini's Italy: Life Under the Fascist Dictatorship, 1915-1945 |author= R. J. B. Bosworth |page=48}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vaDkDZmrZmYC&source=gbs_navlinks_s |title=Safirka: An American Envoy |author= Peter Bridges |page=71}} To commemorate the visit, the Arch of Umberto was constructed. The arch was built at the center of Mogadishu Garden.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_dotAQAAIAAJ& |title=The road to zero: Somalia's self-destruction |author= Mohamed Osman Omar |page=35}}<br />
6) ''Fiat's Boero Building''. In 1939 Mogadishu was created a building that was judged as a masterpiece of italian-arab architecture. In the surrounding manufacturing area was created the "Inataree" Somali version of the famous Fiat 650 truck.<br />[[File:CinemaitaliaMogadiscio.png|thumb|right|200px|Cinema Italia]]<br />7) Other important architectures & buildings were: the ''Casa del Fascio'' (later headquarter of Somalian Parliament in the 1960s); <a href="http://www.artefascista.it/MOGADISCIO%20-%20SOMALIA%20-%20FASCIO/" target="_blank" title="http://www.artefascista.it/MOGADISCIO%20-%20SOMALIA%20-%20FASCIO/">http://www.artefascista.it/MOGADISCIO%20...</a>(W)(OK)-9-%20Mogadiscio%20-%20Casa%20del%20Fascio.jpg Photo of "Casa del Fascio"] the ''Arco Trionfale'' (made in 1928); <a href="http://www.artefascista.it/MOGADISCIO%20-%20SOMALIA%20-%20FASCIO/" target="_blank" title="http://www.artefascista.it/MOGADISCIO%20-%20SOMALIA%20-%20FASCIO/">http://www.artefascista.it/MOGADISCIO%20...</a>(W)(OK)-16-%20Mogadiscio%20-%20Arco.jpg Photo of Arco trionfale] the ''Albergo Croce del Sud'' (a modern [[art deco]] hotel); <a href="https://mogadishuimages.files.wordpress.com/2014/11/croce-del-sud.jpg" target="_blank" title="https://mogadishuimages.files.wordpress.com/2014/11/croce-del-sud.jpg">https://mogadishuimages.files.wordpress....</a> Photo of the Albergo Croce del Sud] the "Scuola Regina Elena" (the first educational building in Mogadiscio) <a href="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRDliceRT5IcNxxjK4u4D5RQP_T1ogGiu2OEh2z9iXO6-yGGT78" target="_blank" title="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRDliceRT5IcNxxjK4u4D5RQP_T1ogGiu2OEh2z9iXO6-yGGT78">https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/image...</a> Photo of Regina Elena] and the ''Cinema Italia'' (the first cinema theater in Mogadishu).<br />
==See also==<br />* [[Italian Somaliland]]<br />* [[Italian Somalis|Italians of Somalia]]<br />* [[Mogadishu]]<br />* [[History of Mogadishu]]<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />*Antonicelli, Franco. ''Trent'anni di storia italiana 1915 - 1945''. Mondadori Editore. Torino, 1961.<br />*Bevilacqua, Piero. ''Storia dell'emigrazione italiana''. Donzelli Editore. Roma, 2002 ISBN 88-7989-655-5<br />*Fitzgerald, Nina J. ''Somalia''. Nova Science, Inc. New York, 2002.<br />{{refend}}<br />*Hess, Robert L. ''Italian Colonialism in Somalia''. University of Chicago P. Chicago, 1966.<br />*Abdisalam Issa-Salwe. ''The Collapse of the Somali State: The Impact of the Colonial Legacy''. Haan Associates Ed. London, 1996 ISBN 187420991X ( <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GxMOAQAAMAAJ" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=GxMOAQAAMAAJ">https://books.google.com/books?id=GxMOAQ...</a>])<br />*Tripodi, Paolo. ''The Colonial Legacy in Somalia: Rome and Mogadishu''. Michigan State University Press. Chicago, 1999<br />
==External links==<br />* <a href="http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/1/Santoianni_Progettazione_Architettonica.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/1/Santoianni_Progettazione_Architettonica.pdf">http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/1/Santoia...</a> Italian architecture in Somalia (in Italian)]<br />* <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_DR4R10J9MU" target="_blank" title="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_DR4R10J9MU">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_DR4R10J...</a> Video of 1936 Mogadiscio with governor Graziani]<br />* <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ctJYmXPG4WE" target="_blank" title="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ctJYmXPG4WE">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ctJYmXPG...</a> Video of 1939 Mogadiscio]<br />* <a href="http://www.igmi.org/ancient/immagine.php?cod=13704" target="_blank" title="http://www.igmi.org/ancient/immagine.php?cod=13704">http://www.igmi.org/ancient/immagine.php...</a> 1939 Map of roads in Mogadishu & Benadir area]<br />
[[Category:Italian Somaliland]]<br />[[Category:Mogadishu]]<br />
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<a href="http://www.comandosupremo.com/forums/topic/1784-historian-uncovers-new-details-on-sicily-massacre/" target="_blank" title="http://www.comandosupremo.com/forums/topic/1784-historian-uncovers-new-details-on-sicily-massacre/">http://www.comandosupremo.com/forums/top...</a> MASSACRO DI BISCARI IN SICILIA 1943 (ottimo per Researchomnia)<br />
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<a href="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:Kbw4WtvAjlUJ:www.clarissa.it/documenti/scarica.php%3Fid%3D38%26file%3D20080409145350LAQUESTIONEERITREA.doc+&cd=8&hl=it&ct=clnk&gl=it" target="_blank" title="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:Kbw4WtvAjlUJ:www.clarissa.it/documenti/scarica.php%3Fid%3D38%26file%3D20080409145350LAQUESTIONEERITREA.doc+&cd=8&hl=it&ct=clnk&gl=it">http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se...</a> Eritrea e suoi partiti politici pro-italia<br />
<a href="http://www.mbali.info/doc566.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.mbali.info/doc566.htm">http://www.mbali.info/doc566.htm</a> partiti pro-italia in Somalia 1943-1950<br />
<a href="http://www.comandosupremo.com/forums/topic/631-ot-postwar-atrocity-in-mogadishu/" target="_blank" title="http://www.comandosupremo.com/forums/topic/631-ot-postwar-atrocity-in-mogadishu/">http://www.comandosupremo.com/forums/top...</a> Eccidio di Mogadiscio nel 1948<br />
<a href="http://www.delcampe.it/items?language=I&catLists%5B0%5D=1032&page=1" target="_blank" title="http://www.delcampe.it/items?language=I&catLists%5B0%5D=1032&page=1">http://www.delcampe.it/items?language=I&...</a> Cartoline della Somalia italiana<br />
<a href="http://wikimapia.org/3994872/Old-Italian-salt-production-facility" target="_blank" title="http://wikimapia.org/3994872/Old-Italian-salt-production-facility">http://wikimapia.org/3994872/Old-Italian...</a> HAFUN SALINE con mappa evidenziante resti di torrette trasporto (OTTIMO)<br />
<a href="http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/2307/3849/3/1954.10.11-16.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/2307/3849/3/1954.10.11-16.pdf">http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/...</a> Immagine progetto STADIO CONI di Mogadiscio<br />
<a href="http://kubadda.com/News/Article/tabid/101/ID/33/SOMALI-FOOTBALL-HISTORY.aspx#Comments" target="_blank" title="http://kubadda.com/News/Article/tabid/101/ID/33/SOMALI-FOOTBALL-HISTORY.aspx#Comments">http://kubadda.com/News/Article/tabid/10...</a> Somalian football history<br />
<a href="http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/2307/3897/1/1955.11.28-30.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/2307/3897/1/1955.11.28-30.pdf">http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/...</a> Corriere della Somalia 1955 Campionato (squadre)<br />
<a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=societa+mogadiscio&hl=it&biw=1366&bih=651&tbm=isch&source=lnms&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiy2qPI36XKAhXKRiYKHQ04ChU4ChD8BQgGKAE&dpr=1#imgrc=CSmacqG9XQxu6M%3A" target="_blank" title="https://www.google.com/search?q=societa+mogadiscio&hl=it&biw=1366&bih=651&tbm=isch&source=lnms&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiy2qPI36XKAhXKRiYKHQ04ChU4ChD8BQgGKAE&dpr=1#imgrc=CSmacqG9XQxu6M%3A">https://www.google.com/search?q=societa+...</a> "Palazzo Vincenzi" a Mogadiscio italiana<br />
<a href="http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/2307/1931/1/B108.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/2307/1931/1/B108.jpg">http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/...</a> Altra foto di palazzo De Vincenzi a Mogadiscio<br />
<a href="http://www.scoutstreviso.org/frontiera/images/somalia1/scout18.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.scoutstreviso.org/frontiera/images/somalia1/scout18.htm">http://www.scoutstreviso.org/frontiera/i...</a> Foto di Scouts a inaugurazione Stadio Coni di Mogadiscio<br />
<a href="http://www.scoutstreviso.org/frontiera/somalia_1.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.scoutstreviso.org/frontiera/somalia_1.htm">http://www.scoutstreviso.org/frontiera/s...</a> Somalia Scouts<br />
<a href="http://digilander.libero.it/pgl63/IndiceSomalia.html" target="_blank" title="http://digilander.libero.it/pgl63/IndiceSomalia.html">http://digilander.libero.it/pgl63/Indice...</a> MONETAZIONE SOMALIA (Ottimo!)<br />
<a href="http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/2307/3391/1/Somalia%20italiana%20-%20Mogadiscio,%20pianta%20dimostrativa%20delle%20nuove%20costruzioni%20eseguite%20ed%20iniziate%20al%201.%20ottobre%201912.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/2307/3391/1/Somalia%20italiana%20-%20Mogadiscio,%20pianta%20dimostrativa%20delle%20nuove%20costruzioni%20eseguite%20ed%20iniziate%20al%201.%20ottobre%201912.jpg">http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/...</a> Mappa di Mogadiscio nel 1908<br />
<a href="https://mogadishuimages.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/palazzo-del-governo.jpg" target="_blank" title="https://mogadishuimages.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/palazzo-del-governo.jpg">https://mogadishuimages.files.wordpress....</a> Palazzo degli Uffici del governo a Mogadiscio; oggi city hall<br />
<a href="https://mogadishuimages.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/school.jpg" target="_blank" title="https://mogadishuimages.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/school.jpg">https://mogadishuimages.files.wordpress....</a> Originally was the "Ginnasio De Bono", then after WWII renamed " Liceo scientifico Leonardo da Vinci" . After Somalia independence was renamed "Yusuf AlKowneyn Secondary School".......BD<br />======================================================================<br />
<a href="http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-Stretti%20" target="_blank" title="http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-Stretti%20">http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-Stretti%...</a>(TESTO%20e%20Bibliografia)-C.pdf Ottimi scritti sull'impero italiano relativi a MANIFESTI & prodotti vari<br />
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<a href="http://www.dvhh.org/history/1900s/1934-Lorraine-Villages-Rosambert.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.dvhh.org/history/1900s/1934-Lorraine-Villages-Rosambert.htm">http://www.dvhh.org/history/1900s/1934-L...</a> Villaggio creato dai TRENTINI nel BANATO sopra Timisoara<br />
<a href="http://www.dvhh.org/mercydorf/Mercydorf-1734-1934-Peter-Schiff/index.htm#II-SETTLEMENT-C" target="_blank" title="http://www.dvhh.org/mercydorf/Mercydorf-1734-1934-Peter-Schiff/index.htm#II-SETTLEMENT-C">http://www.dvhh.org/mercydorf/Mercydorf-...</a> Schiff: Italiani a Carani (Timisoara, Romania) nel Settecento<br />
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<a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbRjAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA59&lpg=PA59&dq=port+sudan+august+1940&source=bl&ots=UzBVVtFNVm&sig=Uqxj63LW4Y7zZlQwj0Cpu6kjvFs&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CEEQ6AEwB2oVChMI84Ob1ZyCyQIVWOVjCh2WkAh3#v=onepage&q=port%20sudan%20august%201940&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbRjAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA59&lpg=PA59&dq=port+sudan+august+1940&source=bl&ots=UzBVVtFNVm&sig=Uqxj63LW4Y7zZlQwj0Cpu6kjvFs&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CEEQ6AEwB2oVChMI84Ob1ZyCyQIVWOVjCh2WkAh3#v=onepage&q=port%20sudan%20august%201940&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbRjAw...</a> Libro favorevole agli italiani nella WWII (riferimento alla mancata conquista di karthoum e Port sudan che poteva demorealizzare l'inghilterra nell'estate 1940<br />
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<strong>Italian irredentism in the Ionian islands</strong> <br />
(IMAGE : Ugo Foscolo, hero of the Italian Risorgimento, was born in Zante and lived in Corfu when young. He was used as a propaganda example for the Italian irredentism in the Ionian islands) <br />
Italian irredentism in the Ionian islands was the only irredentism supported by Italian nationalists in Greece territory during Fascism.<br />
<em>Characteristics</em><br />
This irredentism was promoted only during Benito Mussolini's dictatorhip, and was mainly related to the island of Corfu. This island, that was the northernmost of the Ionian islands, had a small population still speaking Venetian since the fall of the Republic of Venice in 1797. Even if greatly diminished in number and importance, the Corfiot Italians in the 1930s were supported by the growing nationalism of Musssolini's Italy.<br />
Indeed when Venice ruled Corfu and the other Ionian islands during the Renaissance and until the late 18th century, most of the Corfiote and Ionian upper classes spoke Italian (or Venetian in many cases) and converted to Roman Catholicism, but the mass of people remained Greek ethnically, linguistically, and religiously before and after the Ottoman sieges of the 16th century. Corfiot Italians were mainly concentrated in the city of Corfu, which was called "Città di Corfù" by the Venetians. More than half of the population of Corfu city in the 18th century was Venetian-speaking.[1]<br />
The re-emergence of Greek nationalism after the Napoleonic era, contributed to the disappearance of the Corfiot Italians (and the few Italians of the Ionian islands, like the family Foscolo in Zante). Corfu was incorporated into Greece in 1864. The Greek government abolished all Italian schools in the Ionian islands in 1870, and as a consequence, by the 1940s there were only four/five hundred Corfiote Italians left.[2]<br />
<em>Corfiot Italians and the Risorgimento</em><br />
Main article: Corfiot Italians<br />
The Italian Risorgimento began in the Italian peninsula with the surrounding continental areas (Istria, Dalmatia, Trentino, Nizzardo, etc.) and did not reach Corfu and the Ionian islands. One of the main heroes of the Italian Risorgimento, the poet Ugo Foscolo, was born in Zante from a noble Venetian family of the island, but only superficially promoted the possible unification of the Ionian islands to Italy.<br />
The first newspaper of Corfu was in Italian: the official weekly newspaper (Gazzetta degli Stati Uniti delle Isole Jone) was first published in 1814. First in Italian, then in both Greek and Italian, finally from 1850 in Greek and English; and it continued for the entire duration of the English Protectorate until 1864.<br />
According to historian Ezio Gray, the small communities of Venetian-speaking people in Corfu were mostly assimilated after the island became part of Greece in 1864 and especially after all Italian schools were closed in 1870.[3]<br />
However, the Italian language maintained some importance, as can be seen by the fact that poets like Stefano Martzokis (Marzocchi was the surname of the father, an Italian from Emilia-Romagna) and Geranimos Markonos, the first from Corfù and the second from Cefalonia, wrote in Italian some of their poems in the second half of the 19th century.<br />
The island of Corfu was a refuge for many Italians in exile during the Wars of Independence of Italy, like Niccolò Tommaseo (who married Diamante Pavello-Artale, a Corfiot Italian).[4]<br />
After World War I, however, the Kingdom of Italy started to apply a policy of expansionism toward the Adriatic area and saw Corfu as the gate of this sea. Mussolini developed an extreme nationalistic position in accordance to the ideals of Italian irredentism and actively promoted the unification of Corfu to Italy.<br />
The Corfiote Italians, even if reduced to a few hundreds in the 1930s, were strongly supported by Fascist propaganda and in the summer of 1941 (after the Italian occupation of the Ionian islands) Italian schools were reopened in Corfu city.[5] During World War II Mussolini promoted an initial development of Italian irredentism in Corfu, similar to the one being promoted in Savoy.[6]<br />
After World War I, Italy had embarked on a policy of expansionism towards the Adriatic, in which Corfu played an important role, as it controlled entrance to it. As shown by the incident of 1923, Mussolini and Italian irredentism had set their sights firmly on the island. The Italian community was an especially useful tool, and it was both supported and exploited by Fascist propaganda.[5]<br />
<em>World War II</em><br />
After the Battle of Greece, the Italians occupied the bulk of the Greek mainland and most of the islands in 1941. Although several proposals for territorial annexation had been put forward in Rome, none were actually carried out during the war. This was due to pressure from the King of Italy, Victor Emmanuel III, and from the Germans, who were concerned of further alienating the Greek population, which was already strongly opposing the Bulgarian annexations in Macedonia and Thrace.<br />
(IMAGE: The Prefectures of Axis occupied Greece (in green the Italian ones on the Ionian islands) )<br />
Nevertheless in the Ionian Islands, long a target of Italian expansionism, the Greek civil authorities were replaced by Italians in preparation for a post-war annexation. Indeed during the Second World War Mussolini wanted to possess the Ionian Islands: the Italians occupied Corfu and the Ionian islands from 28 March 1941. They implemented a process of Italianization, with creation of Italian schools, centered around the small surviving community of the Corfiote Italians, who still spoke the Venetian dialect,[7] but which by that time numbered only 500 people, living mainly in Corfu city.[8]<br />
Furthermore Epirus, the area near the Albanian border where a significant Albanian minority (the Cham Albanians) lived, was claimed by Albanian irredentists as "Chameria". Before the war, a great part of Italian propaganda against Greece had revolved around the Chameria issue, as the Italians hoped to gain Albanian support by promoting irredentism in Chameria and Kosovo.[9] Although the Italians wanted to annex Chameria to Albania (that was in personal union to the Kingdom of Italy, in a somewhat way similar to Wales and the United Kingdom of Great Britain), the Germans vetoed the proposal. An Albanian High Commissioner, Xhemil Dino, was appointed, but his authority was limited, and for the duration of the Occupation, the area remained under direct control from the Axis military authorities in Athens.[10]<br />
Another case of Italian-sponsored puppet states on Greek territory were the proposed Aromanian Principality of the Pindus with the Grand Voivodeship of Macedonia, statelets that were to encompass areas of the regions of West Macedonia, northern Thessaly and Epirus,[11] and headed by Alchiviad Diamandi, Nicolau Matoussi and Count Gyula Cseszneky. Many of the autochtonous Aromanian population however refused to collaborate and the "principality" never amounted to much beyond Diamandi's followers, the so-called Roman Legion.[12] With the growth of the Greek Resistance in 1943 and the collapse of their Italian sponsors in September 1943, the plans for the Principality were conclusively shelved.<br />
In summer 1942 Cesare Maria De Vecchi (governor of the Italian Dodecanese from 1936 to 1940) studied the possibility of creating an "arch" of Italian islands, stretching from the Ionian islands to Crete and to Rodi. These island would be annexed to the proposed Greater Italy, to be created after the Axis victory in World War II.<br />
Until September 1943 the population of the Ionian islands did not participate in the guerrilla war against the Italians and the Axis: only some protests happened, made by students in Corfu city.[13]<br />
<em>Notes</em><br />
1.^ Gray, Ezio. Le terre nostre ritornano...Malta, Corsica, Nizza, p. 92.<br />2.^ Vignoli Giulio. Gli Italiani Dimenticati. Minoranze Italiane In Europa, p. 132.<br />3.^ Gray, Ezio Le terre nostre ritornano... p. 118<br />4.^ Seton-Watson. Italy from Liberalism to Fascism, 1870-1925, p. 236.<br />5.^ a b Vignoli Giulio Gli Italiani Dimenticati. Minoranze Italiane In Europa, p. 143.<br />6.^ Gray, Ezio. Le terre nostre ritornano... Malta, Corsica, Nizza, p. 127.<br />7.^ Gray, Ezio. Le terre nostre ritornano... Malta, Corsica, Nizza, p. 162.<br />8.^ Gray, Ezio. Le terre nostre ritornano...Malta, Corsica, Nizza, p. 47.<br />9.^ Fischer (1999), pp. 70-75<br />10.^ Fischer (1999), p. 85<br />11.^ Poulton, Hugh, Who are the Macedonians? Indiana University Press. (2000) p. 111<br />12.^ Mazower (1995), p. 46<br />13.^ Compared to what happened in the other two zones of Greece occupied (the German and the Bulgarian), the Italian occupation regime was relatively mild, which can be seen from the relatively low number of executions and atrocities committed in the Italian zone of occupation when compared with the atrocities and executions committed in the German and Bulgarian zones. Furthermore, unlike the Germans, and aside from some local commanders, the Italian military protected the Jews in their zone. The Germans were purportedly perturbed as the Italians not only protected Jews on their territory, but in parts of occupied France, Greece, the Balkans, and elsewhere, where they protected local Jewish populations also. On 13 December 1942, Joseph Goebbels, Hitler's propaganda minister, wrote in his diary, “The Italians are extremely lax in the treatment of the Jews. They protect the Italian Jews both in Tunis and in occupied France and will not permit their being drafted for work or compelled to wear the Star of David. This shows once again that Fascism does not really dare to get down to fundamentals but is very superficial regarding problems of vital importance.”<br />
<em>Bibliography</em><br />
•Gray, Ezio. Le terre nostre ritornano... Malta, Corsica, Nizza. De Agostini Editoriale. Novara, 1943<br />•Fischer, Bernd Jürgen (1999). Albania at War, 1939-1945. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 978-1-85065-531-2.<br />•Martin, John Jeffries. Venice Reconsidered. The History and Civilization of an Italian City-State, 1297–1797. Johns Hopkins UP. New York, 2002.<br />•Mazower, Mark. Inside Hitler's Greece: The Experience of Occupation, 1941–44. Yale University Press. Yale, 1995 ISBN 0-300-08923-6.<br />•Norwich, John Julius. A History of Venice. Vintage Books. New York, 1989.<br />•Seton-Watson, Christopher. Italy from Liberalism to Fascism, 1870-1925. John Murray Publishers. London, 1967.<br />•Tagliavini, Carlo. Le origini delle lingue neolatine. Patron Ed. Bologna, 1982.<br />•Vignoli, Giulio. Gli Italiani Dimenticati. Minoranze Italiane In Europa. Saggi E Interventi. Editore Giuffrè. Roma, 2000.<br />
<em>See also</em><br />
•Corfiot Italians<br />•Italian irredentism in Malta<br />
Italian irredentism by region<br />
Corsica ·<br /> Dalmatia ·<br /> Ionian islands ·<br /> Istria ·<br /> Malta ·<br /> Nice ·<br /> Savoy ·<br /> Switzerland<br />
Imperial Italy1: Albania1 · Greece1 · Baleares1 · Libya1 · Tunisia1 <br />
1 extreme irredentism promoted by Italian Fascism<br />
Categories <br />
Categories: Italian irredentism<br />Ionian Islands<br />Italian occupation of Greece during World War II<br />===================================<br />MAURIZIO RAVA<br />
{{Infobox Officeholder<br />| honorific-prefix=<br />| name = Maurizio Rava<br />| honorific-suffix =<br />| image =<br />| imagesize =<br />| order = [[List of colonial governors of Italian Somaliland|Governor of Italian Somaliland]]<br />| term_start = 1 July 1931<br />| term_end = 6 March 1935<br />| predecessor = Guido Corni<br />| successor = [[Rodolfo Graziani]]<br />| birth_date = {{birth date|1878|01|31|df=y}}<br />| birth_place = Milan<br />| death_date = {{Death date and age|1941|01|23|1878|01|31|df=y}}<br />| death_place = Roma<br />| spouse =<br />| nationality = [[Italy|Italian]]<br />| occupation = [[politician]], [[general]]<br />| religion =<br />}}<br />
'''Maurizio Rava ''' (1878-1941) was an Italian politician and general of the [[Regio Esercito]]. <a href="http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/maurizio-rava_" target="_blank" title="http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/maurizio-rava_">http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/maur...</a>(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/ Maurizio Rava biography (in Italian)] He was Governor of [[Italian Somaliland]] from 1931 to 1935 <a href="http://img404.imageshack.us/img404/9819/debonounocg5.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://img404.imageshack.us/img404/9819/debonounocg5.jpg">http://img404.imageshack.us/img404/9819/...</a> Photo of Maurizio Rava (to the left of image)]<br />
==Life==<br />
Maurizio Rava was born in a [[Jewish]] family in [[Milan]]. He enthusiastically joined the [[National Fascist Party]] during [[World War I]]: in 1919 he was a cofounder of the "Fascio" of Roma. But in the late 1930s he faced problems within the party because of German [[Nazi]] influences against Italian Jews.<br />
In the 1920s Rava was vice-governor of [[Italian Libya]] and a general in the fascist militia. <a href="https://books.google.it/books?id=0WTFAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA179&lpg=PA179&dq=maurizio+rava+governor&source=bl&ots=C9eRrH-zzJ&sig=ir8ZpS7Xc20YxAdhyxG1ZpAz3Y8&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0CCcQ6AEwATgKahUKEwiXtP2G1LrIAhVLoYAKHQ_TAXo#v=onepage&q=maurizio%20rava%20governor&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.it/books?id=0WTFAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA179&lpg=PA179&dq=maurizio+rava+governor&source=bl&ots=C9eRrH-zzJ&sig=ir8ZpS7Xc20YxAdhyxG1ZpAz3Y8&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0CCcQ6AEwATgKahUKEwiXtP2G1LrIAhVLoYAKHQ_TAXo#v=onepage&q=maurizio%20rava%20governor&f=false">https://books.google.it/books?id=0WTFAAA...</a> Maurizio Rava, p. 179]<br />
From 1 July 1931 to 6 March 1935 Rava was the [[List of colonial heads of Italian Somaliland|Governor of Italian Somaliland]]. In his time as governor thousands of Italian colonists came to [[Mogadishu]] and many Somalis joined the Italian colonial troops as a result of his policy to assimilate the [[Somalis]].<br />
==Works==<br />
Maurizio Rava was a painter and a writer. When young he studied at Rome's "Accademia di Belle Arti" <a href="http://www.istitutomatteucci.it/it/dizionario-degli-artisti/rava-maurizio" target="_blank" title="http://www.istitutomatteucci.it/it/dizionario-degli-artisti/rava-maurizio">http://www.istitutomatteucci.it/it/dizio...</a> Maurizio Rava studies as painter] and until 1903 he exposed his paintings with a relative success. <a href="http://www.maremagnum.com/libri-antichi/diciotto-disegni-di-guerra-a-favore-della-croce-rossa/120234963" target="_blank" title="http://www.maremagnum.com/libri-antichi/diciotto-disegni-di-guerra-a-favore-della-croce-rossa/120234963">http://www.maremagnum.com/libri-antichi/...</a> Painting by Maurizio Rava]<br />
Rava wrote some literary works. <a href="http://www.abebooks.it/ricerca-libro/autore/maurizio-rava/" target="_blank" title="http://www.abebooks.it/ricerca-libro/autore/maurizio-rava/">http://www.abebooks.it/ricerca-libro/aut...</a> Books written by Maurizio Rava] In the late 1930s he wrote a book about Somalia (titled "Parole ai Coloniali"), that had a preface written by [[Benito Mussolini]]. <a href="http://www.abebooks.co.uk/servlet/BookDetailsPL?bi=13281253306&searchurl=sortby%3D20%26an%3Dmaurizio+rava" target="_blank" title="http://www.abebooks.co.uk/servlet/BookDetailsPL?bi=13281253306&searchurl=sortby%3D20%26an%3Dmaurizio+rava">http://www.abebooks.co.uk/servlet/BookDe...</a> Maurizio Rava: "Parole ai Coloniali"]<br />
==References==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
*Bettin, Cristina. ''Italian Jews from Emancipation to the Racial Laws''. Italian and Italian American Studies. Editore Palgrave Macmillan. New York, 2010 ISBN 0230114377<br />
==See also==<br />{{portal|Biography|Italy}}<br />* [[Italian Somalia]]<br />{{Italian Governors of Eritrea and Somaliland}}<br />{{DEFAULTSORT:Rava, Maurizio}}<br />[[Category:Governors of Italian Somaliland]]<br />[[Category:1878 births]]<br />[[Category:1941 deaths]]<br />[[Category:People from Milan]]<br />[[Category:Italian military personnel of World War I]]<br />[[Category:Italian Jews]]<br />[[Category:Italian painters]]<br />[[Category:Italian writers]]<br />
===========================================================<br />ARTICLES ERASED IN SUMMER 2015: Cresthaven, Hypess, Oldsettler<br />Cresthaven.<br />1. Tomb of Tin Hinan · (Deleted) 2015-02-18 log · page history · topedits <strong>DONE (Tin hinan)</strong><br />2. Rusucurru · (Deleted) 2015-02-02 log · page history · topedits<br />3. Gunugu · (Deleted) 2015-02-02 log · page history · topedits<br />4. Thuburnica · (Deleted) 2015-02-02 log · page history · topedits<br />5. Rusazu · (Deleted) 2015-02-02 log · page history · topedits<br />6. Aquae Calidae · (Deleted) 2015-02-01 log · page history · topedits<br />7. Tubusuctu · (Deleted) 2015-02-01 log · page history · topedits<br />8. Vescera (Ad Piscinam) · (Deleted) 2015-01-31 log · page history · topedits<br />9. Unica Colonia · (Deleted) 2015-01-30 log · page history · topedits<br />10. Tingartia · (Deleted) 2015-01-29 log · page history · topedits<br />11. Thibilis · (Deleted) 2015-01-27 log · page history · topedits<br />12. Setifis · (Deleted) 2015-01-24 log · page history · topedits <strong>DONE</strong><br />13. Rusguniae · (Deleted) 2015-01-23 log · page history · topedits<br />14. Portus Magnus (Mauretania) · (Deleted) 2015-01-22 log · page history · topedits<br />15. Portus Divinus · (Deleted) 2015-01-22 log · page history · topedits<br />16. Pomaria (Roman city) · (Deleted) 2015-01-21 log · page history · topedits<br />17. Oppidum Novum · (Deleted) 2015-01-20 log · page history · topedits<br />18. Mascula 2014-08-23 log · page history · topedits<br />19. Lamasba · (Deleted) 2014-08-23 log · page history · topedits<br />20. Cohors Breucorum · (Deleted) 2014-08-09 log · page history · topedits<br />21. Castra Nova (Mauretania) · (Deleted) 2014-08-06 log · page history · topedits<br />22. Castellum Tingitanum · (Deleted) 2014-08-05 log · page history · topedits<br />23. Chullu (Roman city) · (Deleted) 2014-07-30 log · page history · topedits <strong>Chullu (</strong><br />24. Castellum Dimmidi · (Deleted) 2014-07-12 log · page history · topedits<br />25. Cartennas 2014-07-11 log · page history · topedits<br />26. Caesarea of Mauretania · (Deleted) 2014-07-10 log · page history · topedits<br />27. Calama (Numidia) 2014-07-07 log · page history · topedits<br />28. Albulae · (Deleted) 2014-07-03 log · page history · topedits<br />29. Numerus Syrorum · (Deleted) 2014-07-03 log · page history · topedits<br />30. Rapidum 2014-07-02 log · page history · topedits<br />31. Tipaza 2014-06-28 log · page history · topedits<br />32. Septem (Roman Ceuta) · (Deleted) 2014-06-20 log · page history · topedits<br />33. Gaerisa · (Deleted) 2014-06-05 log · page history · topedits<br />34. Roman colonies in Berber Africa · (Deleted) 2014-05-28 log · page history · topedits<br />35. Christian Berbers · (Deleted) 2014-05-10 log · page history · topedits<br />36. Iulia Campestris Babba 2014-05-09 log · page history · topedits<br />37. Regnum Maurorum et Romanorum · (Deleted) 2014-04-27 log · page history · topedits<br />38. Romano-Berber states · (Deleted) 2014-03-29 log · page history · topedits<br />Hypess.<br />1. Italian irredentism in the Ionian islands · (Deleted) 2015-02-14 log · page history · topedits<br />2. Province of Pola · (Deleted) 2014-12-26 log · page history · topedits<br />3. List of Spanish words borrowed from Italian 2014-11-24 log · page history · topedits<br />4. Litoranea Balbo 2014-08-26 log · page history · topedits<br />5. Little Maracanazo · (Deleted) 2014-08-16 log · page history · topedits<br />6. Marta R. Cristofini · (Deleted) 2014-06-06 log · page history · topedits<br />7. Romans in Sudan · (Deleted) 2014-03-21 log · page history · topedits<br />8. Roman expeditions to lake Chad and western Africa · (Deleted) 2014-03-13 log · page history · topedits<br />9. Nero expedition to Nile sources · (Deleted) 2014-02-20 log · page history · topedits<br />10. Province of Cattaro · (Deleted) 2014-02-08 log · page history · topedits<br />11. Province of Spalato · (Deleted) 2013-10-15 log · page history · topedits<br />Oldsettler.<br />1. Asmara's Opera 2015-04-13 log · page history · topedits<br />2. Agenore Frangipani 2015-04-11 log · page history · topedits<br />3. Vincenzo De Feo 2015-04-09 log · page history · topedits<br />4. Giuseppe Daodice 2015-04-09 log · page history · topedits<br />5. Italian Asmara · (Deleted) 2015-04-06 log · page history · topedits<br />6. Carla Maria Puccini · (Deleted) 2015-01-11 log · page history · topedits<br />7. Gabriella Ghermandi 2015-01-10 log · page history · topedits<br />8. History of Italian colonial railways · (Deleted) 2014-12-29 log · page history · topedits<br />9. Italian Benghazi 2014-12-16 log · page history · topedits<br />10. Italian Governors of Eritrea 2014-12-14 log · page history · topedits<br />11. Costantino Borsini 2014-11-15 log · page history · topedits<br />12. Concessions and forts of Italy in China · (Deleted) 2014-11-04 log · page history · topedits<br />13. Scioa Governorate 2014-11-02 log · page history · topedits<br />14. Italian Somali Divisions (101 and 102) 2014-10-29 log · page history · topedits<br />15. Ascari del Cielo 2014-10-25 log · page history · topedits<br />16. Italian refugees from Libya 2014-10-22 log · page history · topedits<br />17. Linea dell'Impero 2014-10-20 log · page history · topedits<br />18. Tripoli-Castel Benito Airport · (Deleted) 2014-10-18 log · page history · topedits<br />19. Massacre of Italians at Sciara Sciat · (Deleted) 2014-10-13 log · page history · topedits<br />20. Postage stamps of Italian Libya 2014-10-10 log · page history · topedits<br />21. Italian Tripoli · (Deleted) 2014-09-29 log · page history · topedits <br />
IN SP.WIKI:<br />La Florida (Caracas)<br />Carlos Luis Castelli (done as [[Carlo Castelli]])<br />ADDITIONAL LATER ERASED:<br />Costante Ferrari<br />Alberto Adriani Mazzei (riscritto da un altro come [[Alberto Adriani]])<br />
<a href="http://blog.erlingsson.com/?p=4373" target="_blank" title="http://blog.erlingsson.com/?p=4373">http://blog.erlingsson.com/?p=4373</a> wiki slandering (contro Vituzzu)<br /> <a href="http://it.blastingnews.com/opinioni/2015/08/wikipedia-italia-esplode-la-protesta-contro-alcuni-amministratori-00507067.html" target="_blank" title="http://it.blastingnews.com/opinioni/2015/08/wikipedia-italia-esplode-la-protesta-contro-alcuni-amministratori-00507067.html">http://it.blastingnews.com/opinioni/2015...</a> (contro Vituzzu)<br />
==============================================================<br />
VIDEO<br /> <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqZMCS7cN7Q&list=PLoFOWsu4qD6O6G5Nx-evPvLLwnjg4Xdy5&index=96" target="_blank" title="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqZMCS7cN7Q&list=PLoFOWsu4qD6O6G5Nx-evPvLLwnjg4Xdy5&index=96">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqZMCS7c...</a><b></b><i></i><u></u><sub></sub><sup></sup><strike></strike>mappista59http://www.blogger.com/profile/17629549463392207787noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-508143919763220478.post-3024279849820371812019-09-19T17:24:00.003-07:002019-09-19T17:39:21.103-07:00MORE MEMORIES 2======================<br />
<a href="https://www.browardschools.com/Page/32129" target="_blank" title="https://www.browardschools.com/Page/32129">https://www.browardschools.com/Page/3212...</a><br />
Maria's INTERIM information<br />
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<a href="http://www.avia-it.com/act/cera_una_volta/echi/avianew_cera_una_volta_echi.asp" target="_blank" title="http://www.avia-it.com/act/cera_una_volta/echi/avianew_cera_una_volta_echi.asp">http://www.avia-it.com/act/cera_una_volt...</a> OTTIMISSIMO CON ARTICOLI SVARIATI (DA COPIARE SE NECESSARIO)<br />
======================<br />
<a href="https://www.academia.edu/29295757/Evers_2014-15_Cave_of_Revelations._Indian_Ocean_Trade_in_Light_of_the_Socotran_Graffiti_digital_v.2.1" target="_blank" title="https://www.academia.edu/29295757/Evers_2014-15_Cave_of_Revelations._Indian_Ocean_Trade_in_Light_of_the_Socotran_Graffiti_digital_v.2.1">https://www.academia.edu/29295757/Evers_...</a> Articolo su possibile presenza romana a Socotra<br />
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ITALIAN MASSAWA<br />
[[File:Massawa, Eritrea (Ottoman architecture).jpg|thumb|left|200 px|The "Hotel Torino" (built in 1938), an example of Venetian influenced architecture in the city's old section]]<br />
Eritrean city of Massawa was a colony of the [[Kingdom of Italy]] since 1885 until 1947, when Italy surrendered all the colonies in the peace treaty after [[World War II]]. In those eight decades the city grew from a small village to a cosmopolitan city of nearly 25,000 inhabitants that was the main port or [[Eritrea]].<br />
The port was the main of [[Italian Eritrea]] and was greatly improved in the 1930s, in order to allow a military navy base and also a service of civilian [[ocean liner]]s (like {{MS|Vulcania||2}}).<br />
The port was also connected to [[Asmara]] by a railway still existing: construction of this rail line began from the Red Sea port city of Massawa in 1887, heading towards the capital city of Asmara. The "Decauville" railway was the first built, from Massawa to Saati, just {{convert|27|km|mi|abbr=on}}. <a href="http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/la_ferrovia_massauasaati.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/la_ferrovia_massauasaati.htm">http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/la_ferrovi...</a> Railway Massaua-Saati, built in 1887-1888 (in italian)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012032531/http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/la_ferrovia_massauasaati.htm |date=12 October 2013 }} Progress was slow, thanks to the long climb up the mountains to the high plateau of inland Eritrea, and the substantial civil engineering works required; the line reached Asmara in 1911.<br />
This [[Eritrean Railway]] was built by the Italians next to a modern highway in order to efficiently connect Massawa and Asmara, the main cities of Italian Eritrea.<br />
There was also a link with the ''Asmara-Massawa Cableway'': it was a [[Aerial lift|cableway]] (or "ropeway").{{cite web|url=http://www.funivie.org/pagine/storia/mrw_massaua_asmara/index.htm|website=funivie.org|title=TELEFERICA MASSAUA ASMARA <a href="http://www.funivie.org/" target="_blank" title="http://www.funivie. ">www.funivie.org</a> :: Il sito italiano sugli impianti a fune (The Eritrean cableway)| language=it |accessdate=2018-08-13}} The Eritrean Ropeway, completed in 1937, ran {{convert|71.8|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the south end of Asmara until the city-port of Massawa.<br />
{{Quote|''The Eritrean Ropeway, completed in 1937, ran 71.8 km from near Massawa to the south end of Asmara. This was the longest cableway ever.'' Ralph Reinhold}}<br />
In 1940, Massawa had nearly 20,000 inhabitants, of which almost 6,000 were [[Italian Eritreans|Italians]]: the city was improved with an architectural plan similar to the one in Asmara, with a commercial and industrial area.{{cite web|url=http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/1/Santoianni_Progettazione_Architettonica.pdf|date=2008-05-22|title=Il Razionalismo nelle colonie italiane 1928-1943 | La "nuova architettura" delle Terre d’Oltremare|author=Vittorio Santoianni| publisher= Università degli Studi di Napoli “Federico II” - Facoltà di Architettura |accessdate=2018-08-11}}<br />
During World War II Massawa was the homeport for the [[Red Sea Flotilla]] of the [[Regia Marina|Italian Royal Navy]]. When the city fell during the [[East African Campaign (World War II)|East African Campaign]], a large number of Italian and German ships were sunk in an attempt to [[Scuttling#Blockade of Massawa (1941)|block use of Massawa's harbor]].<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Italian Eritrea]]<br />
* [[Kingdom of Italy]]<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Bandini, Franco. ''Gli italiani in Africa, storia delle guerre coloniali 1882–1943''. Longanesi. Milano, 1971.<br />
* Negash, Tekeste. ''Italian colonialism in Eritrea 1882–1941 (Politics, Praxis and Impact)''. Uppsala University. Uppsala, 1987.<br />
{{Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)}}<br />
[[Category:Italian Eritrea]]<br />
==============<br />
AGENORE FGRANGIPANI<br />
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2015}}<br />
{{Infobox military person<br />
| honorific_prefix =<br />
| name = Agenore Frangipani<br />
| honorific_suffix =<br />
| native_name =<br />
| native_name_lang =<br />
| image =<br />
| image_size =<br />
| alt =<br />
| caption =<br />
| birth_date = {{birth date|1876|12|04|df=y}}<br />
| death_date = {{death date and age|1941|04|06|1876|12|04|df=y}}<br />
| birth_place = [[Benevento]], Italy<br />
| death_place = [[Addis Abeba]], Ethiopia<br />
| nickname =<br />
| birth_name =<br />
| allegiance = {{flag|Kingdom of Italy}}<br />
| branch = {{army|Kingdom of Italy}}<br />
| serviceyears =<br />
| rank =<br />
| servicenumber =<br />
| unit =<br />
| commands = General Officer of Italian Army; Governor of Scioa/Addis Abeba<br />
| battles = [[World War I]];[[Second Italo-Abyssinian War]];[[Italian invasion of Albania]];[[World War II]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Agenore Frangipani''' ([[Benevento]]; 4 December 1876 – [[Addis Abeba]]; 6 April 1941) was an Italian general during [[World War II]], and for three days was [[List of Italian Governors of Addis Ababa|Governor of Addis Abeba]] in April 1941.<br />
==Biography==<br />
Agenore Frangipani was born in 1876 to a noble family of ancient lineage: the Marquis of Mileta. He was the second son of the Marquis of Mileta and by secular tradition he was destined to a military career. He started in the Italian Navy, studying for some time at the [[Italian Naval Academy|Naval Academy of Livorno]], but soon he preferred to pursue a career as an officer in the Italian Army. So, he went to study at the [[Nunziatella military academy|Military Academy "Nunziatella" of Napoli]], from which he became in 1899 lieutenant of the "[[Cuirassier|Corazzieri]]".<br />
Frangipani when young took virtually no part in the military life from 1899 until 1905, having to deal with the death of his parents and older brother and taking control of the administration of his own lands at [[Benevento]] and in [[Molise]]; nevertheless he was promoted to captain of Cuirassiers in 1906 and in 1908 left the cavalry and the Cuirassiers for the "Artillery".<br />
In 1907 Frangipani married Countess Cristina Agazzi (1891–1953), member of a noble Lombard family.<br />
In 1911 Frangipani took part in the [[Italo-Turkish War]] in Libya (Tripolitania and Cyrenaica) and was particularly interested in the Turkish air defense: after the capture of [[Italian Tripoli|Tripoli]] he discovered some of the anti-aircraft defenses, proposing to the Italian Ministry of War to create similar defenses in Italian shores and in the colonial outposts in Libya.<br />
During [[World War I]] Frangipani distinguished himself as a relentless interventionist in favor of the "Entente" and participated personally in the early fighting on the [[Karst|Carso]]. Unlike other officers of aristocratic family, he did not want to enter the Military Command headquarters but continued the war fighting in the trenches, being promoted to Major in 1917 and [[Colonel]] a year after the war ended.<br />
Frangipani was not hostile to fascism, because he believed it was a form of rebirth of Italian military power and he joined the [[Fascist Party]] already in 1923. Senior official at the Ministry of War, Frangipani was ''military attaché'' in [[Berlin]] and Paris until 1930.<br />
He also participated in the [[Spanish Civil War]] alongside the [[Francisco Franco|Franco]] troops as commander of the Italian contingent. Before fighting in Spain, he had distinguished himself during the [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War|War of Ethiopia]] and was promoted to Major General in 1936.<br />
Agenore Frangipani also actively participated in the Italian invasion and conquest of [[Albania]] in 1939.<br />
As an Officer commanding an Italian Army in Ethiopia, he succeeded his parent [[Giuseppe Daodice]] as governor of [[Addis Ababa]] in the last three days of the Italian Government. He found himself having to counter the Allied advance without any hope, he was forced to give the Ethiopia's capital to the British on 6 April 1941. Indeed, the Italian Viceroy [[Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta|Amedeo d'Aosta]] ordered him (the Italian governor of Addis Abeba), to surrender the city to the British commanders without any fight, in order to forestall the massacre of Italian civilians that happened a few days before in [[Dire Dawa]]. <a href="http://www.storiaxxisecolo.it/secondaguerra/sgmcampagnaafrica6.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.storiaxxisecolo.it/secondaguerra/sgmcampagnaafrica6.htm">http://www.storiaxxisecolo.it/secondague...</a> War in Italian eastern Africa (in Italian)] Frangipani-who was prepared for a defensive battle- accepted reluctantly the order to surrender.<br />
But having on him the responsibility and the dishonor of surrender, during the retreat from the city committed suicide with poison. His family honored his old-aristocracy feelings about not accepting surrender without combat.<br />
==Awards==<br />
Some of the Awards (and Medals) received by Agenore Frangipani were:<br />
[[image:Grande ufficiale OCI Kingdom BAR.svg|100px]] Grand'Ufficiale dell'Ordine della Corona d'Italia<br />
[[image:Grande ufficiale SSML Regno BAR.svg|100px]] Grand'Ufficiale dell'Ordine dei Santi Maurizio e Lazzaro<br />
[[image:Commendatore OMS BAR.svg|100px]] Commendatore dell'Ordine militare di Savoia<br />
[[image:Ordine coloniale della stella d'italia commendatore.png|100px]] Commendatore dell'Ordine coloniale della stella d'Italia<br />
[[image:Valor militare gold medal - old style BAR.svg|100px]] Medaglia d'oro al valor militare<br />
[[image:ItaloTurca.png|100px]] Medaglia commemorativa della guerra italo-turca 1911–1912<br />
[[image:Medaglia commemorativa della campagna di Spagna.svg|100px]] Medaglia Commemorativa della Guerra di Spagna (1936–1939)<br />
[[image:Italian expedition to Albania BAR.svg|100px]] Medaglia commemorativa della Spedizione in Albania<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Beltrami, Vanni. ''Italia d'oltremare. Storie dei territori italiani dalla conquista alla caduta.'' Edizioni Nuova Cultura. Roma, 2013 {{ISBN|978-88-6134-702-1}} <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TE2ldbz57eIC&lpg=PR1&hl=it&pg=PA273#v=onepage&q&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=TE2ldbz57eIC&lpg=PR1&hl=it&pg=PA273#v=onepage&q&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=TE2ldb...</a>]<br />
* Goffredo Orlandi Contucci, ''A.O.I.- AFRICA ORIENTALE ITALIANA – La conquista dell'Impero nel ricordo del tenente Goffredo Orlandi Contucci'' – Edizioni MyLife, Monte Colombo/Coriano, 2009 {{ISBN|978-88-6285-100-8}}<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[East African Campaign (World War II)]]<br />
*[[Scioa Governorate]]<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Frangipani, Agenore}}<br />
[[Category:Italian East Africa]]<br />
[[Category:Italian military personnel of World War II]]<br />
[[Category:Italian generals]]<br />
[[Category:1876 births]]<br />
[[Category:1941 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:People from Benevento]]<br />
==============================<br />
AC MOGADISGIO<br />
{{Football club infobox<br />
| clubname = AC Mogadiscio<br />
| fullname = Associazione Calcio Mogadiscio<br />
| nickname =<br />
| founded = 1941<br />
| ground = [[Banadir Stadium]], [[Mogadishu]]<br />
| capacity = 10,000<br />
| chairman =<br />
| manager =<br />
| league = [[Somali First Division]]<br />
| season =<br />
| position =<br />
}}<br />
'''AC Mogadiscio''' was a [[football (soccer)|football]] club in [[Somalia]]. They were Somali football champions in 1946/47 (amateur) and in 1957/58.{{cite web|url=http://www.rsssf.com/tabless/somachamp.html|title=Somalia Champions|author=|date=|website=www.rsssf.com|accessdate=13 January 2019}}<br />
==History==<br />
The club was founded as an amateur team in 1941 with the Italian name "Associazione Calcio Mogadiscio", but in 1956 the club changed name to ''AS Mogadiscio'' (or Association Sport Mogadishu) winning the Somali championsdhip the next year{{cite web|url=http://www.rsssf.com/tabless/soma58.html#cc58|title=Somalia 1957/58|author=|date=|website=www.rsssf.com|accessdate=13 January 2019}}. It was dismantled in 1964.<br />
In 1955 -during the [[Trust Territory of Somalia|Trust Territory of Somalia under Italian administration]]- was created the first football stadium in [[Mogadishu]]: the ''Coni Stadium'', later called [[Banadir Stadium]]. The teams that played a Trust Territory of Somalia championship with the stadium inauguration were: "[[Lavori Publici]]", "Autoparco", "El Gab", "Sicurezza", "[[Somali Police FC]]" and "AS Mogadiscio" (the former AC Mogadiscio, that won the championship in 1947). <a href="http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/2307/3897/1/1955.11.28-30.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/2307/3897/1/1955.11.28-30.pdf">http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/...</a> "Corriere di Mogadiscio", page # 3 of November 28, 1955 (in Italian)]<br />
== Achievements ==<br />
*1958 First Division of [[Somalia League]] champions:<br />
Final Table:<br />
1.AS Mogadiscio 10 9 0 1 43-10 18 Champions<br />
2.AS Corpo Polizia 10 6 2 2 21-11 14<br />
3.Autoparco 10 6 0 4 25-18 12<br />
4.LLPP 10 4 3 3 20-17 11<br />
5.AS El Gab 10 2 0 8 10-34 4<br />
6.AC Scuraran 10 0 1 9 10-39 1<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Football in Somalia]]<br />
* [[Alba FC]]<br />
{{Somalia League}}<br />
{{Somalia italiana (Colonia)}}<br />
=================================<br />
GONDRAND MASSACRE<br />
[[File:Cimitero di Mai Lahla nel 1 anniversario eccidio del Gondrand.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Mai Lahlà Cemetery on the first anniversary of the massacre]]<br />
[[File:C-123-M-62-1936-VII EN.pdf|thumb|right|330px|Italian communication of protest to the [[League of Nations]]]]<br />
'''Gondrand massacre''' refers to the massacre occurred near the Ethiopian locality of [[Rama, Ethiopia|Mai Lahlà]] at dawn on February 13, 1936, during the [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War]], when almost all the Italian workers of a road construction site were killed as a result of an operation of [[guerrilla]] by Ethiopian soldiers under the orders of [[Imru Haile Selassie|Ras Immirù]] Gian Carlo Stella. Massacro di Gondrand ( <a href="http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-gondrand.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-gondrand.htm">http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-gondrand...</a>]).<br />
==History==<br />
The massacre occurred at the same time as the [[Battle of Amba Aradam]], fought from 10 to 19 February at about 200 km south of Mai Lahlà.<br />
[[File:1936AfricaOrientaleEccidioCantiereGondrand18.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Bares of Italians awaiting the burial]]<br />
In the locality Utok Emni at Mai Lahlà In [[Amharic language]] ''Mai'' means river, located in the Ethiopian territory in the immediate vicinity of the border with [[Eritrea]], the "National Transport Company Gondrand" was working on the construction of colonial roads during the war in [[Ethiopia]]: at the village of Daro Taclè it had placed its yard n.1, engaged in the widening of the road between [[Asmara]] and [[Adwa|Adua]]. The construction site housed just under a hundred Italian workers headed by the engineer Cesare Rocca, accompanied by his wife Lidia Maffioli and the engineer Roberto Colloredo Mels. Although in the area there were garrisons of Italian troops, the area of the building site was not visible from these military compounds.<br />
In the night between 12 and 13 February 1936 a band composed of 100 men (according to other sources 600 See the official report by Fulvio Suvich sent to the [[League of Nations]]) warriors of ras Imiru, under the command of Fitaurari Chenfè Tesfai, attacked the construction site conquering it after a short resistance.<br />
{{Quote|''I gave myself to the "Fitautari" Tesfai the order to attack the Mai Lahlà field. I believed it and still consider it a legitimate act of war since the workers were in the area of operations and were armed with muskets. In fact, they defended themselves fiercely, inflicting harsh losses on us. What our populations certainly could not do, when they were attacked and decimated by fascist aviation'' Ras Immirù}} <br />
The yard was poorly defended because equipped only with about 15 [[muskets]] as a defense weapon. However -although the workers had also used the work tools as shovels as defense tools- they all were overwhelmed by the surprise attack of the Ethiopians; almost all the workers present that night, sixty-eight Italians and seventeen Eritreans, were killed within one hourGiovanni Artieri "Chronicle of the Kingdom of Italy: From Victory to the Republic" Mondadori. Milano, 1978; p. 482 except for two Italians (Alfredo Lusetti and Ernesto Zannoni) who survived because lightly hit while hiding under the dead bodies. <br />
The massacre was discovered an hour later by a department of the 41st Regiment: when they arrived at the site the military found that many Italian corpses showed mutilations or evirations. It is believed that 18 Italians were emasculated (Luigi Goglia. "Photographic history of the fascist Empire 1935-1941". Laterza. Bari, 1985 note N. 21; p. 18). Three members of the band were still inside the construction site (while stealing from the dead bodies and from the compound) and were fusillade after a few minutes. On the spot, there were also signs of an explosion of the construction site's powder magazine, which had caused the death of about forty Ethiopian warriors. Lidia Maffioli was found dead by a gunshot from her husband revolver There are other discordant versions of her death in different ways, probably in order to avoid her capture and consequent rape & painful torture. Another woman, an Eritrean girl, who was named Ruthie who worked as a maid for the civilian workers, was found murdered after being raped.<br />
{{Quote|''First reports about the emasculation of Italian soldiers were received in December 1935 and caused alarm in the fighting force - especially after unauthorized photographs were circulated. While commanders in the field were instructed not to let the morale of the troops be affected, Rome decided to use emasculation as crying proof of the enemy's backwardness justifying Italy's civilizing mission. As of mid-January 1936, emasculation became a main focus of the Italian propaganda campaign, not least to offset the very damaging Ethiopian accusations of Italian bombings of Red Cross hospitals. The League of Nations was repeatedly confronted with the matter and the ICRC was kept constantly informed. In the worst single and well-documented incident — the attack on the Gondrand construction camp — seventeen workers out of eighty killed were mutilated in such a horrific way.'' <a href="http://www.historyrevealed.eu/africa-new/ethiopia-eritrea/photos/10864-collection-of-22-photos-of-the-gondrand-massacre-aph228.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.historyrevealed.eu/africa-new/ethiopia-eritrea/photos/10864-collection-of-22-photos-of-the-gondrand-massacre-aph228.html">http://www.historyrevealed.eu/africa-new...</a> Photos of the Gondrand massacre, with article]}}<br />
==Italian Retaliation==<br />
[[File:1936AfricaOrientaleEccidioCantiereGondrand64.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Hanging in front of Ethiopian civilians of the main responsables of the Gondrand massacre]]<br />
Immediately after the massacre, the Italian soldiers begin a hard [[reprisal]] against the population of the area surrounding Mai Lahlà. Soon all the members of the band were found, in many cases hiding inside nearby villages that were burned to the ground. Most of them were killed. All the leaders of the band were executed by hanging in front of civilians.<br />
As a consequence of the massacre, the use of gas against the Ethiopians was greatly increased since then in the war. Furthermore, to all the Italian soldiers was given the order to maintain a last gunshot for themselves, in order not to fall in the hands of Ethiopians who would torture them to deathTiziano Bozio Madé. "Il diario di Giovanni Palestro in Africa orientale italiana". L'impegno; volume=XVIII; April 1998. Ed. Istituto per la storia della Resistenza e della società contemporanea nelle province di Biella e Vercelli ( <a href="http://www.storia900bivc.it/pagine/memoguerra/palestro.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.storia900bivc.it/pagine/memoguerra/palestro.html">http://www.storia900bivc.it/pagine/memog...</a>])<br />
==See also==<br />
{{Commons category|Gondrand massacre}}<br />
* [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War]]<br />
* [[Battle of Amba Aradam]]<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Nicolle, David (1997). ''The Italian Invasion of Abyssinia 1935–1936''. Westminster, MD: Osprey. {{ISBN|978-1-85532-692-7}}.<br />
* Sbacchi, Alberto (1997). ''Legacy of Bitterness: Ethiopia and Fascist Italy, 1935–1941''. Lawrenceville, NJ: Red Sea Press. {{ISBN|978-0-932415-74-5}}.<br />
* Sbacchi, Alberto (1978) & Marcus, H. G. ''The Price of Empire: Towards an Enumeration of Italian Casualties in Ethiopia 1935–40''. Ethiopianist Notes. II (2). ISSN 1063-2751<br />
* Zamorani, Massimo. ''La strage della "Gondrand"'', in "Storia militare", XXI, nº 236, May 2013, pp. 37-39<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
{{coord missing|Ethiopia}}<br />
[[Category:Second Italo-Ethiopian War]]<br />
[[Category:Italian East Africa]]<br />
[[Category:1936 in Italy]]<br />
[[Category:1936 in Ethiopia]]<br />
[[Category:Massacres in Ethiopia]]<br />
====================================<br />
BENGHAZI UNDER ITALY<br />
'''Benghazi under Italy''' was the period of time during the Italian colonization of [[Libya]] for the port-city of [[Benghazi]] in [[Italian Cyrenaica]].<br />
==History==<br />
On October 19, 1911 the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] city of Benghazi was occupied by the Italians during the [[Italo-Turkish War]] <a href="https://archive.org/details/tripoliitalianal00mart" target="_blank" title="https://archive.org/details/tripoliitalianal00mart">https://archive.org/details/tripoliitali...</a> Occupation of Benghazi by the Italian troops (p. 79-95)].<br />
[[File:Benghazi Italiana.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Aerial view Italian Benghazi in 1940]]<br />
Even if Benghazi city accepted the Italians and some members of the local community collaborated with the Italian government, in the interior nearly half the local population of [[Cyrenaica]] under the leadership of [[Omar Mukhtar]] resisted the Italian occupation. Many local arabs -under the [[Senussi]] leadership- suffered oppression, particularly from the fascist dictator [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]] in the late 1920s.<br />
In the early 1930s, the revolt was over and the Italians—under governor [[Italo Balbo]]—started attempts to assimilate the local population with pacifying policies: a number of new villages for local Cyrenaicans were created with health services and schools.<br />
Additionally Cyrenaica was populated by more than 20,000 [[Italian settlers in Libya|Italian colonists]] in the late 1930s, mainly around the coast of Benghazi. Benghazi population was made up of more than 35 per cent of Italians in 1939 <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KBW_9EgHHpM" target="_blank" title="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KBW_9EgHHpM">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KBW_9EgH...</a> Video of Italian colonists going to Libya from Venice in 1938].<br />
In 1941 Italian Benghazi -according to estimates of the Italian governmentIstituto Agricolo Coloniale (Firenze).Ministero degli Esteri, 1946- reached a temporary population of nearly 80,000 inhabitants, due to the arrival of many Italians from [[Cyrenaica]] who took refuge from the British army attacks during [[WWII]]. As a consequence Tripoli was in that year -for the first time since the Arab conquest in 643 AD- a city mostly [[Christianity|Christian]].<br />
Benghazi was heavily bombed during [[World War II]] (more than one thousand times) and -when the British finally occupied the city in December 1942- nearly 85% of the city was damaged or destroyed.<br />
[[File:Italian Benghazi.jpg|thumb|The colonial Italians created the ''Lungomare'' (sea-walk) of Benghazi and constructed many other buildings]]<br />
[[File:Cyrenaica Parliament.jpg|thumb|the ''Littorio Palace'' in Benghazi was later the seat of the "Cyrenaican regional assembly"]]<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
Benghazi <a href="https://dadfeatured.blogspot.com/2018/09/bengasi-italiana.html" target="_blank" title="https://dadfeatured.blogspot.com/2018/09/bengasi-italiana.html">https://dadfeatured.blogspot.com/2018/09...</a> Italian Benghazi] was located in northern [[Italian Libya]], in [[Cyrenaica]]. It was the administrative center of the Italian [[Benghazi Province]], on the [[Mediterranean]] coast.<br />
Indeed the Italians conquered from the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] in 1911 a region in coastal Cyrenaica that was very poor and underdeveloped: it had no asphalted road, no telegraph services, no sewages system and no hospitals (in 1874 Benghazi had been depopulated by the [[bubonic plague]]). In the next twenty years they built all these infrastructures and by the early 1930s a new port and a railways station were created in Benghazi.<br />
In the 1920s in the Benghazi province was created a [[Libyan Railways|railway]] between Benghazi and Barce: a 750 mm (2 ft 5 1⁄2 in) (later 950 mm) gauge railway was built east from Benghazi; the main route was 110 km long to Marj and was opened in stages between 1911 and 1927. Benghazi also had a 56 km branch to Suluq opened in 1926. <a href="http://www.gips.unisi.it/files/wp18.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.gips.unisi.it/files/wp18.pdf">http://www.gips.unisi.it/files/wp18.pdf</a> History of railways in colonial Libya (in Italian)]<br />
In the late 1930s in the Benghazi province were settled thousands of [[Italian settlers in Libya|Italians]] as farmers in special villages. <a href="http://www.architecturebeyond.eu/wp-content/uploads/2010/10/vittoria-capresi_I-centri-rurali-libici.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.architecturebeyond.eu/wp-content/uploads/2010/10/vittoria-capresi_I-centri-rurali-libici.pdf">http://www.architecturebeyond.eu/wp-cont...</a> Italians in new villages in Cyrenaica] Most of the Italians were concentrated in the city of Benghazi, where they were in 1939 nearly one third of the population.<br />
==Architecture==<br />
Benghazi came under Italian rule in the early part of the 20th century: some examples of [[Italianate]], as well as [[modernist]] colonial architecture from this period remain today. Under the governorships of Generals Ernesto Mombelli and Attilio Teruzzi in the 1920s, the buildings commissioned in Benghazi had an eclectic architectural language that embodied a Western conception of Eastern architecture. <br />
An example of this is the [[Benghazi Municipal Hall|Municipal palace]] built in 1924, which stands in Maydan al-Hurriya (Freedom Square). The building combines [[Moorish Revival|Moorish]] arches with Italianate motifs on the facade. Italians even did the first architectural plan of Benghazi. <a href="http://www.paolocason.it/Libia/fotolibia/wpe210.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.paolocason.it/Libia/fotolibia/wpe210.jpg">http://www.paolocason.it/Libia/fotolibia...</a> "Italian Urban Plan of Benghazi"]. in the 1930s, with a new [[Italian Libya Railways|railway station]] and promenade. <br />
{{Quote|''The heart of the Italian city was the Piazza del Re, formerly Piazza del Sole, with the central part dedicated to a nice garden. On it overlooked the Palazzo del Governo, a Moorish-style building, formerly the seat of the Cyrenaic Parliament, which housed the Library and the Civil Court, and other noteworthy architectures. The Corso Italia, lined with palm trees, flowed into the square: it was the most important artery of the city and led to the Railways station; on it stood the main facade of the Palazzo del Governatore (1928-34), designed by Alpago Novello, Cabiati and Ferrazza, overlooking Piazza XXVIII Ottobre; here were lined various buildings such as the Elementary and Middle Schools and the Sports Club. Piazza del Re was connected, via the axis of via Roma and via general Briccola, to the Piazza del Municipio, located inside the ancient city, in which stood the Moorish-style Town Hall.'' V. SantoianniVittorio Santoianni."Il Razionalismo nelle colonie italiane 1928-1943. La 'nuova architettura' delle Terre d’Oltremare" Section: Bengasi (p. 59)}}<br />
Many buildings and streets were built in the late 1930s, making "Bengasi" a town that looked like a typical Italian city <a href="https://i.pinimg.com/originals/4a/56/23/4a5623b78dd04a7af12d216797b6aa63.jpg" target="_blank" title="https://i.pinimg.com/originals/4a/56/23/4a5623b78dd04a7af12d216797b6aa63.jpg">https://i.pinimg.com/originals/4a/56/23/...</a> Via Briccola].<br />
The largest colonial building from this Italian period is the [[Benghazi Cathedral]] in Maydan El Catedraeya (Cathedral Square), which was built in the 1920s and has two large distinct domes.McLaren, Brian L. (2006). ''Architecture and Tourism in Italian Colonial Libya – An Ambivalent Modernism''. [[University of Washington Press]] ([[Seattle]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]]). p. 158. {{ISBN|978-0-295-98542-8}}.<br />
[[File:Benghazi 1935 Panorama.jpg|thumb|center|800px|Panorama of "Bengazi italiana" in 1935, with new road construction]] <br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Chapin Metz, Hellen. ''Libya: A Country Study''. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1987<br />
* Pagano, Giovanni. ''Architettura e città durante il fascismo''. Editori Laterza. Roma, 1990<br />
* Santoianni, Vittorio. ''Il Razionalismo nelle colonie italiane 1928-1943.La «nuova architettura» delle Terre d’Oltremare''. Ed. Universita' Federico II. Napoli, 2008 ( <a href="http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/1/Santoianni_Progettazione_Architettonica.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/1/Santoianni_Progettazione_Architettonica.pdf">http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/1/Santoia...</a>])<br />
* {{cite web|url=http://escholarship.org/uc/item/9hm1p6m5#page-1|title=The Light and the Line: Florestano Di Fausto and the Politics of Mediterraneità|publisher=University of California, 2010|work=California Italian Studies|author=Sean Anderson}}<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Italian Libya]]<br />
* [[Benghazi]]<br />
* [[Benghazi Governorate]]<br />
* [[Italian Cyrenaica]]<br />
{{Italian Libya}}<br />
[[Category:Benghazi]]<br />
[[Category:Italian Libya]]<br />
=======================<br />
{{ Infobox officeholder<br />
| name =Pollera, Ludovico<br />
| image=<br />
| imagesize=<br />
| caption=<br />
|order1=[[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea|Italian Governor of Eritrea]]<br />
| term_start1= November 20, 1920<br />
|term_end1 = April 13, 1921<br />
| predecessor1=[[De Camillis Camillo (governor)|Camillo De Camillis]]<br />
| successor1=[[Giovanni Cerrina Feroni]]<br />
|order2=<br />
|term_start2 =<br />
| term_end2=<br />
| predecessor2=<br />
| successor2=<br />
| birth_date=<br />
|birth_place =<br />
| death_date=<br />
| death_place=<br />
| nationality=Italian<br />
|party =<br />
| footnotes=<br />
}}<br />
'''Pollera, Ludovico''' (1870–1953) was an [[Italians|Italian]] governor of [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]].<br />
==Life==<br />
Pollera was born in [[Lucca]] on July 4, 1870. He was a member of a [[Tuscany]] family with aristocracy roots.<br />
Pollera was a colonial official like his brother Alberto, an ethnographist and writer. He arrived in Eritrea in 1895 and remained there until 1928. He participated in the [[battle of Adwa]] in March 1896. The next year he fought the [[Dervishi]] in Sudan.<br />
In 1900 he left the military service and started to work as civilian for the Italian "Ministero Affari Esteri" (Foreign Policy Ministry).<br />
Pollera started as a "Commissioner resident" of [[Agordat]] and then was regional commissioner of some areas of Eritrea. In 1912 he accompanied an aggregated [[Zaptie]] Mehariste company of the V Battalion [[Eritrean Ascari|Ascari]] in war operations in [[Italian Libya]]. Subsequently, he became the head of the "Civil and Political Affairs Department" in Eritrea (1918-1920) <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FPpHVhUzPcIC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq=Ludovico+pollera+governatore+eritrea+-+relazione+barca&source=bl&ots=_s5qQOkklV&sig=ACfU3U07QJfVcMwzKtZfXjnRez_iNlBalw&hl=it&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwilooPkr_jfAhXIqYMKHfQCC2gQ6AEwBXoECAUQAQ#v=onepage&q=Ludovico%20pollera%20governatore%20eritrea%20-%20relazione%20barca&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=FPpHVhUzPcIC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq=Ludovico+pollera+governatore+eritrea+-+relazione+barca&source=bl&ots=_s5qQOkklV&sig=ACfU3U07QJfVcMwzKtZfXjnRez_iNlBalw&hl=it&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwilooPkr_jfAhXIqYMKHfQCC2gQ6AEwBXoECAUQAQ#v=onepage&q=Ludovico%20pollera%20governatore%20eritrea%20-%20relazione%20barca&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=FPpHVh...</a> Ludovico Pollera; p. 55].<br />
From November 20, 1920 to April 13, 1921, he was [[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea|Governor of the Colony of Eritrea]] and successively he remained "General Secretary" of Eritrea until 1928 (a government job that was the equivalent of vice-governor). Pollera was discharged with honor from his government works in 1928.<br />
He wrote only one book, a "Report" in 1913: ''Relazione Commissariato generale del Barca (1883-1892)'', for the "Camera dei Deputati" of [[Rome|Roma]].<br />
Ludovico Pollera returned from Africa in the mid-thirties of the last century to be elected -between 1938 and 1945- President of the ''Cassa di Lucca'', a regional bank of his hometown <a href="https://www.assiter.org/file/2004-africus-08.pdf" target="_blank" title="https://www.assiter.org/file/2004-africus-08.pdf">https://www.assiter.org/file/2004-africu...</a> Biography of Alberto and Ludovico Pollera].<br />
He died in Lucca on January 21, 1953.<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Italian Eritrea]]<br />
* [[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea]]<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Bandini, Franco. ''Gli italiani in Africa, storia delle guerre coloniali 1882-1943''. Longanesi. Milano, 1971.<br />
{{s-start}}<br />
{{s-bef|before=[[De Camillis Camillo (governor)|Camillo De Camillis]]}}<br />
{{s-ttl|title=Italian Governor of Eritrea|years=1920–1921}}<br />
{{s-aft|after=[[Giovanni Cerrina Feroni]]}}<br />
{{s-end}}<br />
{{Italian Governors of Eritrea and Somaliland}}<br />
{{Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)}}<br />
===================================<br />
GABELLI OTTONE<br />
{{ Infobox officeholder<br />
| name =Gabelli Ottone<br />
| image=<br />
| imagesize=<br />
| caption=<br />
|order1=[[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea|Italian Governor of Eritrea]]<br />
| term_start1= January 15, 1935<br />
|term_end1 = January 18, 1935<br />
| predecessor1=[[Riccardo Di Lucchesi]]<br />
| successor1=[[Emilio De Bono]]<br />
|order2=<br />
|term_start2 =<br />
| term_end2=<br />
| predecessor2=<br />
| successor2=<br />
| birth_date=<br />
|birth_place =<br />
| death_date=<br />
| death_place=<br />
| nationality=Italian<br />
|party =<br />
| footnotes=<br />
}}<br />
'''Gabelli Ottone''' was a governor of [[Italian Eritrea]]. He was also a diplomat and a writer.<br />
==Life==<br />
Gabelli was born near [[Udine]] in 1880. <br />
He started to work since young in the Italian "Ministero delle Colonie" (Ministry of Colonies) and soon he reached top positions becoming the "Main Director" in the early 1930s. He was also member of the "Italian Institute for the Middle East", a magazine about colonial studies. Ottone Gabelli was also a writer: his most famous book was about "Italian Tripolitania" <a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/La_Tripolitania_dalla_fine_della_guerra.html?id=9lsvAAAAIAAJ" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books/about/La_Tripolitania_dalla_fine_della_guerra.html?id=9lsvAAAAIAAJ">https://books.google.com/books/about/La_...</a> Gabelli's book on Italian Tripolitania].<br />
In 1934 Gabelli moved to Italian Africa, where he was -for limited time- "interim" governor of Eritrea. He was named<br />
''Funzionario ruolo colonie (attribuzione: Reggente)'' in January 1935 <a href="http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/pca-gov.htm/" target="_blank" title="http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/pca-gov.htm/">http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/pca-gov.htm...</a> Governors of Italian colonies]. Successively, from January to November 1935 Gabelli was Eritrea's Vice-governor (when [[Emilio De Bono]] was governor). Gabelli was friendly linked to the architect Guido Ferrazza, who was in charge of one of the best urban Plans for Italian Asmara <a href="https://dadfeatured.blogspot.com/2018/08/italian-asmara.html" target="_blank" title="https://dadfeatured.blogspot.com/2018/08/italian-asmara.html">https://dadfeatured.blogspot.com/2018/08...</a> Asmara italiana].<br />
Gabelli in the late 1930s was secretary in [[Asmara under Italy|Asmara]] of the "Partito Nazionale Fascista" and in 1938 was one of the supporters of the controversial ''Manifesto della razza'' <a href="http://www.alterhistory.altervista.org/Documenti/testiGET.php?" target="_blank" title="http://www.alterhistory.altervista.org/Documenti/testiGET.php?">http://www.alterhistory.altervista.org/D...</a> Manifesto's supporters]<br />
Ottone Gabelli died in 1939 <a href="https://www.academia.edu/31388398/Borghi_città_Piani_regolatori_e_Paesaggi_tra_Italia_e_Oltremare._Il_Piano_regolatore_di_Asmara_la_Milano_degli_Altipiani_di_Guido_Ferrazza_e_Vittorio_Cafiero_1936-1939_" target="_blank" title="https://www.academia.edu/31388398/Borghi_città_Piani_regolatori_e_Paesaggi_tra_Italia_e_Oltremare._Il_Piano_regolatore_di_Asmara_la_Milano_degli_Altipiani_di_Guido_Ferrazza_e_Vittorio_Cafiero_1936-1939_">https://www.academia.edu/31388398/Borghi...</a> ASMARA: I PIANI REGOLATORI FUNZIONALISTI (1936-1939); p. 98].<br />
==Literary works==<br />
* ''LA TRIPOLITANIA DALLA FINE DELLA GUERRA MONDIALE ALL'AVVENTO DEL FASCISMO'' - 2 VOLUMI. Editore: A. AIROLDI. Verona, 1939<br />
* ''Le vicende della colonizzazione italiana in Eritrea e Somalia'' in "L'Africa orientale italiana e il conflitto italo-etiopico"; p. 113-126. Roma, 1936<br />
{{s-start}}<br />
{{s-bef|before=[[Riccardo Di Lucchesi]]}}<br />
{{s-ttl|title=Italian Governor of Eritrea|years=January 1935}}<br />
{{s-aft|after=[[Emilio De Bono]]}}<br />
{{s-end}}<br />
==Notes==<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Italian Eritrea]]<br />
* [[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea]]<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Bandini, Franco. ''Gli italiani in Africa, storia delle guerre coloniali 1882-1943''. Longanesi. Milano, 1971.<br />
{{Italian Governors of Eritrea and Somaliland}}<br />
[[Category:Italian Governors of Eritrea]]<br />
[[Category:1880 births]]<br />
[[Category:1939 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:People from Udine]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century Italian writers]]<br />
===============================<br />
[[Category:Italian Governors of Eritrea]]<br />
=================================<br />
CAMILLO DE CAMILLIS<br />
{{ Infobox officeholder<br />
| name =De Camillis, Camillo<br />
| image=<br />
| imagesize=<br />
| caption=<br />
|order1=[[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea|Italian Governor of Eritrea]]<br />
| term_start1= July 1, 1919<br />
|term_end1 = November 16, 1920<br />
| predecessor1=[[Giacomo De Martino (governor)|Giacomo De Martino]]<br />
| successor1=[[Pollera Ludovico (Governor)|Ludovico Pollera]]<br />
|order2=<br />
|term_start2 =<br />
| term_end2=<br />
| predecessor2=<br />
| successor2=<br />
| birth_date=<br />
|birth_place =<br />
| death_date=<br />
| death_place=<br />
| nationality=Italian<br />
|party =<br />
| footnotes=<br />
}}<br />
'''De Camillis Camillo''' was an Italian diplomat, who become the Italian colonial governor of [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]] in 1919 and 1920.<br />
==Data==<br />
His role of "Regent Governor" in [[Italian language|Italian]] was ''Funzionario ruolo colonie (attribuzione: Reggente)'' from July 1919 to November 1920.<br />
The Regent Governor of Eritrea De Camillis instructed all colonial commissaries in Eritrea to attribute Italian citizenship automatically to the sons and daughters of unknown Italian paternal parenthood, even in the absence of paternal legal acknowledgement. So these "mulatto" Eritrean kids became Italian citizens by law <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KQ0MAA" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=KQ0MAA">https://books.google.com/books?id=KQ0MAA</a>...(governor+of+Eritrea)+biography&source=bl&ots=_wL0Rabaum&sig=DnLnWLvAThKmDkOhAd6iRJfvq1c&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjb4KPY-tPQAhWhq1QKHXiGC5sQ6AEIRDAH#v=onepage&q=Camillo%20De%20Camillis%20(governor%20of%20Eritrea)%20biography&f=false A Political History of National Citizenship and Identity in Italy, 1861–1950, by Sabina Donati].<br />
This was a revolutionary law when created, opening the first steps toward racial integration in colonial [[Africa]].<br />
{{s-start}}<br />
{{s-bef|before=[[Giacomo De Martino (governor)|Giacomo De Martino]]}}<br />
{{s-ttl|title=Italian Governor of Eritrea|years=1919–1920}}<br />
{{s-aft|after=[[Pollera Ludovico (Governor)|Ludovico Pollera]]}}<br />
{{s-end}}<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Italian Eritrea]]<br />
* [[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea]]<br />
* [[Italian Eritreans]]<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Donati, Sabina. ''A Political History of National Citizenship and Identity in Italy, 1861–1950''. Publisher Stanford University Press. Stanford, 2013. {{ISBN|0804787336}}<br />
{{Italian Governors of Eritrea and Somaliland}}<br />
{{Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)}}<br />
[[Category:Italian diplomats]]<br />
[[Category:Italian Governors of Eritrea]]<br />
=============================<br />
SOMALIAN ITALIAN<br />
[[File:ItalianSomalilandP13-10Somali-1950-donatedcm f.jpg|thumb|right|400px|A 10 Somali banknote of 1950, written in Italian language]]<br />
The [[Italian language]] had once been an official language of [[Somalia]] [[Somali Republic|from 1960 to 1969]] and then again [[Transitional Federal Government|from 2004 to 2012]]. The use of this [[Europe|European]] language goes as far back as the [[Italian Somaliland|colonial period]] of Somalia in the late 1890s, when was the only official language for more than half a century until after the end of [[World War II]].<br />
==Overview==<br />
Italian is a legacy of the [[Italian Somaliland|Italian colonial period]] of Somalia when it was part of the [[Italian Empire]]. Italian was the mother tongue of the [[Italian Somalis|Italian settlers]] of Somalia. <br />
The Somalian school system in the colonial era before World War II was in Italian language and limited mainly to primary schools and a few middle schools (like the "Scuola Regina Elena" <a href="http://blog.ilgiornale.it/franza/files/2015/06/260_001.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://blog.ilgiornale.it/franza/files/2015/06/260_001.jpg">http://blog.ilgiornale.it/franza/files/2...</a> Scuola Regina Elena]), but in the capital Mogadishu of "Italian Somalia" there was an important high school. <a href="https://dadfeatured.blogspot.com/2018/05/italian-mogadishu.html" target="_blank" title="https://dadfeatured.blogspot.com/2018/05/italian-mogadishu.html">https://dadfeatured.blogspot.com/2018/05...</a> The "Lyceum De Bono" of Mogadishu] In this Lyceum was created in the early 1950s the "National Institute of Legal, Economic and Social Studies", <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DPwOsOcNy5YC&pg=PR33&lpg=PR33&dq=National+Institute+of+Legal,+Economic+and+Social+Studies+in+1954+mogadishu&source=bl&ots=mP42GvAq5x&sig=yOpgFHBoJy27ENMYV3us-68jnJ4&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjOgafixZ_bAhUILKwKHc4RB3MQ6AEITTAF#v=onepage&q=National%20Institute%20of%20Legal%2C%20Economic%20and%20Social%20Studies%20in%201954%20mogadishu&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=DPwOsOcNy5YC&pg=PR33&lpg=PR33&dq=National+Institute+of+Legal,+Economic+and+Social+Studies+in+1954+mogadishu&source=bl&ots=mP42GvAq5x&sig=yOpgFHBoJy27ENMYV3us-68jnJ4&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjOgafixZ_bAhUILKwKHc4RB3MQ6AEITTAF#v=onepage&q=National%20Institute%20of%20Legal%2C%20Economic%20and%20Social%20Studies%20in%201954%20mogadishu&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=DPwOsO...</a> Istituto Superiore studi pre-universitari] as a post-secondary school in Italian language for pre-university studies in order to access the Italian universities.<br />
Although it was the primary language since [[Italian Somaliland|colonial rule]], Italian continued to be used among the country's ruling elite even after [[Somali Republic|1960 independence]] when it continued to remain as an official language. It is estimated that more than 200,000 native Somalis were fluent speaking Italian when independence was declared in 1960 <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W96tncBcItg" target="_blank" title="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W96tncBcItg">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W96tncBc...</a> Video (showing Somalis speaking Italian) of the last day of Italian presence in Mogadishu, when was declared the Somalian independence in July 1960 {{it icon}}].<br />
After a [[Somali Democratic Republic|military coup in 1969]], all foreign entities were nationalized by [[Siad Barre]] (who spoke fluently Italian), including [[Mogadishu under Italian rule|Mogadishu]]'s principal university, which was renamed 'Jaamacadda Ummadda Soomaliyeed' ([[Somali National University]]). This marked the initial decline of the use of Italian in Somalia.<br />
However, Italian is still widely spoken by the elderly, the educated, and by the governmental officials of Somalia. Prior to the [[Somali civil war]], Mogadishu still had an Italian-language school, but was later destroyed by the conflict. <a href="http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?page=country&category=&publisher=&type=LEGISLATION&coi=SOM&rid=456d621e2&docid=4795c2d22&skip=0" target="_blank" title="http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?page=country&category=&publisher=&type=LEGISLATION&coi=SOM&rid=456d621e2&docid=4795c2d22&skip=0">http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vt...</a> Scuola media di Mogadiscio] (Picture)<br />
Italian was later declared an official language again by [[Transitional Federal Government]] along with [[English language|English]] in 2006.<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Italian language]]<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Bereketeab, R. ''Eritrea: The making of a Nation''. Uppsala University. Uppsala, 2000.<br />
[[Category:Languages of Somalia]]<br />
<br />
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<a href="https://www.slideshare.net/matierno/salerno-storia-e-analisi-urbana-presentation" target="_blank" title="https://www.slideshare.net/matierno/salerno-storia-e-analisi-urbana-presentation">https://www.slideshare.net/matierno/sale...</a> evoluzione di salerno dall'ottiocento ad oggi - piano Calza Bini del 1937<br />
=========================================<br />
<a href="http://research.ku.dk/search/?pure=files%2F118391302%2F2007_Grane_PhD_dissertation.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://research.ku.dk/search/?pure=files%2F118391302%2F2007_Grane_PhD_dissertation.pdf">http://research.ku.dk/search/?pure=files...</a> P E R F E T T O !!!! The Roman Empire and Southern Scandinavia - a Northern Connection! Grane, Thomas. University of Copenhagen<br />
<a href="http://storicamente.org/eck_augusto_germania" target="_blank" title="http://storicamente.org/eck_augusto_germania">http://storicamente.org/eck_augusto_germ...</a> GERMANIA (Ottimo) Univrs. Bologna<br />
<a href="http://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/military-history/drusus-the-elder-hero-of-rome/" target="_blank" title="http://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/military-history/drusus-the-elder-hero-of-rome/">http://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/m...</a> Vita di Drusus<br />
<a href="http://www.instoria.it/home/province_romane_germania.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.instoria.it/home/province_romane_germania.htm">http://www.instoria.it/home/province_rom...</a> Germania<br />
<a href="http://legio-iiii-scythica.com/index.php/en/history-and-artifacts/anniversary-events/2000-years-of-punitive-action-in-germany-16-ad.html" target="_blank" title="http://legio-iiii-scythica.com/index.php/en/history-and-artifacts/anniversary-events/2000-years-of-punitive-action-in-germany-16-ad.html">http://legio-iiii-scythica.com/index.php...</a> MAPPA BELLISSIMA IN TEDESCO<br />
<a href="http://battletracker.com/forum/other/offtopic-forum/201230-for-history-buffs-romans-in-germania-with-the-main-focus-of-a-roman-battelfield-in-the-3th-century-ad-in-germania-libera-free-germania/" target="_blank" title="http://battletracker.com/forum/other/offtopic-forum/201230-for-history-buffs-romans-in-germania-with-the-main-focus-of-a-roman-battelfield-in-the-3th-century-ad-in-germania-libera-free-germania/">http://battletracker.com/forum/other/off...</a> Altra infomazione su romani in Germania (cercare nei siti per mappe ottime)<br />
<a href="http://www.rosetta.bham.ac.uk/issue8/articles/teichmann-imperium/clip_image002.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.rosetta.bham.ac.uk/issue8/articles/teichmann-imperium/clip_image002.jpg">http://www.rosetta.bham.ac.uk/issue8/art...</a> mappa di germanicus conquiste e di primo confine su Elba<br />
<a href="http://www.fectio.org.uk/sites/ermelo2001.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.fectio.org.uk/sites/ermelo2001.htm">http://www.fectio.org.uk/sites/ermelo200...</a> Sito in inglese su ERMELO roman camp in Olanda costiera<br />
<a href="http://alisonensis.de/EN/1%20Magna%20Germania%20en/1%20Magna%20Germania%20en.html" target="_blank" title="http://alisonensis.de/EN/1%20Magna%20Germania%20en/1%20Magna%20Germania%20en.html">http://alisonensis.de/EN/1%20Magna%20Ger...</a> Alisonensis: MAGNA GERMANIA (OTTIMISSIMO!!!!)<br />
<a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DGOnoYNDEj0C&pg=PT18&lpg=PT18&dq=roman+province+of+germania&source=bl&ots=XxfoME6zVV&sig=4yxFu1Gq8Ih--_iwPrFRqBwRElM&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwic9Ze_r_XUAhVY6WMKHcOcBtE4PBDoAQhHMAY#v=onepage&q=roman%20province%20of%20germania&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=DGOnoYNDEj0C&pg=PT18&lpg=PT18&dq=roman+province+of+germania&source=bl&ots=XxfoME6zVV&sig=4yxFu1Gq8Ih--_iwPrFRqBwRElM&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwic9Ze_r_XUAhVY6WMKHcOcBtE4PBDoAQhHMAY#v=onepage&q=roman%20province%20of%20germania&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=DGOnoY...</a> Google book dove si afferma che Varus voleva creare la provincia romana di Germania<br />
<a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_62dCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA7&lpg=PA7&dq=roman+province+of+germania&source=bl&ots=5sJE3Lfv-k&sig=RRbmjZGuDqv8JcvAj1tex_lUbqw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjxioX1sPXUAhUC8WMKHXdzDWU4UBDoAQgrMAE#v=onepage&q=roman%20province%20of%20germania&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=_62dCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA7&lpg=PA7&dq=roman+province+of+germania&source=bl&ots=5sJE3Lfv-k&sig=RRbmjZGuDqv8JcvAj1tex_lUbqw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjxioX1sPXUAhUC8WMKHXdzDWU4UBDoAQgrMAE#v=onepage&q=roman%20province%20of%20germania&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=_62dCw...</a> Google book sul primo governatore della neocostituita provincia de Germania (PERFETTO!!)<br />
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<a href="https://encyclopediadramatica.rs/Arbitration_Committee" target="_blank" title="https://encyclopediadramatica.rs/Arbitration_Committee">https://encyclopediadramatica.rs/Arbitra...</a> Foto di ArbComs<br />
===============================<br />
Now I want to make a few considerations about this image:<br />
1) Romans were realistic pragmatically in making their statues. So, they used to represent only something really important: Why the statue should show a simple and very common pine cone? Nobody in Rome would appreciate this, of course!<br />
2) The roman boy in his right hand has something that looks like a dish. Ma be he was a young servant bringing the pineapple to be eaten?<br />
3) The pineapple looks very similar to a Puerto Rican pineapple called "Red Spanish". See image at the bottom of the article. To the reader the final judgement! <br />
Finally, I want to add something I wrote in the discussion page of the wiki Noteboard:<br />
A)...."....Sincerely I only added some information about "another pineapple". I don't want to promote any "fringe theory"! I think that Elio Cadelo is a famous journalist in Italy (of the RAI, the official Italian Radio-TV institution: he is "Scrittore, Caporedattore giornale radio Rai per la scienza e l'ambiente") who is well accepted & judged in historian circles of Italy. So, for me he is a "Reliable source for claims of other pineapples: Elio Cadelo has won the Premio ENEA 1999 (please read <a href="https://www.ibs.it/libri/autori/Elio%20Cadelo/" target="_blank" title="https://www.ibs.it/libri/autori/Elio%20Cadelo\">https://www.ibs.it/libri/autori/Elio%20C...</a>, as I wrote). Here it is a video where Cadelo comments his book about the Romans in America in the "Istituto Italiano per gli Studi Filosofici e Geografici": [13]. It is in Italian, but I can give a translation if requested. Anyway, I just wanted to add this information...and nothing else....(but allow me to add that the pineapple shown in the hands of the roman kid inside the Geneva museum (see <a href="http://www.lsdmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/resizephp.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.lsdmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/resizephp.jpg">http://www.lsdmagazine.com/wp-content/up...</a> and that was quickly made disappear by Doug Weller) has no round "grapes" near his hand like the wine-grape fruit, but "rectangular pieces" that looks astonishingly similar to this photo of an<br />
ananas:https://avatanplus.com/files/resources/mid/573ecbf4cac11154cd4cb45e.png ). And we know that ananas is a fruit that can survive many weeks of travel, with only the loss of the green leaves....So, I think this Wikipedia article must add evidences like these pineapples and not only evidences about "Claims involving California canoes" & "Claims involving chickens". Regards to all of you...."<br />
B)...."...So, in your opinion what is in the hands of the roman kid? At this point I like to leave all this mess. All this attacks -that is what I feel, sincerely- are on a simple refusal to allow that something roman can have reached America, but if it is Phoenician or Chinese or Polynesian....well that's acceptable. This reminds me the discussion (on academic circles, of course) about the latin word "perdomita", related to the fact that Britain -according to Tacitus who wrote "Britannia perdomita, sed olim missa est" (Britain was totally conquered but quickly was lost)- was fully conquered by the roman Agricola. As you probably know the british circles of historians linked to the "glory" of the British empire cannot accept that the word perdomita is made in latin from the words "PERfecta DOMInaTA" (meaning 'completely dominated' in classical latin) and so they deny the total conquest of Britain by Agricola. So, as written before, I like to leave all this mess & these attacks: I semi-retire from Wikipedia...."<br />
C)...."...So some users and admin Doug Weller have obtained to impose what they wanted. Congratulations....But at the end nobody has answered my question: in your opinion what is in the hands of the roman kid in the Geneva museum?......obviously it can be ONLY an ananas from America! My last four cents with the same words of Galileo to the abuses of the Inquisition: EPPUR SI MUOVE....and at the end all of us admit that he was right!. So, in a similar way I am sure soon or later the truth about these pineapples in roman hands will come out.."<br />
D)...."... I am totally sure it is an ananas, because of the pineapple rectangular pieces near the kid hand that cannot be dimples grapes but only pieces of leaves in the first stages of decomposition (probably this fruit was many weeks old). Here it is an image that shows the leaves falling: the first line of leaves covers the top of the ananas "dimples" ([17]). I also remember the ananas of the Geneva museum was very similar to those imported from Puerto Rico: it is a species of pineapple imported in Switzerland.<br />
....(to be continued)...<br />
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<a href="https://www.hackthissite.org/pages/index/index.php" target="_blank" title="https://www.hackthissite.org/pages/index/index.php">https://www.hackthissite.org/pages/index...</a> Sito per imparare I fondamenti di "Hackering"<br />
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Reference_desk/Computing#Self-taught_hacker" target="_blank" title="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Reference_desk/Computing#Self-taught_hacker">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:...</a> Informazioni su "Hacker studi" (Wikipedia)<br />
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<a href="https://etudesafricaines.revues.org/docannexe/image/14887/img-12.jpg" target="_blank" title="https://etudesafricaines.revues.org/docannexe/image/14887/img-12.jpg">https://etudesafricaines.revues.org/doca...</a> Foto Ascari mutilate da etiopi dopo adua<br />
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<a href="http://www.levantineheritage.com/pdf/pannuti3.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.levantineheritage.com/pdf/pannuti3.pdf">http://www.levantineheritage.com/pdf/pan...</a> Levantini (OTTIMO)<br />
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ALTO ADIGE-HAUTE ADIGE<br />
[[File:Carte de l'Empire Français Divisé en 133 Départemens (Bonissel, 1811).jpg|thumb|right|400px|Map of the [[First French Empire]], divided into 133 départements, with the Kingdom of Italy, by N Bonissel, published by "Jean" in Paris in 1811. Click on the map in order to enlarge it and read ''Haute Adige'' -with precise borders- inside the "Royaume d'Italie"]]<br />
'''Alto Adige''' (in French ''Haute Adige'') is the name of an alpine region that was first created by the [[Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)|Napoleonic French]] in order to distinguish this Italian-speaking area (at the start of the XIX century) from the Austrian empire's [[History of Tyrol|Tyrol]] (located directly north).<br />
==Name's etymology==<br />
The name "Alto Adige" was coined (created) in the late eighteenth century by [[Napoleon]], when he occupied the territory of northern Italy near the [[Alps]]. Indeed this was the name of the French administrative division known as the "[[Department of Alto Adige]]" (''Dipartimento dell'Alto Adige''), created during Napoleon's "[[Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)|Kingdom of Italy]]" in 1810, which is related to the name of the [[river Adige]] born in this province.<br />
In Italian etymology, the name "Alto Adige" currently is related to the full name of the [[Province of Bolzano-Bozen|"Provincia autonoma di Bolzano - Alto Adige"]], while usually the simple name "Alto Adige" is used for this alpine region around [[Bolzano]] (since academic [[Ettore Tolomei]] made it official in Italy after the [[Great War]]).<br />
==Napoleon's Alto Adige==<br />
During French control of the region, South Tyrol was officially named ''Haute Adige'' to get rid of relation to the historic "County of Tyrol" of [[Austria]].Rolf Steininger, Department of Contemporary History. University of Innsbruck<br />
[[File:Dep-fr-it.jpg|thumb|right|200px|"Department Haut-Adige" (1810)]]<br />
The [[Alto Adige (District)|District of Alto Adige]] was initially created by Napoleon as part of the ''Dipartamento del Benaco'' in his Cisalpine Republic, and was near [[Verona]].{{cite book|title=Raccolta delle leggi, proclami, ordini ed avvisi, Vol 4|year=1797|publisher=Luigi Viladini|location=Milan|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Gy5FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA201#v=onepage&q=Alto%20Adige&f=false|author=Cisalpine Republic|page=201|language=Italian}}{{cite book|title=Raccolta delle leggi, proclami, ordini ed avvisi, Vol 5|year=1798|publisher=Luigi Viladini|location=Milan|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1RDgAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA184&dq=%22alto+adige%22+benaco+-torri+-trentino&hl=en&ei=s2AkTqjzNMLg0QGP3PmmAw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CEsQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=%22alto%20adige%22%20benaco%20-torri%20-trentino&f=false|author=Cisalpine Republic|page=184|language=Italian}} This Benaco department, created in 1797, was gotten rid of in 1798 as a result of administrative changes to the Cisalpine Republic.<br />
Some years later, Napoleon additionally created the "[[Department of Alto Adige|Department Alto Adige]] further north; this department was a part of the Napoleonic [[Kingdom of Italy]] from [[1810]] to [[1814]].Cfr. Reinhard Stauber, ''Der Zentralstaat an seinen Grenzen. Administrative Integration, Herrschaftswechsel und politische Kultur im südlichen Alpenraum 1750-1820'', Göttingen 2001, pp. 317ss.<br />
So, it was created this Department of Alto Adige with the division of the Austrian [[Tyrol (region)|Tyrol]] between French [[Bavaria]] and the Kingdom of Italy, and included the southern part of the "Germanized" Tyrol with the city of [[Bolzano]] with surroundings (along with the [[Trentino]]).<br />
The boundaries were made by Austrian and German commissioners, saying that a territory would belong to the Kingdom of Italy if it is inhabited by Italians, according to the principle: "belonging to the Kingdom of Italy because inhabited by Italians" (''{{lang|it|da appartenersi al Regno d'Italia perché paese italiano}}'' <a href="http://books.google.it/books?id=VI9IAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA429&dq=alto+adige&hl=it&ei=L_2NTtygINDUsgadrsX9Dw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CE8Q6AEwBTgK#v=onepage&q=alto%20adige&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.it/books?id=VI9IAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA429&dq=alto+adige&hl=it&ei=L_2NTtygINDUsgadrsX9Dw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CE8Q6AEwBTgK#v=onepage&q=alto%20adige&f=false">http://books.google.it/books?id=VI9IAAAA...</a> Nuova antologia di scienze, lettere ed arti, Volume 2, 1866, pag. 431]).<br />
This shows that [[Bolzano]] was a mostly Italian town in Napoleonic times, and that in the following century was "Germanized" (as in the 1911 Austrian census, Bolzano was mostly German-speaking, at almost 91%).<br />
Indeed between the [[Renaissance]] and the 19th century, the whole area, originally populated by Latins from the time of [[Roman Empire]], experienced a lot of Germanization. In the centuries before [[Napoleon]], only the Dolomite's area of the western part of the present province of Bolzano (especially the Val Venosta near Merano) remained neolatin <a href="http://www.vejin.com/history.html#ridarealing" target="_blank" title="http://www.vejin.com/history.html#ridarealing">http://www.vejin.com/history.html#ridare...</a> Ethnic history of Alto Adige (in Italian)]. Furthermore, just after [[WWII]] about sixty five percent of the population spoke [[German language|German]] as their mother tongue, while about a third spoke [[Italian language|Italian]] and about five percent spoke the Latin language (but in the 2011 census the percentages were: 63%, 23% and 4%, with another 10% who are immigrants from outside [[Republic of Italy|Italy]]).<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Connelly, Owen. ''Napoleon's Satellite Kingdoms'' (1965)<br />
* Gregory, Desmond. ''Napoleon's Italy'' (2001)<br />
* Pagano, Emanuele. ''Enti locali e Stato in Italia sotto Napoleone'' Editoriale Carocci. Roma, 2007 ISBN 978-88-430-4310-1<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Department of Alto Adige]]<br />
* [[Alto Adige (District)|District of Alto Adige]]<br />
* [[Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)]]<br />
* [[Bolzano]]<br />
[[Category:Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)]]<br />
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<a href="http://www.lastampa.it/2017/04/29/esteri/bande-armate-e-miseria-nelle-strade-di-caracas-lincubo-della-guerra-civile-F1Pwi2cUTa8m6WVc5MeFvO/pagina.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.lastampa.it/2017/04/29/esteri/bande-armate-e-miseria-nelle-strade-di-caracas-lincubo-della-guerra-civile-F1Pwi2cUTa8m6WVc5MeFvO/pagina.html">http://www.lastampa.it/2017/04/29/esteri...</a> Crisis in Venezuela -aprile 2017 (La Stampa)<br />
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<a href="http://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/the-last-battle-for-democracy-in-venezuela/ar-BBD5Gel?li=AA4Zpp&ocid=spartandhp" target="_blank" title="http://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/the-last-battle-for-democracy-in-venezuela/ar-BBD5Gel?li=AA4Zpp&ocid=spartandhp">http://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/the-...</a> WALL STREET JOURNAL sul Venezuela ("MOLTO OTTIMISSIMO!") del giugno 2017<br />
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<a href="http://image.archivioluce.com/foto/high/AO/AO112/AO00007503.JPG" target="_blank" title="http://image.archivioluce.com/foto/high/AO/AO112/AO00007503.JPG">http://image.archivioluce.com/foto/high/...</a> Foto di Angelo De Ruben governatore Somalia, a fianco di principessa Maria Jose<br />
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GIORGIO SORRENTINO<br />
{{ Infobox Officeholder<br />
| name =Giorgio Sorrentino<br />
| image=<br />
| imagesize=<br />
| caption=<br />
|order1= [[List of colonial governors of Italian Somaliland|Italian Governor of Somalia]]<br />
| term_start1= 1897<br />
|term_end1 = 1898<br />
| predecessor1=[[Emilio Dulio]]<br />
| successor1=[[Emilio Dulio]]<br />
| birth_date= 1847|5|4<br />
|birth_place =[[San Giorgio a Cremano|S.Giorgio a Cremano (Napoli)]]<br />
| death_date= 1919|2|1<br />
| death_place= [[Napoli]]<br />
| nationality= Italian<br />
|party =<br />
| footnotes=<br />
}}<br />
'''Giorgio Sorrentino''' (born on [[May 9]], [[1847]] in [[San Giorgio a Cremano|San Giorgio a Cremano (Napoli)]] and died on [[February 1]], [[1919]] in [[Napoli]]) was an Italian military and politician, who was the colonial governor/commissioner of [[Italian Somaliland]] from 1897 to 1898.<br />
==Life==<br />
Giorgio Sorrentino was born near [[Napoli]] in 1847 and went to a Navy school in 1862, being promoted to " guardia-marina" (assistant captain) in 1866.<br />
[[File:Italo-Somali- War.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Lafole massacre]]<br />
Giorgio Sorrentino was a captain of the Italian Navy who was appointed "Commissioner" of the Italian [[Banadir|Benadir]] possessions (later called [[Italian Somalia]]). He was only nominally in charge of the Italian colony, because all the administrative activities were done by Emilio Dulio, the manager of the private company "Societa' per il Benadir". <a href="http://www.persee.fr/doc/efr_0000-0000_1981_act_54_1_1448" target="_blank" title="http://www.persee.fr/doc/efr_0000-0000_1981_act_54_1_1448">http://www.persee.fr/doc/efr_0000-0000_1...</a> Sorrentino in Benadir (in Italian). p 317] Dulio was the next colonial commissioner on May 25, 1898 and was named "first governor" of the Italian colony the next year.<br />
[[File:Italian battleship Ruggiero di Lauria.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The ironclad ''Ruggiero di Lauria'' was commanded by Giorgio Sorrentino]]<br />
When consul Antonio Cecchi on November 1896 was killed with other 85 Italians and [[Eritrean Ascari]] in Lafolè, near [[Mogadishu]], Giorgio Sorrentino was sent in the area and attacked in retaliation the villages of Nimo e Gezira. <br />
He was able to control the area of the Benadir since then: because of this accomplishment he was appointed "Royal Commissioner" in 1897. <br />
In 1898 Sorrentino returned to Italy and later was commander of the [[Italian ironclad Ruggiero di Lauria|ironclad battleship Ruggero di Lauria]].<br />
Sorrentino retired to Napoli, where in 1912 published ''Ricordi del Benadir'' <a href="https://books.google.it/books?id=8OfE9gRZdAwC&pg=PA62&lpg=PA62&dq=giorgio+sorrentino++commissario+del+Benadir&source=bl&ots=WCMT5TnqvI&sig=0zBhpohIbiLSMJGmMQkAu-LQ7Yw&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiCqNj4_7PTAhVlrFQKHaLQDoUQ6AEIPTAD#v=onepage&q=giorgio%20sorrentino%20%20commissario%20del%20Benadir&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.it/books?id=8OfE9gRZdAwC&pg=PA62&lpg=PA62&dq=giorgio+sorrentino++commissario+del+Benadir&source=bl&ots=WCMT5TnqvI&sig=0zBhpohIbiLSMJGmMQkAu-LQ7Yw&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiCqNj4_7PTAhVlrFQKHaLQDoUQ6AEIPTAD#v=onepage&q=giorgio%20sorrentino%20%20commissario%20del%20Benadir&f=false">https://books.google.it/books?id=8OfE9gR...</a> Bollettino della Società africana d'Italia (from p 62)] about his memories when he was governing the Benadir.<br />
He died in 1919, receiving full military honors.<br />
{{s-start}}<br />
{{s-bef|before=[[Emilio Dulio]]}}<br />
{{s-ttl|title=Italian Governor of Somaliland|years=1897–1898}}<br />
{{s-aft|after=[[Emilio Dulio]]}}<br />
{{s-end}}<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* {{Cite news|author=Marco Scardigli|title=Il provinciale d'Africa. Il Benadir e l'epistolario di Emilio Dulio (1885-1903)|publisher=Studi Piacentini|date=1995|pages=201–257}}<br />
* {{Cite book|title=Le questioni del Benadir|author=Gustavo Chiesi|author2=Ernesto Travelli|publisher=Bellini |location=Milan|year=1904}}<br />
* {{Cite book|title=Italia d'oltremare. Storie dei territori italiani dalla conquista alla caduta|author=Vanni Beltrami|publisher=Edizioni Nuova Cultura|location=Rome|year=2011|ISBN=9788861347021|ref=Beltrami}}<br />
==Notes==<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Italian Somalia]]<br />
*[[Banadir|Benadir]]<br />
{{Italian Governors of Eritrea and Somaliland}}<br />
{{Somalia italiana (Colonia)}}<br />
[[Category:Italian Somaliland]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century Italian politicians]]<br />
[[Category:Italian colonial governors and administrators]]<br />
=================================================<br />
FRANCESCO SAVERIO CAROSELLI<br />
{{ Infobox Officeholder<br />
| name =Francesco Saverio Caroselli<br />
| image=<br />
| imagesize=<br />
| caption=<br />
|order1= [[List of colonial governors of Italian Somaliland|Italian Governor of Somalia]]<br />
| term_start1= 1937<br />
|term_end1 = 1940<br />
| predecessor1=[[Ruggiero Santini]]<br />
| successor1=[[Gustavo Pesenti]]<br />
| birth_date= 1887|3|12<br />
|birth_place =[[Roma]]<br />
| death_date= 1967|12|30<br />
| death_place= [[Zagarolo]] (Roma)<br />
| nationality= Italian<br />
|party =<br />
| footnotes=<br />
}}<br />
'''Francesco Saverio Caroselli''' (born on [[March 12]], [[1887]] in [[Roma]] and died on [[December 30]], [[1967]] in [[Zagarolo]] near Roma) was an Italian diplomat and politician, who was the colonial governor of [[Italian Somaliland]] from 1937 to 1940. <a href="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:rLzHcG611MMJ:www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/francesco-saverio-caroselli_" target="_blank" title="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:rLzHcG611MMJ:www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/francesco-saverio-caroselli_">http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se...</a>(Dizionario-Biografico)/+&cd=4&hl=it&ct=clnk&gl=it Treccani: Francesco Saverio Caroselli (in Italian)]<br />
==Life==<br />
Having completed classical studies in [[Italy]]'s capital, Caroselli enrolled in the faculty of jurisprudence and in 1909 graduated with full marks. Since young he showed sympathies for the liberal [[Risorgimento]] ideals. In 1912, while the Libyan war was still underway, he was called to work as a lawyer in the "Ministero delle Colonie" (Colonies Ministry) at the time of his constitution.<br />
From 1912 to the fall of [[Fascism]] in 1943, without any interruption, Caroselli remained working at the Colonies Ministry, profiting from his vast legal culture and pursuing, by rank, all the career of a colonial official until he reached the top level with the task of [[List of colonial governors of Italian Somaliland|"Governor of Italian Somalia"]]. <br />
In 1917 he went to work for the "Ministero delle colonie" in [[Tripoli]] ([[Italian Libya]]) and in 1919 was a member of the Italian delegation at the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Peace Conference of Paris]], promoting the maintenance of the London agreements of 1915. But -because these agreement were not maintained and Italy practically received nearly nothing from the dismemberment of the German & Ottoman empires- Caroselli remained hit by what he said was an "humiliation to Italy". As a consequence he joined the Fascism of [[Benito Mussolini]], who condemned the "farce" of Versailles and advocated a revisionist policy.<br />
After the unfortunate mission in Paris, in the summer of 1920 he was sent to Somalia, first as secretary of governor [[Carlo Riveri]], then as commissioner in [[Barawa|Brava]] and [[Chisimaio]]. Over the years, in direct contact with the most disadvantaged people among the Italian colonies, he learned the difficult art of administering the indigenous people, working as an "humane" official. Transferred to [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]] in 1928, he stayed there for two years as a director in the local government. In 1931 he was destined for the second time in Somalia with the prestigious and onerous assignment of "Secretary General" of the colony. <br />
In 1931 he published in Rome his most important book, ''Ferro e fuoco in Somalia'' (Iron and Fire in Somalia), with which he reconstructed the events of Muḥammad ibn Abdullāh Hassān, the poet and Somali guerrilla leader who attempted, for more than twenty years between 1899 and 1921, to fight the coalition armies of [[Great Britain]], [[Italy]] and [[Ethiopia]]. As a result of extensive and accurate searches, in the Italian archives and on site, the book remains to date one of the few tools to understand the so called [[Mad Mullah]].<br />
Caroselli wrote also in those years: ''Le vicende monetarie nell'Eritrea e nella Somalia'' (Roma, 1933) and ''Scritti coloniali'' (Bologna, 1941).<br />
From December 15, 1937 until June 11, 1940 Caroselli was Governor of Italian Somalia. From 1937 under Caroselli new roads such as the "Imperial Road" from Mogadishu to Addis Abeba were constructed in the Somalian region, as were new schools, hospitals, ports and bridges. New railways were also completed and improved, such as the famous [[Mogadishu-Villabruzzi Railway]] (Italian: "Ferrovia Mogadiscio-[[Villaggio Duca degli Abruzzi]]"). [[Mogadishu under Italian rule|Mogadiscio]] became under governor Caroselli a modern city, where the Italians were nearly half of the population. <br />
For example, the main Italian newspaper of Mogadiscio and the Italian colonies, ''Il Littoriale'', <a href="http://dlib.coninet.it/bookreader.php?&f=3301&p=1&c=1#page/1/mode/2up" target="_blank" title="http://dlib.coninet.it/bookreader.php?&f=3301&p=1&c=1#page/1/mode/2up">http://dlib.coninet.it/bookreader.php?&a...</a> Il Littoriale on the Circuit of Mogadiscio at page 5 (in Italian)] reported that on mid-August 1938 was done the first car race [[Mogadiscio circuit|circuit of Mogadiscio]]: on August 15 the Governor Francesco Saverio Caroselli flagged the start of a car race followed by many thousands in the "Corso Vittorio Emanuele" (actual "Somalia Boulevard") of Somalia's capital, where there were the main stands. On Mogadiscio streets many Somalis enjoyed enthusiastically to the first car race in their country.It was followed even by a motorcycle race, done with 250 cc and 350 cc category.<br />
Caroselli as governor made his colony also one of the most developed in all [[Africa]] in terms of the standard of living of the colonists and of the local inhabitants, mainly in the urban areas. Caroselli additionally improved the school system in Somalia, allowing for the first time that the local Somalis could study not only in elementary schools and so get training in special technical schools.<br />
In July 1940 Caroselli left Somalia and returned to Italy. In 1942 was the supervisor for the return to Italy of thousands of Italian civilians from the Allied conquered Somalia & Eritrea, with four Italian ships under Red Cross authority. <br />
He married Anna Zezza after [[WW2]] and had a daughter. He retired to live in his villa in Zagarolo, not far away from the outskirts of Roma, where Caroselli died in December 1967. <br />
Somalis would acknowledge the merits of governor Caroselli by attributing him, in the 1960s, the highest honor of the [[Democratic Republic of Somalia]].<br />
{{s-start}}<br />
{{s-bef|before=[[Ruggiero Santini]]}}<br />
{{s-ttl|title=Italian Governor of Somaliland|years=1937–1940}}<br />
{{s-aft|after=[[Gustavo Pesenti]]}}<br />
{{s-end}}<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* {{Cite book|title=Italia d'oltremare. Storie dei territori italiani dalla conquista alla caduta|author=Vanni Beltrami|publisher=Edizioni Nuova Cultura|location=Rome|year=2011|ISBN=9788861347021|ref=Beltrami}}<br />
==Notes==<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Italian Somalia]]<br />
{{Italian Governors of Eritrea and Somaliland}}<br />
{{Somalia italiana (Colonia)}}<br />
[[Category:Italian Somaliland]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century Italian politicians]]<br />
[[Category:Italian colonial governors and administrators]]<br />
=================================================<br />
THE LEVANT- The temple was begun in the last quarter of the 1rst century B.C., and was nearing completion in the final years of Nero's reign (37-68 A.D.). the Great Court Complex of the temple of Jupiter, with its porticoes, exedrae, altars and basins, was built in the 2nd century A.D. Construction of the so-called temple of Bacchus was also started about this time.<br />
The Propylaea and the Hexagonal Court of the Jupiter temple were added in the 3rd century under the Severan Dynasty (193-235 A.D.) and work was presumably completed in the mid-3rd century. The small circular structure known as the Temple of Venus, was probably finished at this time as well. When Christianity was declared an official religion of the Roman Empire in 313 A.D., Byzantine Emperor Constantine officially closed the Baalbeck temples. At the end of the 4th century, the Emperor Theodosius tore down the altars of Jupiter's Great Court and built a basilica using the temple's stones and architectural elements. The remnants of the three apses of this basilica, originally oriented to the west, can still be seen in the upper part of the stairway of the Temple of Jupiter. Near the Temple of Venus are the remains of "The Temple of the Muses", dating from the beginning of the 1st century A.D. <br />
<a href="http://www.ahlebanon.com/images/PDF/Spring%202003%20-%20Issue%2017/PAUL%20REYNOLDS%20-%20Amphorae%20in%20Roman%20LEBANON%2050BC%20to%20AD250.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.ahlebanon.com/images/PDF/Spring%202003%20-%20Issue%2017/PAUL%20REYNOLDS%20-%20Amphorae%20in%20Roman%20LEBANON%2050BC%20to%20AD250.pdf">http://www.ahlebanon.com/images/PDF/Spri...</a> Amphorae in Roman Lebanon (Paul Reynolds)<br />
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<a href="http://books.stonebooks.com/history/somaliland.shtml" target="_blank" title="http://books.stonebooks.com/history/somaliland.shtml">http://books.stonebooks.com/history/soma...</a> Attacco italiano in "French & British Somalia" (OTTIMO & DETTAGLIATO!)<br />
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ITALIANS IN TURKEY<br />
[[Image:Galata tower istanbul.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Galata Tower]], built in 1348 by the [[Republic of Genoa]] in [[Constantinople]] and actual symbol of the Italian levantine{{citation needed|date=November 2015}}]]<br />
'''Italians of Turkey''' (called also "Italian levantines" and in [[Italian language|Italian]]: "Italo-levantini") are Italians who have lived or are actually living in [[Turkey]], who are mainly descendants from Genoese and Venetian colonists in the [[Levant]] during the [[Middle Ages]] <a href="http://www.festivaletteraturadiviaggio.it/altrove/geografie/levante-e-levantini.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.festivaletteraturadiviaggio.it/altrove/geografie/levante-e-levantini.htm">http://www.festivaletteraturadiviaggio.i...</a> The "Levantini" (in Italian)]. They are not the [[Levantines (Latin Christians)|Christian Levantines]], related to [[Catholicism]] in the Levant, because the Italian levantines are related only to Italy and are not all Christians.<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
The name "Italo-Levantine" is additionally applied to people of [[Italy|Italian]] (especially [[Venice|Venetian]] and [[Genoa|Genoese]]) origin, but even with some [[France|French]] or other [[Southern Europe|Euro-Mediterranean]] roots, who have lived in [[Istanbul]], [[İzmir]] and other parts of [[Anatolia]] in [[Turkey]]. Italian Levantines have roots even in the eastern [[Mediterranean]] coast (the Levant, particularly in present-day [[Lebanon]] and [[Israel]]) since the period of the [[Crusades]] and the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] empire. A small group came from [[Crimea]] and the Genoese colonies in the [[Black sea]], after the [[Fall of Constantinople]] in 1453.<br />
The majority of the original Italian Levantines in modern Turkey are descendants of traders/colonists from the [[maritime republics]] of the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] (such as the [[Republic of Venice]], the [[Republic of Genoa]] and the [[Republic of Pisa]] or of the inhabitants of the [[Crusader states]], especially the French/Italian Levantines in [[Lebanon]], [[Israel]] and [[Syria]]) who got special concessions called ''Capitolazioni'' from the Ottoman sultans in the 16th century. <a href="http://www.levantineheritage.com/histor3.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.levantineheritage.com/histor3.htm">http://www.levantineheritage.com/histor3...</a> Levantine historical heritage]<br />
In the 2010s only 500 of the Italians in Turkey are descendants from the original Italian Levantines, while more than 3000 (the great majority) are of recent emigration since the [[Risorgimento|unification of Italy]] in 1861.<br />
==Italian Communities in Turkey==<br />
At the beginning of the struggle for the independence of Italy -in the mid 1800s- a lot of Italians came to Turkey because of money but for political reasons too: the "[[Carbonari]] were escaping from Italy to safer places and Istanbul was one of them. These Italians were welcomed by the original community of the Italian Levantines living mostly in Galata since the Middle Ages.<br />
{{Quote|''There were more than 40,000 Catholic Italians in Istanbul at the turn of the 20th century, a figure which not only included the descendants of the local Genoese and Venetian merchants who lived here since the Byzantine and early Ottoman periods, but also the numerous Italian workers and artisans who came to the city from Italy during the 19th century.''Mavi Boncuk }}<br />
Until 1933- 1935 there were approximately 40.000 Italians in Turkey but after a Turkish law in these years, only around 3.500- 4.000 people were allowed to stay there.<br />
[[File:Haydarpasa campus general.jpg|thumb|420px|[[Marmara University]] Haydarpaşa Campus in Istanbul, which was originally built as the ""Imperial College of Medicine (''Mekteb-i Tıbbiye-i Şahane'') between 1895 and 1900 by Italian architect [[Raimondo D'Aronco]], one of the most famous Italians in Turkey]]<br />
Actually there are two big communities of Italians of Turkey: one in Istanbul and the other in [[Izmir]]. At the end of the 19th century there were nearly 6,000 levantines of Italian roots in the second. <a href="http://www.giustiniani.info/italianiasmirne.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.giustiniani.info/italianiasmirne.pdf">http://www.giustiniani.info/italianiasmi...</a> Frangini: Italiani in Smirne/Izmir (in Italian)] They came mainly from the genoese island of [[Chios]]. <a href="http://www.levantineheritage.com/testi56.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.levantineheritage.com/testi56.htm">http://www.levantineheritage.com/testi56...</a> Latin migration from Chios]<br />
The community reached more than 15,000 members during [[Kemal Ataturk|Ataturk]]'s times, but in the 1950s was reduced to a few hundreds, according to Italian Levantine writer Giovanni Scognamillo. <a href="http://www.levantineheritage.com/testi35.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.levantineheritage.com/testi35.htm">http://www.levantineheritage.com/testi35...</a> Interview to Scognamillo]<br />
They continue to live in [[Istanbul]] (mostly in the districts of [[Galata|Karaköy]], [[Beyoğlu]] and [[Nişantaşı]]), and İzmir (mostly in the districts of [[Karşıyaka]], [[Bornova]] and [[Buca]]. Nowadays Italians in Turkey are moreover merchants, sales representatives,<br />
supervisors, teachers; really well integrated in this country. Actually in the 2010s all over Turkey<br />
there are more than 3.000 Italians whereof around 2.400 in Istanbul. <a href="http://www.academia.edu/7061169/Italian_community_in_Istanbul" target="_blank" title="http://www.academia.edu/7061169/Italian_community_in_Istanbul">http://www.academia.edu/7061169/Italian_...</a> Italian community in Istanbul, by M. Marcella]<br />
Most [[Latin rite]] [[Roman Catholicism in Turkey|Catholics in Turkey]] are Levantines of mainly Italian background.<br />
==Notable people==<br />
{{Quote|''There were famous names such as the composers and conductors Giuseppe Donizetti, and Callisto Guatelli, as well as many architects, including Giulio Mongeri, Vitaliano Poselli, Piero Arigoni and painters, such as Bellini, Fausto Zonaro and Leonardo de Mango.The Italian architect who probably influenced the city's 19th century architecture the most was Raimondo D'Aronco, a celebrity in Istanbul at the time. Serving for 16 years as a kind of state architect under Sultan Abdülhamid II, he designed many public buildings such as the Ministry of Agriculture, the "Medical College", and the "Tophane Fountain", as well as dozens of summer residences (Köşks) across the city'' M. Marcella}} <br />
Famous people of the present-day Italian levantine community in Turkey include:<br />
[[File:Raimondo Tommaso D'Aronco.jpg|thumb|Architect Raimondo Tommaso D'Aronco]]<br />
* [[Raimondo Tommaso D'Aronco]], who was a very famous architect in Istanbul. He was the chief palace architect to the Ottoman Sultan Abdülhamid II in Constantinople for 16 years.<br />
* Sir [[Alfred Biliotti]], who joined the British foreign service and eventually rose to become one of its most distinguished consular officers in the late 19th century. Biliotti was also an accomplished archaeologist who conducted important excavations at sites in the Aegean and [[Anatolia]].<br />
* Livio Missir di Lusignano. Historian. His masterpiece is ''Les anciennes familles italiennes de Turquie''.<br />
* [[Giuseppe Donizetti]], musicist. He was Instructor General of the Imperial [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Music at the court of Sultan [[Mahmud II]] <a href="http://www.musicaltimes.co.uk/archive/0203/arac.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.musicaltimes.co.uk/archive/0203/arac.html">http://www.musicaltimes.co.uk/archive/02...</a> Giuseppe Donizetti Pasha]<br />
* [[Giovanni Scognamillo]], writer. He composed "Memorie di Beyoğlu di un Levantino" in 1989. <a href="http://arsiv.ntvmsnbc.com/news/458504.asp" target="_blank" title="http://arsiv.ntvmsnbc.com/news/458504.asp">http://arsiv.ntvmsnbc.com/news/458504.as...</a> NTV-MSNBC: "Giovanni Scognamillo ile sinema üzerine" (in Turkish)]<br />
* Count [[Abraham Camondo]]. He was a Jewish [[Turkey|Turkish]]-[[Italy|Italian]] financier and philanthropist, and the patriarch of the [[Camondo family]].<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Levantines (Latin Christians)]]<br />
*[[Italian Lebanese]]<br />
*[[Republic of Genoa]]<br />
*[[Republic of Venice]]<br />
*[[Galata]]<br />
*[[Italian diaspora]]<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Consorti, A., ''Vicende dell’italianità in Levante, 1815-1915'' in: Rivista Coloniale, anno XV.<br />
* Franzina, Emilio. ''Storia dell'emigrazione italiana''. Donzelli Editore. Roma, 2002 ISBN 88-7989-719-5<br />
* Missir di Lusignano, Livio. ''Due secoli di relazioni italo-turche attraverso le vicende di una famiglia di italiani di Smirne: i Missir di Lusignano''. "Storia contemporanea", (4) pp. 613–623. Università di Bologna. Bologna, 1992.<br />
* Pannuti, Alessandro. ''Les Italiens d’Istanbul au XXe siècle : entre préservation identitaire et effacement''. Université de Paris III – Sorbonne Nouvelle. Parigi, 2004<br />
* Pongiluppi, Francesco. ''La Rassegna Italiana Organo degli Interessi Italiani in Oriente. Giornale Ufficiale della Camera di Commercio Italiana di Costantinopoli'', Edizioni Isis, Istanbul, 2015.<br />
{{Italian diaspora}}<br />
[[Category: Italian diaspora]]<br />
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<a href="http://www.storiainrete.com/2801/rassegna-stampa-italiana/1939-londra-chiese-armi-a-mussolini-contro-hitler/" target="_blank" title="http://www.storiainrete.com/2801/rassegna-stampa-italiana/1939-londra-chiese-armi-a-mussolini-contro-hitler/">http://www.storiainrete.com/2801/rassegn...</a> INTRESSANTISSIMO!!!<br />
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<a href="http://www.hotel-biser.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=26&Itemid=33&lang=it" target="_blank" title="http://www.hotel-biser.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=26&Itemid=33&lang=it">http://www.hotel-biser.com/index.php?opt...</a> STORIA DELL'ISOLA DI PAGO IN DALMAZIA<br />
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MAPPA PRINCIPATO SALERNO=DUCATO PUGLIA -CALABRIA<br />
<img alt="ducato" src="http://researchomnia.blogspot.com/2011/12/corsica-claimed-by-italy-1938-1943.html" /><br />
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ITALIAN CONCESSIONS AND FORTS IN CHINA (WIKIWAND CACHE: <a href="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:mM-vaFvYG_wJ:www.wikiwand.com/en/Concessions_and_forts_of_Italy_in_China+&cd=3&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" target="_blank" title="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:mM-vaFvYG_wJ:www.wikiwand.com/en/Concessions_and_forts_of_Italy_in_China+&cd=3&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us">http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se...</a> )<br />
Concessions and forts of Italy in China are the commercial and military concessions & fortifications that the Kingdom of Italy had in different Chinese localities until WWII.<br />
History<br />
Italy in the first half of the 20th century has had concessions and fortifications in Peking, Tientsin, Shanghai, Shan Hai Kuan, Ta Ku, Amoy and Hankow. Since 1925 they were defended mainly by the "Battaglione Italiano in Cina" (Battaglione San Marco) and by some Italian Navy ships, like the gunboats "Carlotto" and Caboto" (later substituted by the minelayer "Lepanto").<br />
The small Italian area inside the 1900 Peking Legation Quarter<br />
They were ruled by "Consoli" (Governors), all resident in Tientsin:<br />
Cesare Poma (1901–1903)<br />
Giuseppe Chiostri (1904–1906)<br />
Oreste Da Vella (1907–1911)<br />
Vincenzo Fileti (1912–1919)<br />
Marcello Roddolo (1920–1921)<br />
Luigi Gabrielli di Quercita (1921–1924)<br />
Guido Segre (1925–1927)<br />
Luigi Neyrone (1928–1932)<br />
Filippo Zappi (1933–1938)<br />
Ferruccio Stefenelli (1939–1943)<br />
There was even the Treaty Port in Beihai (southern China), that was allowed to have a small area for Italian commerce.[1]<br />
In 1932...the Italian shipping company "Lloyd Triestino" opened a new service linking Italy to Shanghai by scheduling on that route two modern trans-atlantic vessels, the "Conte Biancamano" and "the Conte Rosso" (which immediately set a speed world record of only 23 days during the first voyage). With this new service, supported by those of other companies employed in the trade of various goods and products, the economic exchange between Italy and China reached such good levels to alarm Great Britain and France. Alberto Rosselli [2]<br />
The Italian possessions in China enjoyed a relatively good economic development with huge Italian-Chinese commerce in the 1920s and mainly in the 1930s.<br />
Peking Legation Quarter<br />
Italian troops occupied a section of the Peking "Legation Quarter" in 1900. Indeed the Eight-Nation Alliance of which Italy belonged, at the end of the Battle of Peking, obtained the right to station troops to protect their legations in China's capital by the terms of the Boxer Protocol.<br />
The Legation Quarter was encircled by a wall and all Chinese residents in the area were ordered to relocate away. Sealed from its immediate environment, the Legation Quarter became a city within the city exclusively for foreigners and many Chinese nationalists resented the Quarter as a symbol of foreign dominance. Italy had this small concession until 1943.<br />
Tientsin Italian concession<br />
Main article: Italian concession of Tientsin<br />
Main square of Italian Tientsin<br />
On 7 September 1901, a concession in Tientsin (that consisted approximately of half a square kilometer - or 51.42 ha.[3]) was ceded to the Kingdom of Italy by the Qing Dynasty of China.[4] On 7 June 1902, the concession was taken into Italian possession and administered by an Italian consul: the first was Cesare Poma and the last (in 1943) was Ferruccio Stefenelli. Along with other foreign concessions, the Italian concession lay on the Pei Ho, southeast of the city centre.[5]<br />
In 1917 China terminated the leases of Germany and Austria-Hungary concessions. The districts were converted into "Special Areas" with a separate administration from the rest of Tientsin. But Italy requested the Austrian concession after WWI: it was obtained only in June 1928 and soon returned to Chinese authorities,[6] when the Second Special Area (the one of former Austrian concession) was in danger of war and occupation during the China civil war.<br />
In 1935 the total population was 6,261, of which 5,725 Chinese and 536 foreigners including 392 Italians, according to historian Pistoiese.[7] He even wrote that the concession in those years experienced huge improvements and assumed "the role of showcase of Italian art" with rich urban developments. As stated by Woodhead, in 1934 "The Italian concession ... was becoming the most popular centre for the palatial residences of retired Chinese militaries and politicians".[8]<br />
In the late 1930s the Italian concession of Tientsin and the consulates of Shanghai, Hankow and Beijing lived a quite peaceful period. Italian Tientsin enjoyed a small economic boom, fueled by rich Chinese who moved to live in the Italian area escaping the Japanese invasion of China. But WWII changed everything.<br />
During World War II, the Italian concession in Tientsin had a garrison of approximately 600 Italian troops on the side of the Axis powers. On 10 September 1943, when Italy signed an armistice with the Allies, the concession was occupied by the Imperial Japanese Army.<br />
Italian concession in the Shanghai International Settlement<br />
The flag of the Shanghai International Settlement, showing even the Italian one<br />
After WWI the Kingdom of Italy maintained troops in an area of Shanghai, that was used as commercial concession inside the Shanghai International Settlement (S.I.S.). This settlement was wholly foreign-controlled, with staff of all nationalities, including British, Americans, Danes, Germans and Italians.<br />
Italian concession in the S.I.S. (borders in yellow)<br />
In reality, the British held the largest number of seats on the Council and headed all the Municipal departments. The only department not chaired by a Briton was the "Municipal Orchestra", which was controlled by an Italian.<br />
The International Settlement maintained its own fire-service, police force (the Shanghai Municipal Police), and even possessed its own military reserve in the Shanghai Volunteer Corps.<br />
Following some disturbances at the British concession in Hankow in 1927, the defences at Shanghai were augmented by a permanent battalion of the British Army, which was referred to as the Shanghai Defence Force and a contingent of US Marines. Other armed forces would arrive in Shanghai: the French Concession had a defensive force of Annamite troops, the Italians also introduced their own marines, as did the Japanese (whose troops eventually outnumbered the other countries' many times over).<br />
In ‘Old Shanghai’, there were specific areas with a high concentration of Italian economic activities (in the International Settlement: Kiukiang Road; Kiangse Road; crossroads between Nanking Road and Szechuen Road; Bubbling Well Road), areas with Italian residences (French Concession), other suburban areas with Italians (Zikawei; in this case, they were priests). Moreover, Italians were involved in specific economic sectors (primarily, silk): as the textile sector was developed mainly in Lombardy at that time, most of the expatriate Italian managers and supervisors in Shanghai mills came from this Italian region.Stefano Piastra [9]<br />
In the late 1930s was reinforced the military presence in the small area of Shanghai (that was next to the American concession and north of the French concession) controlled by the Italians. The Italian Navy stationed in the Shanghai port periodically some ships like the cruisers Trento and Montecuccoli during the Japanese invasion of China.[10] In 1947 the Peace Treaty forced Italy to renounce to it with article 26, that stated: "(Italy) agrees to the reversion of the said Settlements (at Shanghai and Amoy) to the Administration and control of the Chinese Government".<br />
Forts in Shan Hai Kuan & in Ta-Ku<br />
From 1900 until the late 1930s, the Italians even held small forts like the Forte di Shan Hai Kuan[11] near the Great Wall of China in Manchuria[12] and the Forte nordoccidentale in Ta-Ku.[13] The one in Ta-Ku (called "N.W fort of Ta-Ku") was held together with the British for a couple of years.[14]<br />
Commercial Concessions in Hankow and in Amoy<br />
Italian consulate in the 1912 Hankow concessions<br />
In Hankow since the 1900 was located an Italian consulate, that later was enlarged in order to have a small commercial concession.<br />
Hankow was the center of catholic missions and had many Italian priests and nuns who were protected by Italian troops in the 1920s and early 1930s (in the late 1920s nearly 40% of the Italian civilians in China were religious personnel of the Roman Catholic Church[15]).<br />
Another small commercial area under Italian control was in Amoy (Xiamen), after WWI.[16] Amoy's European settlements (like the small Italian consulate) were concentrated on the islet of Gulangyu off the main island of actual Xiamen in the region of Hong Kong. Today, Gulangyu is known for colonial architecture, with some examples of the Italian one.[17]<br />
In the early 1930s only the small consulate of Hankow remained under Italian control.<br />
After 1940<br />
When started WWII Italy had only the Tientsin concession under direct control, while remained a garrison in the Shanghai international settlement, in the fort of Shan Hai Kuan and in the Legation of Peking.<br />
In 1940 the soldiers of the Battaglione San Marco were stationed in the remaining areas controlled by Italy: nearly 200 were in Shanghai, 180 in Tientsin, 25 in Shan Hai Kuan and 15 in Peking. They were helped by the marines and sailors of the Italian Navy stationed in Tientsin.[18]<br />
After September 1943 -when Italy surrendered to the Allies- started a very difficult period for the Italians in China. Japanese forces took control of the Italian possessions in China, after some fightings (like in the legation of Peking, and with the scuttle in Shanghai port of the ships "Carlotto" and Caboto").<br />
Italy agrees to the cancellation of the Lease from the Chinese Government under which the Italian Concession at Tientsin was granted......Italy renounces in favor of China the rights accorded to Italy in relation to the International Settlements at Shanghai and Amoy, and agrees to the reversion of the said Settlements to the Administration and control of the Chinese Government. Articles 25 & 26 of 1947 Peace Treaty.([19])<br />
Finally, on 10 February 1947, by virtue of the peace treaty with Italy, all the Italian concessions and fortifications were formally ceded by Italy to Chiang Kai-shek's Republic of China.<br />
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A L I S O (reperibile anche qui, con foto: <a href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:fBTX34G5O00J:https://howlingpixel.com/wiki/Aliso_" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:fBTX34G5O00J:https://howlingpixel.com/wiki/Aliso_">https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/s...</a>(Roman_Fort_%2526_Vicus)+&cd=13&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us )</div>
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{{Infobox castrum<br />
| name = Aliso (Roman Fort & Vicus)<br />
| image = Roemermuseum model 01.jpg<br />
| image_size =<br />
| alt =<br />
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| alt_names = ''Aliso''<br />
| known_as =<br />
| built_during_reign_of = [[Augustus]]<br />
| founded = ca. 11 BC<br />
| abandoned = 16 AD<br />
| attested_by =<br />
| previous_fortification = </div>
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| weak_struct_technique =<br />
| weak_struct_towers = </div>
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| commanders =<br />
| legions = [[Legio XIX]]<br />
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| events = </div>
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| province =<br />
| capital_of = [[Germania (Roman province)]]<br />
| admin_unit_1 =<br />
| admin_unit_2 =<br />
| limes =<br />
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| links = </div>
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| coordinates = {{Coord|51|40|11.8|N|7|15|18.2|E|type:landmark_region:DE-BY|display=title}}<br />
| altitude_m =<br />
| altitude_ref =<br />
| map = Germany<br />
| map_alt = <br />
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| map_relief = </div>
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| place_name =<br />
| location_town = Haltern<br />
| location_county =<br />
| location_state =<br />
| location_country = Germany<br />
| iso_region = DE</div>
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| ref:UK:OSNG =<br />
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| ref:UNESCO = </div>
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'''Aliso (Roman Fort and Vicus)''' was a military and civilian settlement in ancient [[Germany]], built by [[Augustus]] (near actual [[Haltern]]) when he wanted to create the [[Germania (Roman province)|Roman province of Germania]].</div>
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==History==</div>
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No Roman fortress on [[Germany]]'s soil gained so much fame and is still as mysterious as the Roman camp "Aliso". This Roman fortification seems inseparable from the occupation efforts of the Romans east of the [[Rhine river]]. Especially during the event of the [[Publius Quinctilius Varus|Varus]] defeat at Teutoburg, this camp took on a supporting role.</div>
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{{Quote|''The legionary fortress Aliso was named after the river at which it was built, the Elison. To be specific Cassius Dio reports about the construction of a legionary fortress at the river Elison: "Drusus accordingly conceived a scorn of them in his turn and fortified a stronghold against them at the point where the Lupia and the Eliso unite, and also another among the Chatti on the bank of the Rhine." (Cassius Dio, Roman History, 54.32.4). '' <a href="http://alisonensis.de/EN/3%20Military%20Bases/3%20Military%20Bases.html" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://alisonensis.de/EN/3%20Military%20Bases/3%20Military%20Bases.html">http://alisonensis.de/EN/3%20Military%20...</a> Alisonensis]}}</div>
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The Roman province of Germania extended from the [[Rhine river]] & [[Danube river]] as far north as the [[Wadden Sea|Wadden sea]] and as far east as the [[Elbe river]] <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_62dCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA7&lpg=PA7&dq=roman+province+of+germania&source=bl&ots=5sJE3Lfv-k&sig=RRbmjZGuDqv8JcvAj1tex_lUbqw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjxioX1sPXUAhUC8WMKHXdzDWU4UBDoAQgrMAE#v=onepage&q=roman%20province%20of%20germania&f=false" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=_62dCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA7&lpg=PA7&dq=roman+province+of+germania&source=bl&ots=5sJE3Lfv-k&sig=RRbmjZGuDqv8JcvAj1tex_lUbqw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjxioX1sPXUAhUC8WMKHXdzDWU4UBDoAQgrMAE#v=onepage&q=roman%20province%20of%20germania&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=_62dCw...</a> Lindsay Powell: Germans vesus Romans] and Aliso was the administrative capital.</div>
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The initial foundation of the Marching Camp is suggested by [[Cassius Dio]] Lucius Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LIV, 33, during the [[Germania]]'s occupation campaign of the year [[11 BC]] by [[Drusus]] <a href="http://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/military-history/drusus-the-elder-hero-of-rome/" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/military-history/drusus-the-elder-hero-of-rome/">http://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/m...</a> Drusus, the hero of Rome]. The foundation of the legionary Fort could have happened some years later, following the close of the nearby Camp of Oberaden (near actual [[Oberaden]]): at [[8 BC]]. The creation of a small civilian settlement (called "[[Vicus]]") probably happened following the campaigns of [[Marcus Vinicius (consul 19 BC)|Marcus Vinicius]] of [[1 AD]]. </div>
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The end of the Aliso Fort was almost certainly after the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest|Teutoburg battle]] in [[9 AD]], but archaeological evidences suggest that the civilian "Vicus" survived until 16 AD. Additionally it seems that the Roman Castrum was rebuilt and used for a couple of years by [[Germanicus]] around [[12 AD]]Cornelius Tacitus. Annales I, 59. </div>
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==Characteristics==<br />
[[Image:Legionslager Haltern Principia.png|thumb|right|200px| The ''Principia'' (main castrum building) in Aliso; first period]]</div>
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The Roman Aliso corresponds to a series of Roman military camps in [[Haltern am See]], Germany's [[Recklinghausen]] region. They constitute a set of 6 different sites built by the Roman army at the time of the Emperor [[Augustus]], as part of the project of occupation of [[Germania]] and its transformation into the Roman province.</div>
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The complex represents the administrative center of the [[Germania (Roman province)|new roman province of Germania]]. It is located along the [[Lippe River]] on its northern shore at a distance of about 70 km from [[Xanten|Castra Vetera]] and 130 km from Anreppen. Modern scholars believe that the six sites so far discovered had:<br />
* a military function, with the aim of controlling the important [[Lippe (river)|Lippe river]].<br />
* the administrative center of the new province of Germany as well as an important commercial square, flanked by large and small Roman burial sites.</div>
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{{Quote|''The prominent site at Haltern on the Lippe river was discovered more than a hundred years ago with excavations still in progress. Excavations began in 1899 with discoveries proving important for the history of the Augustan age. Military presence: a number fortifications were found along with evidence of longer occupation, namely a main street flanked by large and small Roman burial sites. The interior setup and number of officer's buildings in the main camp suggest that it had some sort of administrative function as well as being the winter quarters of a legion''. Grane, Thomas Grane, Thomas. "The Roman Empire and Southern Scandinavia - a Northern Connection" p. 20}}</div>
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The most important of the six sites is the one related to the Fort (of nearly 20 hectares), that successfully resisted the attacks after the Varus defeat and so stopped the possible invasion of Roman Gallia.</div>
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Aliso had a small port <a href="http://www.livius.org/pictures/germany/haltern/haltern-river-port-model/" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://www.livius.org/pictures/germany/haltern/haltern-river-port-model/">http://www.livius.org/pictures/germany/h...</a> Port of Aliso] on the Lippe river, that connected the fortifications with [[Xanten|Castra Vetera]] (the main base of the Roman [[Classis Germanica]]): it was the easternmost location that could be easily reached by big Roman ships inside central Germania (and this was an important factor in the growth of the Fort & Vicus). Indeed the river Lippe has been used as an infrastructure in Roman times. For the Romans the river was a gateway to [[Magna Germania]], running from the river Rhine to the region around [[Paderborn]]. The watercourse was used for transport of supplies, so along the banks of the Lippe many former Roman camps can be found. <a href="https://www.google.com/maps/d/viewer?mid=zcBeKQb8euW0.k2JNI21PZ_Rs&hl=en_US" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="https://www.google.com/maps/d/viewer?mid=zcBeKQb8euW0.k2JNI21PZ_Rs&hl=en_US">https://www.google.com/maps/d/viewer?mid...</a> Overview about the Roman camps] </div>
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In the last 200 years many of these camps have been identified, above all this Aliso camp which is likely to be the former headquarter of the imperial prince [[Tiberius]]. The distance between the camps is about a one-day walk of the troops, which is almost 30 km (20 mi). Today’s identified Roman camps are: [[Olfen]], [[Xanten]], Haltern/Aliso, [[Oberaden]], Holsterhausen, Anreppen and Beckinghausen.</div>
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===The legionary base of Aliso and the "Vicus": administrative seat of the new province of [[Germania (Roman province)|Germania]]===</div>
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The first full archaeological research was done in 1901, by the archaeologists Friedrich Koepp, Friedrich Philippi and Carl Schuchhardt.<br />
[[Image:Haltern dintorni jpg.jpg|thumb|left|400px|Map of Aliso near the Lippe river]]<br />
The first investigation started from the double moat present around the camp, where both ditches were 6 meters wide and deep 2.5 meters deep. Inside the ditches there was an embankment and a palisade that enclosed an area of 16.3 hectares, then expanded along the east side of the field for another 2 acres of surface. The area of the new rectangular field with beveled corners now measures more than 18.3 hectares (560 x 380 m). It also had 4 wide doors, between 7 and 10 meters high.</div>
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The subsequent excavations that occurred before the [[First World War]] revealed: all four main roads in the castrum, namely ''Via Principalis'', ''Via Praetoria'', ''Via Decumana'' and ''Via Quintana''. The first was 30 meters wide, the second 45 meters, while the other two were wide up to 20 meters. Parallel to the palisade ran ''Via Sagularis''. <a href="http://www.livius.org/site/assets/files/13425/haltern.722x0-is-pid13426.jpg" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://www.livius.org/site/assets/files/13425/haltern.722x0-is-pid13426.jpg">http://www.livius.org/site/assets/files/...</a> Detailed map of Aliso fort]</div>
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Some buildings were later investigated, such as the ''Principia'' administrative center, the commander building (''Praetorium''), the [[Tribune]] and [[Centurion]] dwellings, the Military Shops (''Contubernium''), the Military Hospital (''Valetudinarium''), the Warehouses and the Laboratories of a potter.</div>
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This fortification was part of a series of strong auxiliary and legionnaires [[castra]] along the Lippe river, from the Rhine until Anreppen. But Aliso, however, also covered the role of administrative center of the new Roman province of Germany. The area of the fortifications suggests that 6-7 [[Cohort (military unit)|cohorts]] (of [[Legio XIX]]) could be accommodated, as well as a few "Auxilia" contingents on horseback, possibly placed in the nearby fort of Annaber.</div>
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{{Quote|''Aliso (now Haltern) was founded....Here, however, there are characteristics that exclude a purely military destination: the high number above the average of the so-called centurion and tribune houses, as well as the presence of front porches, indicate a civil use, in any case very little compatible with a situation of open belligerence....In addition, the tombs built in front of Aliso's main towers do not look like hurried burials, as if they were carried out during a military mission, but served as long-lasting memory sites for the dead. Those who built such tombs left the assumption that they could continue to visit these burial grounds for a long time. This means that the camp had to be for a long time a housing center not only for military but also for civilians'' Werner Eck; University of Bologna <a href="http://storicamente.org/eck_augusto_germania" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://storicamente.org/eck_augusto_germania">http://storicamente.org/eck_augusto_germ...</a> Werner Eck: Germania of Augustus]}}</div>
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The Romans believed that the countryside along the river Lippe was a safe possession of their empire. This is suggested by the fact that they built [[Roman tomb|tombs]] in this area <a href="http://www.livius.org/pictures/germany/haltern/haltern-tomb-27-model/" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://www.livius.org/pictures/germany/haltern/haltern-tomb-27-model/">http://www.livius.org/pictures/germany/h...</a> Roman tombs in Aliso]. These tombs were evidently built for a resident population who wanted to honor their deaths for generations. In the XX century were discovered numerous tombs of the Augustan era on a 500-foot long and 45 meters wide strip, along the south-east corner of the Roman castrum and near the "[[Canaba]]" Vicus. Indeed Aliso played an important role in the administration of the subjected territories, because the camp had too many large houses not for military use. Probably the "Vicus" in 9 AD -when Aliso was attacked by [[Arminius]]- had a population of nearly one thousand inhabitants, with many women and children.</div>
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It is likely that at least some Roman civil servants, responsible for tax and similar activities, lived in Aliso. Furthermore, the [[Auxilia]] troops were mainly Gallo-Romance soldiers with their families, who settled in the Aliso Canaba/Vicus and probably remained in the area after the Roman withdrawal in 16 AD <a href="http://alisonensis.de/EN/1%20Magna%20Germania%20en/1%20Magna%20Germania%20en.html#1.5_Gallo-Roman_settlers_in_Magna" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://alisonensis.de/EN/1%20Magna%20Germania%20en/1%20Magna%20Germania%20en.html#1.5_Gallo-Roman_settlers_in_Magna">http://alisonensis.de/EN/1%20Magna%20Ger...</a> Gallo-Romance settlers in Germania]</div>
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== Gallery ==</div>
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File:RoemermuseumHaltern005.JPG|Two floors "Principia" (model)<br />
File:RoemermuseumHaltern004.JPG|Walls near the Lippe river (model)<br />
File:RoemermuseumHaltern016.JPG|Port of Aliso (model)<br />
File:2016-08-16 Haltern Hölzerne Befestigung 16.jpg|Wooden fortifications with ditches<br />
File:2016-08-16 Haltern Hölzerne Befestigung 02.jpg|Wooden Gate<br />
File:Roemermuseum arrowheads.jpg|Haltern Museum: Arrowheads & Gladius<br />
File:Roemermuseum bronze oil lamp.jpg|Haltern Museum: Bronze oil lamp<br />
File:2009-07 haltern imperium 07.jpg|Haltern Museum: Statue<br />
File:Roemermuseum Groma.jpg|Haltern Museum: Groma surveying<br />
File:Roemermuseum kiln.jpg|Haltern Museum: Kiln<br />
File:Roemermuseum buckles and metal fittings.jpg|Haltern Museum:Buckles & metal fittings<br />
File:Roemermuseum military equipment.jpg|Haltern Museum: Military equipment<br />
File:Roemermuseum tools.jpg|Haltern Museum: Tools<br />
File:Roemermuseum weapons.jpg|Haltern Museum: Weapons</div>
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==Notes==</div>
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==Bibliography==<br />
* Grane, Thomas. ''The Roman empire and Southern Scandinavia - a northern connection'' University of Copenhagen. Copenhagen, 2009 ( <a href="http://research.ku.dk/search/?pure=files%2F118391302%2F2007_Grane_PhD_dissertation.pdf" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://research.ku.dk/search/?pure=files%2F118391302%2F2007_Grane_PhD_dissertation.pdf">http://research.ku.dk/search/?pure=files...</a> ])<br />
* Siegmar von Schnurbein: ''Die römischen Militäranlagen bei Haltern. Bericht über die Forschungen seit 1899'' (= ''Bodenaltertümer Westfalens.'' Heft 14) Aschendorff, Münster 1974 (2. Aufl. Münster 1981, {{ISBN|3-402-05117-6}}).<br />
* Rudolf Aßkamp: ''Haltern.'' In: ''2000 Jahre Römer in Westfalen.'' Mainz 1989, {{ISBN|3-8053-1100-1}}<br />
* Johann-Sebastian Kühlborn: ''Der augusteische Militärstützpunkt Haltern.'' In: Johann-Sebastian Kühlborn (Hrsg.), ''Germaniam pacavi. Germanien habe ich befriedet.'' Münster 1995<br />
* Johann-Sebastian Kühlborn: ''Das augusteische Hauptlager von Haltern.''In. ''Krieg und Frieden. Kelten, Römer, Germanen.'' Primus-Verlag, Darmstadt 2007<br />
* Jacob Schneider: ''Die römischen Militärstrassen an der Lippe und das Castell Aliso : nach eigenen Localforschungen dargestellt''. Düsseldorf, 1878 ( <a href="http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hbz:061:1-34742" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hbz:061:1-34742">http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hbz:0...</a> Digital] of Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek Düsseldorf)</div>
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==See also==<br />
* [[Germania (Roman province)]]<br />
* [[Roman camp, Marktbreit|Markbreit]]<br />
* [[Waldgirmes Forum|Waldgirmes]]<br />
* [[Magna Germania]]<br />
* [[Xanten|Castra Vetera]]</div>
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{{Roman Forts in Germania}}</div>
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[[Category:Germania (Roman province)]]<br />
[[Category:Former populated places in Germany]]<br />
[[Category:Roman fortifications in Germany]]<br />
[[Category:Roman sites in Germany]]<br />
[[Category:Roman towns and cities in Germany]]</div>
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<b></b><i></i><u></u><sub></sub><sup></sup><strike></strike><br />
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"Italian Presence in Modern Venezuela: Socioeconomic Dimension and Geo-cultural Changes, 1926-1990"<br />
Pedro Cunill Grau<br />
Universidad Central de Venezuela</div>
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<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.2050-411X.1994.tb00760.x" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.2050-411X.1994.tb00760.x">https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/...</a></div>
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"Italian Immigration in Venezuela: A Story Still Untold"<br />
Susan Berglund<br />
University Central de Venezuela</div>
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<a href="https://www.lastampa.it/2018/11/03/economia/la-corsa-del-pil-dal-al-cos-litalia-stata-sorpassata-avVTKLwCkBBDpuGftyptTP/pagina.html" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="https://www.lastampa.it/2018/11/03/economia/la-corsa-del-pil-dal-al-cos-litalia-stata-sorpassata-avVTKLwCkBBDpuGftyptTP/pagina.html">https://www.lastampa.it/2018/11/03/econo...</a> Mappa movimentata del PIL Italia e primi dieci paesi nel mondo 1960-2017<br />
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<a href="https://www.academia.edu/11146628/D._Andrea_Casimiro_dAmbrosio_Principe_di_Marzano_acquista_la_Terra_di_Roccamonfina_1756_" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank" title="https://www.academia.edu/11146628/D._Andrea_Casimiro_dAmbrosio_Principe_di_Marzano_acquista_la_Terra_di_Roccamonfina_1756_">https://www.academia.edu/11146628/D._And...</a> TESTO ORIGINARIO SUL PRINCIPATO DI MARZANO DATO AI D'AMBROSIO</div>
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<a href="http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-melecabz308.pdf" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-melecabz308.pdf">http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-melecabz...</a> Saggio sull'unico aereo di linea creato in Italia nel 1946</div>
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<a href="http://www.ehrea.org/blocind.php" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://www.ehrea.org/blocind.php">http://www.ehrea.org/blocind.php</a> Blocco indipendena - ERITREA</div>
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ITALIAN NORTH AFRICA</div>
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{{Infobox former country<br />
|native_name = ''Africa Settentrionale Italiana''<br />
|conventional_long_name = Italian North Africa<br />
|continent = Africa<br />
|common_name = Italian North Africa<br />
|region =<br />
|country =<br />
|era =<br />
|status_text =<br />
|status = Colony of Italy<br />
|empire = Italy<br />
|year_start = 1911<br />
|year_end = 1943<br />
|p1 = Ottoman Tripolitania<br />
|flag_p1 = Ottoman Flag.svg<br />
|p2 = Kingdom of Egypt<br />
|flag_p2 = Flag of Egypt 1922.svg<br />
|p3 = French Algeria<br />
|flag_p3 = Flag of France.svg<br />
|p4 = French West Africa<br />
|flag_p4 = Flag of France.svg<br />
|p5 = French Equatorial Africa<br />
|flag_p5 = Flag of France.svg<br />
|p6 = Anglo-Egyptian Sudan<br />
|flag_p6 = Flag of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.svg<br />
|p7 = French protectorate of Tunisia<br />
|flag_p7 = Pre-1999 Flag of Tunisia.svg<br />
|image_flag = Flag of Italy (1861-1946).svg<br />
|flag = Flag of Italy<br />
|image_coat = Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1929-1943).svg<br />
|symbol = Coat of arms of Italy<br />
|s1 = British Military Administration (Libya)<br />
|flag_s1 = Flag of the United Kingdom.svg<br />
|s2 = Kingdom of Egypt<br />
|flag_s2 = Flag of Egypt 1922.svg<br />
|s3 = Fezzan-Ghadames (French Administration)<br />
|flag_s3 = Flag of Fezzan-Ghadames.svg<br />
|s4 = French protectorate of Tunisia<br />
|flag_s4 = Pre-1999 Flag of Tunisia.svg<br />
|image_map = Italian North Africa.JPG<br />
|image_map_caption = Italian North Africa in 1940</div>
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'''Green''': Italian North Africa<br />
'''Dark grey''': Kingdom of Italy<br />
'''Grey''': Other Italian possessions and occupied territories<br />
|capital = [[Tripoli]]<br />
|common_languages = [[Arabic]], [[Italian language|Italian]]<br />
|religion = [[Islam]], [[Roman Catholicism]]<br />
|currency =<br />
|leader1 =<br />
|year_leader1 =<br />
|title_leader =<br />
|footnotes =<br />
}}<br />
[[File:Crescita del territorio della Libia.PNG|thumb|Italian North African territories from 1912 to 1935]]<br />
[[Image:Colonial Africa 1913 map.svg|thumb||Italian North Africa and [[Italian East Africa]] around 1913, shown in light green.]]<br />
'''Italian North Africa''' (''Africa Settentrionale Italiana'', or ASI <a href="http://morawino-stamps.com/sklep/en/25211-africa-settentrionale-italiana-tripolitania-cirenaica-libia" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://morawino-stamps.com/sklep/en/25211-africa-settentrionale-italiana-tripolitania-cirenaica-libia">http://morawino-stamps.com/sklep/en/2521...</a> Stamps related]) was the aggregate of territories and colonies controlled by [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Italy]] in [[North Africa]] from 1911 until the [[World War II|Second World War]]. It was made by [[Italian Libya]] and Italy occupied [[Tunisia]] after November 1942, with the temporary occupation of western [[Egypt]] during some periods of the war. Indeed Tunisia was administratively aggregated to the Italian "[[4th Shore]]" in December 1942. The Italian administration in North Africa ended on May 13, 1943, with the surrender of the Italian-German armed forces in Tunisia. Tunisia remained the last territory de facto administered by the Italians in Africa until the complete occupation by the American and British forces.</div>
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==Brief history==</div>
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Italian North Africa, unlike Italian East Africa (''Africa Orientale Italiana'', or AOI) existed in two phases: from 1911 to 1934, as [[Tripolitania]] and [[Cyrenaica]], and after 1934, as [[Italian Libya|Libya]] (with the later addition of coastal Tunisia during the Second World War). From 1934 to 1939, all of Italian North Africa was then known as ''Libya'', as the North African territories were consolidated into one colony, Italian Libya.</div>
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{{Quote|''April 12, 1937: is established the Superior Army Command of "'''Italian North Africa'''"; the XX Army Corps are established in Italy and sent to Libya, with the 60th "Sabratha" transportable Infantry Division, located in the Garian, and the 61st "Sirte" transportable Infantry Division, located in the Misurata area, and the XXI Army Corps with the 62nd "Marmarica" transportable Infantry Division, located in the Derna area, and the 63rd "Cyrene" transportable Infantry Division, located in the Barce area. (12/4/1937. Viene costituito il Comando Superiore FF.AA. dell' "'''Africa Settentrionale Italiana'''"; sono costituiti in Italia e inviati in Libia il XX Corpo d'Armata, con la 60^ Divisione Fanteria autotrasportabile "Sabratha", dislocata nel Garian, e la 61^ Divisione Fanteria autotrasportabile "Sirte", dislocata nella zona di Misurata, e il XXI Corpo d'Armata con la 62^ Divisione Fanteria autotrasportabile "Marmarica", dislocata nella zona di Derna, e la 63^ Divisione Fanteria autotrasportabile "Cirene", dislocata nella zona di Barce)''. Militaria <a href="http://xoomer.virgilio.it/ramius/Militaria/colonie_italiane-libia.html" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://xoomer.virgilio.it/ramius/Militaria/colonie_italiane-libia.html">http://xoomer.virgilio.it/ramius/Militar...</a> Africa settentrionale italiana]}}</div>
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In 1939 the Italian dictator [[Benito Mussolini]] called coastal Libya the [[4th shore|Fourth Shore]] (''Quarta Sponda'') of Italy and it was united with metropolitan Italy.</div>
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The term "Fourth Shore" derives from the geography of [[Italy]] being a long and narrow [[peninsula]] jutting into the Mediterranean with two main [[shoreline]]s, the First Shore on the east along the [[Adriatic Sea]] and the Second Shore on the west along the [[Tyrrhenian Sea]]. The third shore was the one facing south, to the Ionian sea and central Mediterranean (from Cape Leuca in the southern tip of Apulia, to the southern shores of Sicily near Trapani). The Adriatic Sea's opposite southern [[Balkans]] shore, with [[Dalmatia]], [[Montenegro]], and [[Albania]], was planned for Italian expansion as a possible Fifth Shore, with Libya on the [[Mediterranean Sea]] remaining as the Fourth.Moore, Martin (1940). <a href="http://afraf.oxfordjournals.org/content/XXXIX/CLV/129.full.pdf+html" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://afraf.oxfordjournals.org/content/XXXIX/CLV/129.full.pdf+html">http://afraf.oxfordjournals.org/content/...</a> Fourth Shore: Italy's Mass Colonization of Libya] ''[[African Affairs]]'' XXXIX (CLV), p. 129-133. Thus the Fourth Shore was the southern part of [[Imperial Italy (fascist)|Imperial Italy]], an early 1940s [[Italian Fascism|Fascist]] project of enlarging Italy's national borders around their ''[[Mare Nostrum]]''.</div>
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From 1940 to 1943, during the Second World War, following Italy's declaration of war on Britain and France, it attempted to conquer [[Egypt]] and [[Tunisia]] to enlarge Italian North Africa. Indeed, the Axis's military advances led by [[Rommel]] in North Africa allowed Italy to lay claim to significant portions of western Egypt: Italian fascists anticipated creating a client Kingdom of Egypt under Italian control from 1941 to 1942 and successively claimed Tunisia from 1942 to 1943.</div>
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===Italian Tunisia===</div>
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After Italy's successful [[Italian invasion of France|invasion of southern France]], Mussolini demanded Tunisia, along with [[Djibouti]], [[Corsica]] and [[Nice]] from France.{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=lGCi2-tu2yIC |title=My rise and fall |first1=Benito |last1=Mussolini |first2=Richard Washburn |last2=Child |first3=Max |last3=Ascoli |first4=Richard |last4=Lamb |editor=Ascoli, Max |publisher=Da Capo Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-306-80864-7}} However it wasn't until November 1942 that Italian troops seized Tunisia, with German Field Marshal [[Erwin Rommel|Rommel]]'s [[Afrika Korps]] troop support, from the [[Vichy|French Vichy regime]] colonial administrators.</div>
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Tunisia was added administratively to the existing northern Italian Libya Fourth Shore, in Mussolini's last attempt to accomplish the fascist project of [[Imperial Italy (fascist)|Imperial Italy]].{{Cite book|last=Knox|first=MacGregor|title=Mussolini Unleashed, 1939-1941: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=138|isbn=0-521-33835-2|year=1986}}<br />
[[File:Battaglione d'Assalto "Tunisia" (1943).svg|thumb|left|300px|"Tunisia" Assault Battalion (Battaglione d'assalto Tunisia dell'Africa Settentrionale Italiana) collar patch, Royal Italian Army (1943)]]</div>
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In the first months of 1943 were opened Italian schools in Tunis and Biserta, while 4000 [[Italian Tunisians]] volunteered in the Italian Army. Also were reopened some Italian newspapers and magazines, that have been closed by the French government in the late 1930sBrondino, Michele. '' <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tbe-P46BE7AC&pg=PA199" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=tbe-P46BE7AC&pg=PA199">https://books.google.com/books?id=tbe-P4...</a> La stampa italiana in Tunisia: storia e società, 1838-1956]''.Chapter 8. Milano: Jaca Book, 1998. .</div>
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There were nearly one thousand Italians of Tunisia who fought against the Allies in January-April 1943: they were in the so called ''Battaglione d'assalto Tunisia dell'Africa Settentrionale Italiana'' ("Tunisia" Assault Battalion of Italian North Africa).</div>
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In the last months of 1942 some Tunisians and local Italians did even join the [[National Fascist Party]] in Tunis. From December 1942 until February 1943 Tunisia and Italian Libya were under Italian control and administered as "Africa Settentrionale Italiana",Ezio Gray. "Le nostre terre ritornano..." Introduzione but later the Allies conquered all [[Italian Tripolitania]] and Italian control was reduced to the Tunisian area west of the [[Battle of the Mareth Line|Mareth Line]] (where was fought a last Axis stand).</div>
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All legally established territory of Italian North Africa was dissolved by early 1943, but Tunisia remained the last ''de facto'' Italian administered territory until all Tunisia fell to American and British forces. </div>
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In May 1943 the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]]' victorious [[Tunisia Campaign]] (1942—1943), part the Western Desert Campaign, regained all the Tunisian territory for France. The French colonial authorities then closed all Italian schools and newspapers.Watson, Bruce Allen ''Exit Rommel: The Tunisian Campaign, 1942-43'' p. 103</div>
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==Colonies and territories within Italian North Africa==</div>
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From 1912 to 1927, Italian North Africa (Italian Tripolitania and [[Italian Cyrenaica]]) was an entity to itself, and from 1934 to 1941, Italian North Africa was united into the single colony of Italian Libya. But in 1939 coastal Italian Libya was added to metropolitan Italy, while [[Military Territory of the South (Italian Libya)|Saharan Italian Libya]] remained as a colonial territory under military control.</div>
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From 1942 to 1943 Tunisia was added, and was administered as part of the Fourth Shore of Italy. Military units of Italians of Tunisia were created, because 4000 [[Italian Tunisians|Italo-Tunisians]] volunteered to fight in the Italian Army. One was called ''Reggimento Volontari Tunisini dell'Africa Settentrionale Italiana'' <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=cgxPkzSmO_sC&pg=PA56&lpg=PA56&dq=italians+of+tunisia+volunteers+in+italian+army&source=bl&ots=-sXEpBST5T&sig=O3SEJnf0hJOAlc5g4Hk1km1VA0o&hl=en&sa=X&ei=GGBqVPqIEIejNtC0hIAB&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=italians%20of%20tunisia%20volunteers%20in%20italian%20army&f=false" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.com/books?id=cgxPkzSmO_sC&pg=PA56&lpg=PA56&dq=italians+of+tunisia+volunteers+in+italian+army&source=bl&ots=-sXEpBST5T&sig=O3SEJnf0hJOAlc5g4Hk1km1VA0o&hl=en&sa=X&ei=GGBqVPqIEIejNtC0hIAB&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=italians%20of%20tunisia%20volunteers%20in%20italian%20army&f=false">http://books.google.com/books?id=cgxPkzS...</a> Reggimento Volontari Tunisini]</div>
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===1927–1934===<br />
* Italian Cyrenaica<br />
* Italian Tripolitania</div>
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===1934–1941===<br />
* Italian Libya. In 1939, [[Benito Mussolini]] coined the name '''Fourth Shore''', in [[Italian language|Italian]] ''Quarta Sponda'', to refer to coastal Italian Libya in Italian North Africa (later he added coastal [[Tunisia]] during [[WWII]]).</div>
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===1941–1943===<br />
* Italian Libya (conquered by [[Western Allies]] by January 1943)<br />
* German and Italian occupied western [[Egypt]] (from September to December 1940, and June to November 1942)<br />
* German and Italian occupied [[Tunisia]] (from 17 November 1942 to 13 May 1943)</div>
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==See also==<br />
* [[Italian Empire]]<br />
* [[History of Libya as Italian Colony]]<br />
* [[History of Libya]]<br />
* [[History of Egypt]]<br />
* [[History of Tunisia]]</div>
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==Notes==<br />
{{Reflist}}</div>
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==Bibliography==<br />
* Battistelli, Pier Paolo. ''Italian Army Elite Units & Special Forces 1942-43''. Osprey Publishing. New York, 2011 {{ISBN|1849088950}}<br />
* Gray. Ezio. ''Le nostre terre ritornano...Malta, Nizza, Corsica...''. Ed. De Agostini. Novara, 1943</div>
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{{Coord missing|Egypt}}<br />
{{Italian Libya}}<br />
{{Italian colonial empire}}</div>
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[[Category:Italian colonisation in Africa]]<br />
[[Category:Former Italian colonies|North Africa]]<br />
[[Category:History of North Africa]]<br />
[[Category:Former colonies in Africa]]</div>
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www.sandrobassetti.it/cina/index.htm Possedimenti italiani in Cina (1900-1943) di S.Bassetti</div>
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Brano su libia italiana negli anni 1950, preso da <a href="http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/573751468757209997/pdf/multi-page.pdf" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/573751468757209997/pdf/multi-page.pdf">http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/e...</a><br />
The Italian community occupies a rather special position in the Libyan economy. According to the 1954 census, there were then 38,000 Italians still living in the country, practically all in Tripolitania. These Italians retain their right of Italian citizenship. Two-thirds of them<br />
22 THE MAIN REPORT<br />
live in and around the city of Tripoli and most of the rest in the "demographic" colonies established by the Italian Government before the war at the places then known as Bianchi, Preveglieri, Garibaldi, Oliveti, Micca, Crispi, Gioda and elsewhere. One-third of the farms in these colonies have been returned to the Libyan Government, but about 1,400 remain in Italian hands, and their future is governed by a Libyan-Italian agreement signed in October 1956. Under this agreement the Italian Government is continuing to provide the present occupants of the farms with financial assistance until 1960, and thereafter the occupants obtain full rights of ownership. There are also a number of private Italian farms in Tripolitania, some of them large and prosperous. Italian farms are on the average considerably more developed than farms owned by Libyans and make a major contribution to Libyan exports. The management of industry in Tripolitania is almost entirely in Italian hands, and Italians play an important role in the operation of public utilities, the staffing of the medical services, agricultural research, banking and commerce, the management of hotels and many other branches of economic activity. The skills which the Italians can offer, and their experience of modern farming techniques, are valuable assets for the Libyan economy.<br />
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<a href="http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/spettacoli/ecco-perch-fiume-sognava-essere-pezzo-ditalia-1528539.html" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/spettacoli/ecco-perch-fiume-sognava-essere-pezzo-ditalia-1528539.html">http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/spettacoli...</a> FIUIME SOGNAVA DI ESSERE ITALIANA -Il giornale</div>
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COHORS BREUCORUM</div>
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[[File:Africae romanae Urbes.jpg|thumb|right|500px|Map showing Cohors Breucorum]]</div>
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'''Cohors Breucorum''' was a Roman castrum located in western [[Mauretania Caesariensis]].</div>
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==History==</div>
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The castrum was created under [[Septimius Severus]] emperor in the third century. It served as a Roman station and fort on a new military road called "Nova Praetentura", that was created in order to expand to the south the roman controlled territories in western Mauretania and connect this region to [[Volubilis]] <a href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/antaf_0066-4871_1977_num_11_1_993" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="https://www.persee.fr/doc/antaf_0066-4871_1977_num_11_1_993">https://www.persee.fr/doc/antaf_0066-487...</a> Speidel: Nova Praetentura; p.170-173]</div>
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{{Quote|''Under the reign of Septimius Severus, presumably in 201 AD, the Romans occupied vast territories in the Oran region, moving the limes established by the Antonines to the south and creating a new frontier line with a new military road: the "Nova praetentura".....this road, connecting with the previous frontier from Rapidum, including the Ouarsenis and the mountains of Frenda and, through the urban centers of Usinaza (Saneg), Cohors Breucorum (Takhemaret), Altava (Ouled-Mimoun), Pomaria (Tlemcem), progressively approached westward to the Mediterranean coast, only a distance of about thirty kilometers from Numerum Syrorum (Lalla Maghnia)''M. A. Ruiu <a href="http://eprints.uniss.it/5861/1/Ruiu_M_Cohors_II_Sardorum_ad.pdf" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://eprints.uniss.it/5861/1/Ruiu_M_Cohors_II_Sardorum_ad.pdf">http://eprints.uniss.it/5861/1/Ruiu_M_Co...</a> La cohors II Sardorum ad Altava (in Italian)]}}</div>
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The name was given because it was under the control of the [[Cohors]] of the "Breuci", a tribe from ancient [[Illyria]], stationed there (like the cohors from [[Roman Syria]] were stationed in nearby [[Numerus Syrorum]].</div>
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The castrum had a small "vicus" located nearby, that had nearly 1500 inhabitants and that survived for a few centuries the removal of the Roman legionaries (that probably happened at the end of the third century). With the [[Arab]] invasion in the seventh century the vicus disappeared.</div>
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==Notes==</div>
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=See also==<br />
*[[Mauretania Caesariensis]]</div>
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==Bibliography==<br />
* Bowna, Alan. ''The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193-337''. Cambridge university Press. Cambridge, 2005<br />
* Ruiu, Maria Antonietta. ''La Cohors II Sardorum ad Altava (Ouled-Mimoun, Algeria)''. Universita' degli Studi di Sassari. Sassari, 2012<br />
* Villaverde Noé, Vega. ''Tingitana en la antigüedad tardía, siglos III-VII: autoctonía y romanidad en el extremo occidente mediterráneo''. Ed. Real Academia de la Historia. Madrid, 2001 {{ISBN|8489512949}}, 9788489512948</div>
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{{Romano-Berber cities in Roman Africa}}</div>
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[[Category:Mauretania Caesariensis]]<br />
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Algeria]]<br />
[[Category:Roman towns and cities in Mauretania Caesariensis]]</div>
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CASTELLUM DIMMIDI</div>
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[[File:Africae romanae Urbes.jpg|thumb|right|600px|Map showing Castellum Dimmidi, south of Icosium (Algier) and bordering the Sahara desert]]</div>
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'''Castellum Dimmidi''' was a Roman [[castrum]] located in the south of the [[Mauretania Caesariensis]] <a href="https://journals.openedition.org/encyclopedieberbere/docannexe/image/2261/img-1.png" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="https://journals.openedition.org/encyclopedieberbere/docannexe/image/2261/img-1.png">https://journals.openedition.org/encyclo...</a> Map of Castellum Dimmidi]</div>
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==History==</div>
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As the ''Castellum'' (castle) implies, the settlement was a fortress near the [[Fossatum Africae]], the southern border of the province of [[Numidia]]. It was a prosperous village and hosted a Roman garrison (of the "III Legio Augusta") from roughly 198 to 240 AD.{{fr icon}} Dr. Rebound, " <a href="http://www.php4arab.info/ghosn/revaf/html/n1_56/notes_archeo.html" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://www.php4arab.info/ghosn/revaf/html/n1_56/notes_archeo.html">http://www.php4arab.info/ghosn/revaf/htm...</a> Notes Archéologiques sur les Ruines de Djelfa]", ''php4arab.com''. URL last accessed on 8 May 2006. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050927050058/http://www.php4arab.info/ghosn/revaf/html/n1_56/notes_archeo.html |date=27 September 2005 }}</div>
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It was located about {{convert|290|km|abbr=on}} south of [[Algiers]] (then called [[Icosium]]), at the border of the Sahara desert <a href="https://www.djelfa.info/ar/mobile/tag/castellum-dimmidi" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="https://www.djelfa.info/ar/mobile/tag/castellum-dimmidi">https://www.djelfa.info/ar/mobile/tag/ca...</a> Photo of the actual area]. During the second century of the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] period it was created under emperor [[Septimius Severus]].Francois Decret, Early Christianity in North Africa (James Clarke & Co, 2011) p6 It is unclear if the second part of the name, ''Dimmidi'', was a native name transliterated into [[Latin]], or a new name given by the Romans.</div>
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{{Quote|''In 198 AD the legate propraetor of the Third Legion had sent legionaries there, supported by Pannonian cavalry and under the command of Flavius Superus. The installation of a permanent camp undoubtedly dates to that time. The camp was maintained until about 238 AD, the date of the temporary disbanding of the Third Legion.Excavations have revealed a part of the rampart which protected the soldiers' quarters. The wall was irregular in plan. Today very little can be seen on the site since the excavations were not continued and no attempt was made to consolidate the remains. The inscriptions also have almost all disappeared. They have been published and permit the reconstruction of certain aspects of the life of the camp. About 100 men relieved one another there; they were legionaries and later, after Alexander Severus, Palmyrans.The inscriptions and the paintings (now deposited at the Algiers Museum) give an idea of the soldiers' religious life as it pertained to official and Palmyrene cults.''P. Fevrier <a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0006:entry=castellum-dimmidi" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0006:entry=castellum-dimmidi">http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text...</a> Princeton E.: Castellum Dimmidi]}}</div>
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Probably -according to Philippe Leveau- the village survived the removal of the legionaries' castrum for another century and half, until the end of the fourth century <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Carte-de-loccupation-romaine-dapres-Picard-G-Ch-Castellum-Dimmidi-1947-p-50_fig3_313387551" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Carte-de-loccupation-romaine-dapres-Picard-G-Ch-Castellum-Dimmidi-1947-p-50_fig3_313387551">https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Cart...</a> Map showing the region occupation by the Romans].</div>
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Only in 1856 the French Reboud found some remnants, that were fully studied only in 1939-1941 by Gilbert-Charles Picard <a href="http://djelfa.org/castellum.htm" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="http://djelfa.org/castellum.htm">http://djelfa.org/castellum.htm</a> C. Dimmidi (in French)].</div>
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==Notes==</div>
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==See also==<br />
* [[Icosium]]<br />
* [[Mauretania Caesariensis]]</div>
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==Bibliography==<br />
*Leveau, Philippe. ''Caesarea de Maurétanie. Une ville romaine et ses campagnes''.École française de Rome. Roma, 1984<br />
*Nacéra, Benseddik. ''De Caesarea à Shershel''."Actes du Coll. Intern. sur l’Hist. et l’Arch. de l’Afrique du Nord", Grenoble 1983, C.T.H.S., 19b, 1983, p. 451-456.<br />
*Y. Le Bohec. ''Dimmidi''. Encyclopédie berbère, 15 | Daphnitae – Djado, Aix-en-Provence, Edisud, 1995, p. 2345-2349 ( <a href="https://journals.openedition.org/encyclopedieberbere/2261?lang=en" style="color: #567370; font-family: verdana,Times New Roman,Arial,Sans-Serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank" title="https://journals.openedition.org/encyclopedieberbere/2261?lang=en">https://journals.openedition.org/encyclo...</a>])</div>
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{{Romano-Berber cities in Roman Africa}}</div>
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[[Category:Archaeological sites in Algeria]]<br />
[[Category:Mauretania Caesariensis]]<br />
[[Category:Roman towns and cities in Mauretania Caesariensis]]<br />
[[Category:Ancient Berber cities]]<br />
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CONCESSIONSANDFORTSOFITALYINCHINA (WIKIWAND COPYCACHE)<br />
Concessions and forts of Italy in China are the commercial and military concessions & fortifications that the Kingdom of Italy had in different Chinese localities until WWII.<br />
History<br />
Italy in the first half of the 20th century has had concessions and fortifications in Peking, Tientsin, Shanghai, Shan Hai Kuan, Ta Ku, Amoy and Hankow. Since 1925 they were defended mainly by the "Battaglione Italiano in Cina" (Battaglione San Marco) and by some Italian Navy ships, like the gunboats "Carlotto" and Caboto" (later substituted by the minelayer "Lepanto").<br />
The small Italian area inside the 1900 Peking Legation Quarter<br />
They were ruled by "Consoli" (Governors), all resident in Tientsin:<br />
Cesare Poma (1901–1903)<br />
Giuseppe Chiostri (1904–1906)<br />
Oreste Da Vella (1907–1911)<br />
Vincenzo Fileti (1912–1919)<br />
Marcello Roddolo (1920–1921)<br />
Luigi Gabrielli di Quercita (1921–1924)<br />
Guido Segre (1925–1927)<br />
Luigi Neyrone (1928–1932)<br />
Filippo Zappi (1933–1938)<br />
Ferruccio Stefenelli (1939–1943)<br />
There was even the Treaty Port in Beihai (southern China), that was allowed to have a small area for Italian commerce.[1]<br />
In 1932...the Italian shipping company "Lloyd Triestino" opened a new service linking Italy to Shanghai by scheduling on that route two modern trans-atlantic vessels, the "Conte Biancamano" and "the Conte Rosso" (which immediately set a speed world record of only 23 days during the first voyage). With this new service, supported by those of other companies employed in the trade of various goods and products, the economic exchange between Italy and China reached such good levels to alarm Great Britain and France. Alberto Rosselli [2]<br />
The Italian possessions in China enjoyed a relatively good economic development with huge Italian-Chinese commerce in the 1920s and mainly in the 1930s.<br />
Peking Legation Quarter<br />
Italian troops occupied a section of the Peking "Legation Quarter" in 1900. Indeed the Eight-Nation Alliance of which Italy belonged, at the end of the Battle of Peking, obtained the right to station troops to protect their legations in China's capital by the terms of the Boxer Protocol.<br />
The Legation Quarter was encircled by a wall and all Chinese residents in the area were ordered to relocate away. Sealed from its immediate environment, the Legation Quarter became a city within the city exclusively for foreigners and many Chinese nationalists resented the Quarter as a symbol of foreign dominance. Italy had this small concession until 1943.<br />
Tientsin Italian concession<br />
Main article: Italian concession of Tientsin<br />
Main square of Italian Tientsin<br />
On 7 September 1901, a concession in Tientsin (that consisted approximately of half a square kilometer - or 51.42 ha.[3]) was ceded to the Kingdom of Italy by the Qing Dynasty of China.[4] On 7 June 1902, the concession was taken into Italian possession and administered by an Italian consul: the first was Cesare Poma and the last (in 1943) was Ferruccio Stefenelli. Along with other foreign concessions, the Italian concession lay on the Pei Ho, southeast of the city centre.[5]<br />
In 1917 China terminated the leases of Germany and Austria-Hungary concessions. The districts were converted into "Special Areas" with a separate administration from the rest of Tientsin. But Italy requested the Austrian concession after WWI: it was obtained only in June 1928 and soon returned to Chinese authorities,[6] when the Second Special Area (the one of former Austrian concession) was in danger of war and occupation during the China civil war.<br />
In 1935 the total population was 6,261, of which 5,725 Chinese and 536 foreigners including 392 Italians, according to historian Pistoiese.[7] He even wrote that the concession in those years experienced huge improvements and assumed "the role of showcase of Italian art" with rich urban developments. As stated by Woodhead, in 1934 "The Italian concession ... was becoming the most popular centre for the palatial residences of retired Chinese militaries and politicians".[8]<br />
In the late 1930s the Italian concession of Tientsin and the consulates of Shanghai, Hankow and Beijing lived a quite peaceful period. Italian Tientsin enjoyed a small economic boom, fueled by rich Chinese who moved to live in the Italian area escaping the Japanese invasion of China. But WWII changed everything.<br />
During World War II, the Italian concession in Tientsin had a garrison of approximately 600 Italian troops on the side of the Axis powers. On 10 September 1943, when Italy signed an armistice with the Allies, the concession was occupied by the Imperial Japanese Army.<br />
Italian concession in the Shanghai International Settlement<br />
The flag of the Shanghai International Settlement, showing even the Italian one<br />
After WWI the Kingdom of Italy maintained troops in an area of Shanghai, that was used as commercial concession inside the Shanghai International Settlement (S.I.S.). This settlement was wholly foreign-controlled, with staff of all nationalities, including British, Americans, Danes, Germans and Italians.<br />
Italian concession in the S.I.S. (borders in yellow)<br />
In reality, the British held the largest number of seats on the Council and headed all the Municipal departments. The only department not chaired by a Briton was the "Municipal Orchestra", which was controlled by an Italian.<br />
The International Settlement maintained its own fire-service, police force (the Shanghai Municipal Police), and even possessed its own military reserve in the Shanghai Volunteer Corps.<br />
Following some disturbances at the British concession in Hankow in 1927, the defences at Shanghai were augmented by a permanent battalion of the British Army, which was referred to as the Shanghai Defence Force and a contingent of US Marines. Other armed forces would arrive in Shanghai: the French Concession had a defensive force of Annamite troops, the Italians also introduced their own marines, as did the Japanese (whose troops eventually outnumbered the other countries' many times over).<br />
In ‘Old Shanghai’, there were specific areas with a high concentration of Italian economic activities (in the International Settlement: Kiukiang Road; Kiangse Road; crossroads between Nanking Road and Szechuen Road; Bubbling Well Road), areas with Italian residences (French Concession), other suburban areas with Italians (Zikawei; in this case, they were priests). Moreover, Italians were involved in specific economic sectors (primarily, silk): as the textile sector was developed mainly in Lombardy at that time, most of the expatriate Italian managers and supervisors in Shanghai mills came from this Italian region.Stefano Piastra [9]<br />
In the late 1930s was reinforced the military presence in the small area of Shanghai (that was next to the American concession and north of the French concession) controlled by the Italians. The Italian Navy stationed in the Shanghai port periodically some ships like the cruisers Trento and Montecuccoli during the Japanese invasion of China.[10] In 1947 the Peace Treaty forced Italy to renounce to it with article 26, that stated: "(Italy) agrees to the reversion of the said Settlements (at Shanghai and Amoy) to the Administration and control of the Chinese Government".<br />
Forts in Shan Hai Kuan & in Ta-Ku<br />
From 1900 until the late 1930s, the Italians even held small forts like the Forte di Shan Hai Kuan[11] near the Great Wall of China in Manchuria[12] and the Forte nordoccidentale in Ta-Ku.[13] The one in Ta-Ku (called "N.W fort of Ta-Ku") was held together with the British for a couple of years.[14]<br />
Commercial Concessions in Hankow and in Amoy<br />
Italian consulate in the 1912 Hankow concessions<br />
In Hankow since the 1900 was located an Italian consulate, that later was enlarged in order to have a small commercial concession.<br />
Hankow was the center of catholic missions and had many Italian priests and nuns who were protected by Italian troops in the 1920s and early 1930s (in the late 1920s nearly 40% of the Italian civilians in China were religious personnel of the Roman Catholic Church[15]).<br />
Another small commercial area under Italian control was in Amoy (Xiamen), after WWI.[16] Amoy's European settlements (like the small Italian consulate) were concentrated on the islet of Gulangyu off the main island of actual Xiamen in the region of Hong Kong. Today, Gulangyu is known for colonial architecture, with some examples of the Italian one.[17]<br />
In the early 1930s only the small consulate of Hankow remained under Italian control.<br />
After 1940<br />
When started WWII Italy had only the Tientsin concession under direct control, while remained a garrison in the Shanghai international settlement, in the fort of Shan Hai Kuan and in the Legation of Peking.<br />
In 1940 the soldiers of the Battaglione San Marco were stationed in the remaining areas controlled by Italy: nearly 200 were in Shanghai, 180 in Tientsin, 25 in Shan Hai Kuan and 15 in Peking. They were helped by the marines and sailors of the Italian Navy stationed in Tientsin.[18]<br />
After September 1943 -when Italy surrendered to the Allies- started a very difficult period for the Italians in China. Japanese forces took control of the Italian possessions in China, after some fightings (like in the legation of Peking, and with the scuttle in Shanghai port of the ships "Carlotto" and Caboto").<br />
Italy agrees to the cancellation of the Lease from the Chinese Government under which the Italian Concession at Tientsin was granted......Italy renounces in favor of China the rights accorded to Italy in relation to the International Settlements at Shanghai and Amoy, and agrees to the reversion of the said Settlements to the Administration and control of the Chinese Government. Articles 25 & 26 of 1947 Peace Treaty.([19])<br />
Finally, on 10 February 1947, by virtue of the peace treaty with Italy, all the Italian concessions and fortifications were formally ceded by Italy to Chiang Kai-shek's Republic of China.<br />
NOTES:<br />
^ Tianjin Shehui Kexueyuan Lishi yanjiousuo, Tianjin jianshi, Tianjin: Renmin Chubanshe, 1987<br />
^ Laura Rampazzo. "Un pizzico d’Italia nel cuore della Cina: la concessione di Tianjin" (in Italian)[1]<br />
^ Sandro Bassetti."Colonia italiana in Cina". Section:Le Forze Armate italiane (in Italian)<br />
^ "Italian occupation of former Austrian Concession". Retrieved 23 November 2014.<br />
^ Gennaro E. Pistolese, «La Concessione Italiana di Tien-Tsin» p.306<br />
^ Marinelli, Maurizio. "Maurizio Marinelli: Chinese residents in Italian Tientsin". Retrieved 23 November 2014.<br />
^ Italians in the "Old Shanghai"<br />
^ Shanghai international settlements in red, italian sector #4 on Chinese written map [2]<br />
^ "Photo of the Fort just conquered with Italian flag". Flickr. Retrieved 23 November 2014.<br />
^ Trentoincina. "Italian Fort near the "China Great wall" (in Italian)". Retrieved 23 November 2014.<br />
^ Avvenimenti in Cina nel 1900 (in Italian). Retrieved 23 November 2014.<br />
^ Landor, A. "China and the Allies". p. 126<br />
^ Guido Samarani, p.52. Retrieved 23 November 2014.<br />
^ Concessions in Shanghai and China (in French)<br />
^ "Gulangyu/Amoy". Retrieved 23 November 2014.<br />
^ Maurizio Marinelli, p.54<br />
^ 1947 Peace Treaty articles on Italian possessions in China. Retrieved 23 November 2014.<br />
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<a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ts9aAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14&lpg=PA14&dq=legazione+commerciale+italiana+in+cina+1900&source=bl&ots=SEnCzRPnFe&sig=PpDY-4dYPAuXohFWPb4QlM25cNE&hl=it&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjesdP0v7DcAhVJhq0KHXPADQgQ6AEwDnoECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=legazione%20commerciale%20italiana%20in%20cina%201900&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ts9aAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14&lpg=PA14&dq=legazione+commerciale+italiana+in+cina+1900&source=bl&ots=SEnCzRPnFe&sig=PpDY-4dYPAuXohFWPb4QlM25cNE&hl=it&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjesdP0v7DcAhVJhq0KHXPADQgQ6AEwDnoECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=legazione%20commerciale%20italiana%20in%20cina%201900&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=Ts9aAw...</a> OTTIMISSIMO LIBRO SU ITALIA IN CINA E SULL"ANTICA ROMA (CINA, Ecc..)<br />
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<a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cd30AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT124&lpg=PT124&dq=industries+in+italian+mogadishu+in+1940&source=bl&ots=g8ftix1k2U&sig=mhb5XMytij6NPTAL_gov-pBX2R8&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwir3paJpZ3bAhVQXKwKHZfgCdgQ6AEIgwEwDQ#v=onepage&q=industries%20in%20italian%20mogadishu%20in%201940&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=cd30AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT124&lpg=PT124&dq=industries+in+italian+mogadishu+in+1940&source=bl&ots=g8ftix1k2U&sig=mhb5XMytij6NPTAL_gov-pBX2R8&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwir3paJpZ3bAhVQXKwKHZfgCdgQ6AEIgwEwDQ#v=onepage&q=industries%20in%20italian%20mogadishu%20in%201940&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=cd30Ag...</a> OTTIMO LIBRO SULLA REGIA MARINA IN WW2 CON DATI PRECISI( PER RESEARCHOMNIA)<br />
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MAURIZIO RAVA<br />
{{Infobox officeholder<br />
| name =Maurizio Rava<br />
| image=<br />
| imagesize=<br />
| caption=<br />
|order1=[[List of colonial governors of Italian Somaliland|Italian Governor of Somalia]]<br />
| term_start1= July 1, 1931<br />
|term_end1 = March 6, 1935<br />
| predecessor1=[[Guido Corni]]<br />
| successor1=[[Rodolfo Graziani]]<br />
|order2=<br />
|term_start2 =<br />
| term_end2=<br />
| predecessor2=<br />
| successor2=<br />
| birth_date= January 31, 1878<br />
|birth_place = Milano<br />
| death_date= November 1941<br />
| death_place= Roma<br />
| nationality=Italian<br />
|party =[[National Fascist Party|Italian Fascism]]<br />
| footnotes=<br />
}}<br />
'''Rava Maurizio''' (January 31, 1878, Milan, Italy – 1941, Rome) was the Italian Governor of [[Italian Somaliland]] from 1931 to 1935, and was also a politician and general of the [[Regio Esercito]]. He was one of the first fascist jews of Italy.{{cite web|url=http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/maurizio-rava_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/ |title=RAVA, Maurizio in "Enciclopedia Italiana" |website=Treccani.it |date= |accessdate=2016-12-11}}<br />
==Life==<br />
Rava was born in a [[Jewish]] family in [[Milan]]. He enthusiastically joined the [[National Fascist Party]] during [[World War I]]: in 1919 he was a cofounder of the "Fascio" of Roma. But in the late 1930s he faced problems within the party because of German [[Nazi]] influences against Italian Jews.<br />
In the 1920s Rava was "Segretario generale delle Colonie" and in 1930 vice-governor of [[Italian Tripolitania]]{{cite book|url=https://books.google.it/books?id=0WTFAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA179&lpg=PA179&dq=maurizio+rava+governor&source=bl&ots=C9eRrH-zzJ&sig=ir8ZpS7Xc20YxAdhyxG1ZpAz3Y8&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0CCcQ6AEwATgKahUKEwiXtP2G1LrIAhVLoYAKHQ_TAXo#v=onepage&q=maurizio%20rava%20governor&f=false |title=Italian Jews from Emancipation to the Racial Laws |author=C. Bettin |page=179 |website=Books.google.it |date= |accessdate=2016-12-11}} and a general in the ''Fascist Militia''.{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/12/22/opinion/l-italian-fascism-didn-t-practice-anti-semitism-707193.html |title=Italian Fascism Didn't Practice Anti-Semitism |location=ITALY |website=NYTimes.com |date=1993-12-22 |accessdate=2016-12-11}}<br />
From 1 July 1931 to 6 March 1935 Rava was the [[List of colonial heads of Italian Somaliland|Governor of Italian Somaliland]]. In his time as governor thousands of Italian colonists came to [[Mogadishu under Italian rule|Mogadishu]] and many Somalis joined the Italian colonial troops as a result of his policy to assimilate the [[Somalis]]. Rava promoted the creation of the first postal service stations in all Somalia.{{cite web|url=https://italiacoloniale.files.wordpress.com/2015/04/servizi-postali-ed-elettrici-in-somalia.jpg?w=547 |format=JPG |title=1937 Map of postal service & radio stations in Italian Somalia|website=Italiacoloniale.files.wordporess.com |accessdate=2016-12-11}}<br />
Maurizio Rava had a famous son, Carlo Enrico Rava, who was an important Italian architect of the [[Gruppo 7]].<br />
==Works==<br />
Maurizio Rava was also a painter and a writer. When young he studied at Rome's "Accademia di Belle Arti" {{cite web|url=http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:giOeuFbr1ywJ:www.istitutomatteucci.it/dizionario-degli-artisti/rava-maurizio+&cd=1&hl=it&ct=clnk&gl=it |title=Rava Maurizio* |website=Webcache.googleusercontent.com |date=2016-11-22 |accessdate=2016-12-11}} and until 1903 he exposed his paintings with a relative success.<br />
Rava wrote some literary works.{{cite web|url=https://www.maremagnum.com/ricerca-avanzata/risultati?utf8=%E2%9C%93&search%5Bauthor%5D=maurizio+rava&search%5Btitle%5D=&search%5Bkeyword%5D=&search%5Bean%5D=&search%5Bpublisher%5D=&search%5Bpublishing_year_from%5D=&search%5Bpublishing_year_to%5D=&search%5Bdescription%5D=&search%5Bsubject%5D=&search%5Bprice_eur%5D=&search%5Bbookshop_id%5D=&search%5Bitem_type%5D=&search%5Blanguage%5D=&search%5Bcreated_at%5D=&commit=Cerca |title=Libri antichi, moderni, introvabili e novità |website=Maremagnum.com |date= |accessdate=2016-12-11}} In the late 1930s he wrote a famous book about Somalia (titled "''Parole ai Coloniali''"), that had a preface written by [[Benito Mussolini]].{{cite web|author=Maurizio Rava |url=https://www.maremagnum.com/libri-antichi/parole-ai-coloniali-prefazione-di-s-e-benito-mussolini/150160246 |title=Parole ai coloniali prefazione di S. E. Benito Mussolini | 246 |website=Maremagnum.com |date= |accessdate=2016-12-11}}<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Italian Somalia]]<br />
* [[Guido Corni]]<br />
* [[Cesare Maria De Vecchi]]<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
*Bettin, Cristina. ''Italian Jews from Emancipation to the Racial Laws''. Italian and Italian American Studies. Editore Palgrave Macmillan. New York, 2010 {{ISBN|0230114377}}<br />
{{s-start}}<br />
{{s-bef|before=[[Guido Corni]]}}<br />
{{s-ttl|title=Italian Governors of Somaliland|years=1 July 1931 – 6 March 1935}}<br />
{{s-aft|after=[[Rodolfo Graziani]]}}<br />
{{s-end}}<br />
{{Italian Governors of Eritrea and Somaliland}}<br />
{{Somalia italiana (Colonia)}}<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Maurizio, Rava}}<br />
[[Category:20th-century Italian politicians]]<br />
[[Category:1878 births]]<br />
[[Category:1941 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:Governors of Italian Somaliland]]<br />
==================================================================<br />
OTTONE GABELLI<br />
{{ Infobox officeholder<br />
| name =Ottone Gabelli<br />
| image=<br />
| imagesize=<br />
| caption=<br />
|order1=[[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea|Italian Governor of Eritrea]]<br />
| term_start1= January 15, 1935<br />
|term_end1 = January 18, 1935<br />
| predecessor1=[[Riccardo Di Lucchesi]]<br />
| successor1=[[Emilio De Bono]]<br />
|order2=<br />
|term_start2 =<br />
| term_end2=<br />
| predecessor2=<br />
| successor2=<br />
| birth_date=<br />
|birth_place =<br />
| death_date=<br />
| death_place=<br />
| nationality=Italian<br />
|party =<br />
| footnotes=<br />
}}<br />
'''Ottone Gabelli''' (1880-1939) was an Italian diplomat and writer. <a href="http://www.bibliotecadibabele.com/upload/files/catalogo/s106.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.bibliotecadibabele.com/upload/files/catalogo/s106.jpg">http://www.bibliotecadibabele.com/upload...</a> Image of the front cover of his famous book about Italian Tripolitania] He was [[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea|Italian colonial "acting governor"]] of [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]] in 1935, but only for a few days from January 15 to January 18.<br />
==Life==<br />
Ottone Gabelli was born in Friuli in 1880, near [[Udine]]. He started a bureaucratic career in the "Ministero della Colonie", becoming General Director in the early 1930s. He also was a member of the "Istituto per L'oriente", a magazine about colonial studies.<br />
He moved to Italian Africa in 1934, becoming temporarily governor of Eritrea.<br />
His role of "Regent Governor" in [[Italian language|Italian]] was ''Funzionario ruolo colonie (attribuzione: Reggente)'' in January 1935. <a href="http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/pca-gov.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/pca-gov.htm">http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/pca-gov.htm</a> Governors (and their titles) of Italian Eritrea (in Italian)] In July 1938 he was one of those who signed the "Manifesto della Razza" <a href="http://www.alterhistory.altervista.org/Documenti/testiGET.php?titolotesto=Manifestorazza" target="_blank" title="http://www.alterhistory.altervista.org/Documenti/testiGET.php?titolotesto=Manifestorazza">http://www.alterhistory.altervista.org/D...</a> Manifesto della Razza supporters]<br />
Ottone Gabelli died in 1939.<br />
==Literary works==<br />
* ''LA TRIPOLITANIA DALLA FINE DELLA GUERRA MONDIALE ALL'AVVENTO DEL FASCISMO'' - 2 VOLUMI. Editore: A. AIROLDI. Verona, 1939<br />
* ''Le vicende della colonizzazione italiana in Eritrea e Somalia'' in "L'Africa orientale italiana e il conflitto italo-etiopico"; p. 113-126. Roma, 1936<br />
==Notes==<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Italian Eritrea]]<br />
* [[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea]]<br />
{{s-start}}<br />
{{s-bef|before=[[Riccardo Di Lucchesi]]}}<br />
{{s-ttl|title=Italian Governor of Eritrea|years=January 1935}}<br />
{{s-aft|after=[[Emilio De Bono]]}}<br />
{{s-end}}<br />
{{Italian Governors of Eritrea and Somaliland}}<br />
{{Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)}}<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Gabelli, Ottone}}<br />
[[Category:Italian diplomats]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century Italian writers]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century male writers]]<br />
[[Category:Italian Governors of Eritrea]]<br />
[[Category:1880 births]]<br />
[[Category:1939 deaths]]<br />
====================================================<br />
LUDOVICO P{OLLERA<br />
{{ Infobox officeholder<br />
| name =Ludovico Pollera<br />
| image=<br />
| imagesize=<br />
| caption=<br />
|order1=[[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea|Italian Governor of Eritrea]]<br />
| term_start1= November 20, 1920<br />
|term_end1 = April 13, 1921<br />
| predecessor1=[[Camillo De Camillis]]<br />
| successor1=[[Giovanni Cerrina Feroni]]<br />
|order2=<br />
|term_start2 =<br />
| term_end2=<br />
| predecessor2=<br />
| successor2=<br />
| birth_date=<br />
|birth_place =<br />
| death_date=<br />
| death_place=<br />
| nationality=Italian<br />
|party =<br />
| footnotes=<br />
}}<br />
'''Ludovico Pollera''' (1870–1953) was an [[Italians|Italian]] governor of [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]].<br />
==Life==<br />
Pollera was born in [[Lucca]] on July 4, 1870. He was a member of a [[Tuscany]] family with aristocracy roots.<br />
Pollera was a colonial official like his brother Alberto, an ethnographist and writer. He arrived in Eritrea in 1895 and remained there until 1928. He participated in the [[battle of Adwa]] in March 1896. The next year he fought the [[Dervishi]] in Sudan.<br />
In 1900 he left the military service and started to work as civilian for the Italian "Ministero Affari Esteri" (Foreign Policy Ministry).<br />
Pollera started as a "Commissioner resident" of [[Agordat]] and then was regional commissioner of some areas of Eritrea. In 1912 he accompanied an aggregated [[Zaptie]] Mehariste company of the V Battalion [[Eritrean Ascari|Ascari]] in war operations in [[Italian Libya]]. Subsequently, he became the head of the "Civil and Political Affairs Department" in Eritrea (1918-1920).<br />
From November 20, 1920 to April 13, 1921, he was [[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea|Governor of the Colony of Eritrea]] and successively he remained "General Secretary" of Eritrea until 1928. He wrote only one book, a "Report" in 1913: ''Relazione Commissariato generale del Barca (1883-1892)'' for the "Camera dei Deputati" of [[Rome|Roma]].<br />
Ludovico Pollera returned from Africa in the mid-thirties of the last century to be elected -between 1938 and 1945- President of the ''Cassa di Lucca'', a regional bank of his hometown. <a href="http://www.assiter.org/file/2004-africus-08.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.assiter.org/file/2004-africus-08.pdf">http://www.assiter.org/file/2004-africus...</a> Biography of Alberto and Ludovico Pollera]<br />
He died in Lucca on January 21, 1953.<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Italian Eritrea]]<br />
* [[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea]]<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Bandini, Franco. ''Gli italiani in Africa, storia delle guerre coloniali 1882-1943''. Longanesi. Milano, 1971.<br />
{{s-start}}<br />
{{s-bef|before=[[Camillo De Camillis]]}}<br />
{{s-ttl|title=Italian Governor of Eritrea|years=1920–1921}}<br />
{{s-aft|after=[[Giovanni Cerrina Feroni]]}}<br />
{{s-end}}<br />
{{Italian Governors of Eritrea and Somaliland}}<br />
{{Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)}}<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Pollera, Ludovico}}<br />
[[Category:Italian Governors of Eritrea]]<br />
[[Category:1870 births]]<br />
[[Category:1953 deaths]]<br />
===============================================<br />
CAMILLO DE CAMILLIS<br />
{{ Infobox officeholder<br />
| name =Camillo De Camillis<br />
| image=<br />
| imagesize=<br />
| caption=<br />
|order1=[[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea|Italian Governor of Eritrea]]<br />
| term_start1= July 1, 1919<br />
|term_end1 = November 16, 1920<br />
| predecessor1=[[Giacomo De Martino (governor)|Giacomo De Martino]]<br />
| successor1=[[Ludovico Pollera]]<br />
|order2=<br />
|term_start2 =<br />
| term_end2=<br />
| predecessor2=<br />
| successor2=<br />
| birth_date=<br />
|birth_place =<br />
| death_date=<br />
| death_place=<br />
| nationality=Italian<br />
|party =<br />
| footnotes=<br />
}}<br />
'''Camillo De Camillis''' was an Italian diplomat. He was an Italian colonial governor of [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]].<br />
==Data==<br />
His role of "Regent Governor" in [[Italian language|Italian]] was ''Funzionario ruolo colonie (attribuzione: Reggente)'' from July 1919 to November 1920.<br />
The Regent Governor of Eritrea Camillo De Camillis instructed all colonial commissaries in Eritrea to attribute Italian citizenship automatically to the sons and daughters of unknown Italian paternal parenthood, even in the absence of paternal legal acknowledgement. So these "mulatto" Eritrean kids became Italian citizens by law. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KQ0MAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA123&lpg=PA123&dq=Camillo+De+Camillis+" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=KQ0MAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA123&lpg=PA123&dq=Camillo+De+Camillis+">https://books.google.com/books?id=KQ0MAA...</a>(governor+of+Eritrea)+biography&source=bl&ots=_wL0Rabaum&sig=DnLnWLvAThKmDkOhAd6iRJfvq1c&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjb4KPY-tPQAhWhq1QKHXiGC5sQ6AEIRDAH#v=onepage&q=Camillo%20De%20Camillis%20(governor%20of%20Eritrea)%20biography&f=false A Political History of National Citizenship and Identity in Italy, 1861–1950, by Sabina Donati]<br />
This was a revolutionary law when created, opening the first steps toward racial integration in colonial [[Africa]].<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Italian Eritrea]]<br />
* [[List of colonial governors of Italian Eritrea]]<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Donati, Sabina. ''A Political History of National Citizenship and Identity in Italy, 1861–1950''. Publisher Stanford University Press. Stanford, 2013. {{ISBN|0804787336}}<br />
{{s-start}}<br />
{{s-bef|before=[[Giacomo De Martino (governor)|Giacomo De Martino]]}}<br />
{{s-ttl|title=Italian Governor of Eritrea|years=1919–1920}}<br />
{{s-aft|after=[[Ludovico Pollera]]}}<br />
{{s-end}}<br />
{{Italian Governors of Eritrea and Somaliland}}<br />
{{Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)}}<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Camillis, Camillo De}}<br />
[[Category:Italian diplomats]]<br />
[[Category:Italian Governors of Eritrea]]<br />
=============================================================<br />
MASSAUA UNDER ITALIAN RULE (translation from it. wiki):<br />
[[File:Banco dItalia (8527950453).jpg|thumb|right|450px|The former "Banco d'Italia" building in Italian Massaua, built in the 1920s <a href="http://tesfanews.net/photo-the-new-look-of-the-ruined-banca-ditalia-building-in-massawa/" target="_blank" title="http://tesfanews.net/photo-the-new-look-of-the-ruined-banca-ditalia-building-in-massawa/">http://tesfanews.net/photo-the-new-look-...</a> Banco d'Italia in Massaua being rebuilt]]]<br />
'''Massawa, Eritrea''' (or '''Massaua italiana''' in [[Italian language]]) was the name used during the Italian colonization of [[Eritrea]] for the port-city of [[Massawa]]. <a href="http://www.miol.it/stagniweb/mappe/tci29mas.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.miol.it/stagniweb/mappe/tci29mas.jpg">http://www.miol.it/stagniweb/mappe/tci29...</a> Map of Italian Massaua (1929)]<br />
==History==<br />
On February 5, 1885 Massawa was occupied by 1500 Italian [[Bersaglieri]] under the command of colonel Tancredi. <a href="http://cronologia.leonardo.it/storia/a1884a.htm" target="_blank" title="http://cronologia.leonardo.it/storia/a1884a.htm">http://cronologia.leonardo.it/storia/a18...</a> "Occupazione di Massaua" (in Italian)]<br />
Massawa, at the beginning of the Italian civil administration, was the capital of [[Italian Eritrea]] and the only urban center of the colony. From February 1885 until 1897, Massawa served as the administrative center of the region, before Governor [[Ferdinando Martini]] moved his administration to [[Asmara, Eritrea|Italian Asmara]].{{cite book|last1=Belula Tecle-Misghina|title=Asmara - an urban history|publisher=Edizioni Nuova Cultura, 2015|isbn=8868123541}} Between 1887 and 1932, the Italians expanded the [[Eritrean Railway]], connecting Massawa with [[Asmara]] and then [[Bishia]] near the [[Sudan]] border, and completed the [[Asmara-Massawa Cableway]].{{cite book|last1=Belula Tecle-Misghina|title=Asmara - an urban history|publisher=Edizioni Nuova Cultura, 2015|isbn=8868123541}} At 75 km long, it was the longest ropeway conveyor in the world at the time.{{cite book|last1=Giovanni Gentile, Calogero Tumminelli|title=Enciclopedia italiana di scienze, lettere ed arti, Volume 1|publisher=Istituto Giovanni Treccani, 1929|page=66}}<br />
[[File:City Administration Building (8527951359).jpg|thumb|left|300px|The old Italian City Hall of Massaua italiana]]<br />
In 1890, Massaua had 5,000 inhabitants, of which almost 200 were [[Italian Eritreans|Italians]] residents, with nearly one thousand of Italian military personnel. In the early 20th century, an architectural plan similar to the one in Asmara was adopted for city. It included a commercial and industrial area. <a href="http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/1/Santoianni_Progettazione_Architettonica.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/1/Santoianni_Progettazione_Architettonica.pdf">http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/1/Santoia...</a> Italian Massaua Plan (in Italian). p. 65]<br />
The plan to improve the city that was prepared was aimed at reordering distinct parts that made up the town and that bordered the inlet of the port, the islands of Massawa and Taulud, connected to each other and the mainland by dams, the peninsulas of Gerar and Abd-el-Kader and the hinterland Edaga Berai near the dam Taulud. The "master" plan was prepared by the Italian Central Office of Civil Engineers in 1914, but was approved only for the part about the island of Taulud. The zoning required by the building code of 1915 fixed a structure which was confirmed by subsequent plans of the twenties and thirties.<br />
The island of Massawa, where the ancient [[Ottoman empire|Ottoman-Arab]] core, unlike other urban colonial areas, had a mixed use for a variety of reasons, including a major that was linked to the use of the port, being the platform that limited its northern flank of the island the only one for the docking of large ships. So, in this area were concentrated all commercial activities. The island of Taulud, on whose northern end stood the palace of the "[[Khedive]]" Turkish, was reused first as the headquarters of the Italian military command, and then as the Government Palace: later became the area where was focused the [[Italian-Eritreans]]-metropolitan population. The area reserved to the natives was across the plain of Edgarà Berai, where arose the new suburbs after the Italian occupation. The peninsula of Gerar was given to the industrial area, while that of Abd-el-Kader remained occupied by military installations. <br />
The works for the relocation of the port was started in 1913 on the basis of a draft by architect Luigi Luiggi and the Central Office of Civil Engineers of Massawa. In 1921 the city was badly damaged by an earthquake, but the reconstruction was done quickly through the grant of loans and government subsidies to individuals and businesses. In the same year were approved with a new plan where the building were programmed with earthquake standards.<br />
[[File:Hotel Savoyia (8529064448).jpg|thumb|300px|right|Hotel Savoia, built in the 1930s]]<br />
From 1928, with [[fascism]] rule were carried out in the port further expansion works, even in relation to the newly created railway and cableway to the capital Asmara. During the 1935/1936 war with Ethiopia in Massawa was recorded a significant increase in traffic, since it had become the main base for the supplies of the military campaign; and in subsequent years, with the new role of "Port of the Italian Empire", the city saw a great development with the increase of the population.<br />
Italian Massaua in 1938 touched 15,000 inhabitants. Italians favored the development of [[Catholicism]] in the city, and a new catholic cathedral was built in the late 1930s. <a href="http://www.kagnewstation.com/scrapbook/grover/card5.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.kagnewstation.com/scrapbook/grover/card5.jpg">http://www.kagnewstation.com/scrapbook/g...</a> Massaua Cathedral] The urban plans for the various areas of the city were implemented: in the island of Massawa was traced a road ring, while in that of Taulud was to be built a residential neighborhood. A settlement with industrial plants was expected in the peninsula of Gerar, with new areas to the decentralized Archico-Gurgussum. In addition it was decided the reorganization of the nearby villages of Edaga Berai and Amatereh with the small nucleus Otumlo located inside.<br />
In the port area was planned the construction of a huge "Stazione marittima" (Sea Station) for ocean liners, but the beginning of [[WWII]] blocked all this further improvements of Italian Massaua.<br />
==The Port of Italian Massaua==<br />
At the end of the 19th century, the [[Kingdom of Italy]] created a modern port in Massaua for their newly acquired colony of [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]]. <a href="http://digilander.libero.it/trombealvento/guerra2/varie/massaua.htm" target="_blank" title="http://digilander.libero.it/trombealvento/guerra2/varie/massaua.htm">http://digilander.libero.it/trombealvent...</a> Images of Italian Massaua before WWI]<br />
[[File:Massawa station - 2008-10-31.jpg|thumb|left|The Massaua Station on the [[Eritrean Railway]].]]<br />
The Italian colony suffered repeated earthquakes. Most of the city was completely destroyed by the [[1921 Massawa Earthquake|1921 Earthquake]]: it took until 1928 to fully restore the port,{{cite book| last=Killion | first=Tom | title=Historical Dictionary of Eritrea |isbn= 0-8108-3437-5 | publisher=The Scarecrow Press | year=1998}} hampering initially the Italian colonial ambitions.<br />
The Italian colonialists had nevertheless built Italian Massaua to become the largest and safest port on the east coast of Africa, and the largest [[deep-water port]] on the Red Sea. Between 1887 and 1932, they expanded the [[Eritrean Railway]], connecting the port of Massawa with the Eritrean capital [[Asmara]], and completed the 75 km long [[Asmara-Massawa Cableway]]. <a href="http://www.trainweb.org/italeritrea/teleferica1.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.trainweb.org/italeritrea/teleferica1.htm">http://www.trainweb.org/italeritrea/tele...</a> "La Teleferica Massaua-Asmara" cableway brochure, translated by Mike Metras, Dave Engstrom, and Renato Guadino] As a consequence the commercial activity of the port grew to nearly one million tons of merchandise, with more than 180000 passengers in 1939.GuglielmoEvangelista. "Porti dell'Eritrea" ( <a href="http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-porti.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-porti.htm">http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-porti.ht...</a>])<br />
In early 1941, Italian Massaua had nearly 20,000 inhabitants, of which almost 3,500 were [[Italian Eritreans|Italians]].<br />
After the creation of the [[Italian East Africa|Africa Orientale Italiana]] the Italian government increased the international ship lines serving the port of Massaua: while in the late 1920s were needed 16 days from Massaua to [[Genova]] or [[Venice]] in [[Italy]], after 1939 were needed only 5 days.<br />
List of main ship routes from Italian Massaua in early 1940, just before the start of war against the Allies:"Porti dell'Eritrea", by Guglielmo Evangelista<br />
[[File:ConteBiancamano reconstructed.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ocean Liner "Conte Biancamano" connected Massaua with Italy and China/Japan]]<br />
* Italia-Massaua-China/Japan ([[Italian Line]]), biweekly<br />
* Genova-Massaua-Mogadiscio-Chisimaio ([[Lloyd Triestino]]), weekly<br />
* Italia-Massaua-Australia (Lloyd Triestino), weekly<br />
* Napoli-Massaua-Assab-Gibuti (LLoyd Triestino), weekly<br />
* Italia-Massaua-Assab-South Africa (Lloyd Triestino), monthly<br />
* Venezia-Massaua-India (Veneta di navigazione), weekly<br />
* Genova-Massaua-Mogadiscio (RAMB), weekly<br />
* Venezia-Massaua-Mogadiscio (RAMB), biweekly<br />
* Genova-Massaua-Assab (I. Messina), biweekly<br />
The service was done with modern [[Ocean liner]]s like the [[SS Conte Biancamano|Conte Biancamano]], "Victoria", "Esquilino" and "Viminale".<br />
In those years there was even a local service (called "linea Circolare del Mar Rosso") that connected all the main ports in the Red Sea. Another (called "linea Intercoloniale") connected Massaua with Assab-Gibuti and the main ports of [[British Somaliland]] and [[Italian Somaliland]].<br />
The port of Massaua was going to be enlarged in 1941, but [[WWII]] blocked it.<br />
Italy was one of the [[Axis powers of World War II|Axis]] powers during [[World War II]] and Massawa was the homeport for the [[Red Sea Flotilla]] of the [[Regia Marina|Italian Royal Navy]]. On April 8, 1941 one motor-torpedo boat of the Flotilla, the ''MAS 213'', made a successful torpedo attack on the british cruiser [[HMS Capetown (D88)|HMS ''Capetown'']] partially sinking it just out of the Massaua port. <a href="http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-melecaartiglio.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-melecaartiglio.pdf">http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-melecaar...</a> MAS 213 attack on British cruiser (in Italian)] When the city fell during the [[East African Campaign (World War II)|East African Campaign]], a large number of Italian and German ships were sunk in an attempt to [[Scuttling#Blockade of Massawa (1941)|block use of Massawa's harbor]]. <a href="https://www.magnumphotos.com/image/LON15032.html" target="_blank" title="https://www.magnumphotos.com/image/LON15032.html">https://www.magnumphotos.com/image/LON15...</a> Photo of sunken ships in Massaua port]<br />
From 15 April 1942, later master diver and salvage specialist RNR Lieutenant Peter Keeble (then a complete rookie in both disciplines) was assigned to the clearing of the harbour.Keeble, Peter (1957). ''Ordeal by water.'' Longmans, Green & co. No ISBN number available. He succeeded only in the simple task of salvaging an ex-Italian tugboat. The same month, [[United States Navy]] [[Commander]] [[Edward Ellsberg]] and his handful of crew arrived to take over. The wrecks were salvaged in short order and the port was returned to service, as part of what had now become the British protectorate of Eritrea.<br />
In 1945, following the end of [[World War II]], the port of Massawa suffered damage as the occupying British either dismantled or destroyed much of the facilities. These actions were protested by [[Sylvia Pankhurst]] in her book ''Eritrea on the Eve''.Also detailed in the chapter "The Feminist Fuzzy-Wuzzy" of Michela Wong's ''I didn't do it for you: how the world betrayed a small African nation'' (New York: Harper-Perennial, 2005), pp. 116-150.<br />
[[File:ST-Massowa.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|Massaua in 1888, when just occupied by the Italian Bersaglieri]]<br />
======================================================<br />
TLAIL MEGALITHS<br />
{{Infobox ancient site<br />
|name = Tlail megaliths<br />
|native_name =<br />
|alternate_name =<br />
|image =<br />
|alt =<br />
|caption =<br />
|map_type = Lebanon<br />
|map_alt =<br />
|map_size = 200<br />
|location = [[Lebanon]]<br />
|region = [[Akkar District]]<br />
|coordinates = {{coord|34.540278|36.088611|display=inline}}<br />
|type =<br />
|part_of =<br />
|length =<br />
|width =<br />
|area =<br />
|height =<br />
|builder =<br />
|material =<br />
|built =<br />
|abandoned =<br />
|epochs = [[Heavy Neolithic]]<br />
|cultures = [[Qaraoun culture]]<br />
|dependency_of =<br />
|occupants =<br />
|event =<br />
|excavations =<br />
|archaeologists =<br />
|condition =<br />
|ownership =<br />
|management =<br />
|public_access = Yes<br />
|website =<br />
|notes =<br />
}}<br />
'''Tlail megaliths''' are megalith structures -probably [[dolmen]]- located in the [[Akkar District]] of northern [[Lebanon]].<br />
==Data==<br />
The area were are located the Tlail megaliths is one of the first region in the world that saw the [[Neolithic Revolution]] of agriculture. It is not far from the [[Hermel]] dolmens of the northern [[Bekaa valley]]. Indeed the 'Akkar plain foothills' are the location of several surface [[archaeological]] sites found near [[Halba, Lebanon|Halba]].<br />
[[Lorraine Copeland]] classified the structures as a [[Heavy Neolithic]] [[assemblage (archaeology)|assemblage]] of the [[Qaraoun culture]] in light of more modern research.Copeland-Wescombe; p.20<br />
Like [[Wadi Boura]] Tlail has the remains of some megalithic monuments -described as [[dolmen]] by archeologist [[Maurice Tallon]]- scattered on a semi-deserted plain, that used to be wooded in classical times <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-FFHDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT178&lpg=PT178&dq=wadi+boura+I+in+lebanon&source=bl&ots=Z7X7AIl3t2&sig=6LDubihc90qG-alA21rLAyjl_Sc&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwip9pj21vnZAhUDxGMKHTKaDXUQ6AEIZTAM#v=onepage&q=wadi%20boura%20I%20in%20lebanon&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=-FFHDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT178&lpg=PT178&dq=wadi+boura+I+in+lebanon&source=bl&ots=Z7X7AIl3t2&sig=6LDubihc90qG-alA21rLAyjl_Sc&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwip9pj21vnZAhUDxGMKHTKaDXUQ6AEIZTAM#v=onepage&q=wadi%20boura%20I%20in%20lebanon&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=-FFHDw...</a> Dolmens in the Levant: the Bekaa valley (figure 4.15)].<br />
In the area around the Tlail megaliths have been found some remains of [[Roman Phoenicia|Roman tombs]]Wescombe-Copeland; p.50.<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
*{{cite book|author1=L. Copeland|author2=P. Wescombe|title=Inventory of Stone-Age Sites in Lebanon: North, South and East-Central Lebanon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qhPRQwAACAAJ|year=1966|publisher=Impr. Catholique}}<br />
{{Portal|Lebanon|Archaeology|Ancient Near East}}<br />
* Tallon, Maurice. ''Tumulus et mégalithes du Hermel et de la Beqāʹ Nord'' Imprim. Catholique. Beyrouth, 1959 ( <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yAtbHAAACAAJ" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=yAtbHAAACAAJ">https://books.google.com/books?id=yAtbHA...</a>])<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Hermel]]<br />
*[[Wadi Boura]]<br />
{{Archaeological sites in Lebanon}}<br />
{{Middle Eastern megaliths}}<br />
[[Category:Akkar District]]<br />
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Lebanon]]<br />
[[Category:Megalithic monuments in the Middle East]]<br />
=========================================<br />
WADI BOURA<br />
{{Infobox ancient site<br />
|name = Wadi Boura<br />
|native_name =<br />
|alternate_name =<br />
|image =<br />
|alt =<br />
|caption =<br />
|map_type = Lebanon<br />
|map_alt =<br />
|map_size = 200<br />
|location = [[Lebanon]]<br />
|region = [[Bekaa valley]]<br />
|coordinates = {{coord|34.15|36.39|display=inline}}<br />
|type =<br />
|part_of =<br />
|length =<br />
|width =<br />
|area =<br />
|height =<br />
|builder =<br />
|material =<br />
|built =<br />
|abandoned =<br />
|epochs =<br />
|cultures = [[Shepherd Neolithic]]<br />
|dependency_of =<br />
|occupants =<br />
|event =<br />
|excavations =<br />
|archaeologists =<br />
|condition =<br />
|ownership =<br />
|management =<br />
|public_access = Yes<br />
|website =<br />
|notes =<br />
}}<br />
'''Wadi Boura''' is a [[wadi]] in the [[Bekaa valley]] area of [[Lebanon]] <a href="http://www.getamap.net/maps/lebanon/beqaa/_boura_ouadiel/" target="_blank" title="http://www.getamap.net/maps/lebanon/beqaa/_boura_ouadiel/">http://www.getamap.net/maps/lebanon/beqa...</a> Wadi Boura map]. Some flints of the [[Shepherd Neolithic]] culture have been discovered in it. Wadi Boura has also the remains of some megalithic monuments (possibly [[dolmens]]) <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-FFHDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT178&lpg=PT178&dq=wadi+boura+I+in+lebanon&source=bl&ots=Z7X7AIl3t2&sig=6LDubihc90qG-alA21rLAyjl_Sc&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwip9pj21vnZAhUDxGMKHTKaDXUQ6AEIZTAM#v=onepage&q=wadi%20boura%20I%20in%20lebanon&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=-FFHDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT178&lpg=PT178&dq=wadi+boura+I+in+lebanon&source=bl&ots=Z7X7AIl3t2&sig=6LDubihc90qG-alA21rLAyjl_Sc&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwip9pj21vnZAhUDxGMKHTKaDXUQ6AEIZTAM#v=onepage&q=wadi%20boura%20I%20in%20lebanon&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=-FFHDw...</a> Dolmens in the Levant: the Bekaa valley (figure 4.17)].<br />
{{<br />
Infobox archaeological culture<br />
|name = Shepherd Neolithic<br />
|map = Shepherd Neolithic flint tools.jpg<br />
|mapalt =<br />
|altnames =<br />
|horizon =<br />
|region = [[Lebanon]]<br />
|period = [[Epipaleolithic]]<br />
|dates = ''circa'' 10,200 B.C.E. — ''circa'' 8,800 B.C.E.<br />
|typesite = [[Qaa]], [[Maqne]]<br />
|majorsites = [[Hermel]], [[Kamouh el Hermel]], [[Douris (Baalbek)|Douris]], [[Hermel]], [[Kamouh el Hermel]], [[Qalaat Tannour]], [[Rayak North]], [[Riha Station]], [[Wadi Boura]]<br />
|extra =<br />
|precededby =<br />
|followedby =<br />
}}<br />
==Data==<br />
The Wadi Boura is located at more than 2000 meters of altitude (at 34°7'60" N ; 36°28'0" E). This Wadi is a ravine, bounded by relatively steep banks, which in the rainy season becomes a watercourse.<br />
A [[Heavy Neolithic]] archaeological site of the [[Qaraoun culture]] is located near the Wadi Boura{{cite book|author1=L. Copeland|author2=P. Wescombe|title=Inventory of Stone-Age Sites in Lebanon: North, South and East-Central Lebanon, p. 51 & 52|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qhPRQwAACAAJ|year=1966|publisher=Impr. Catholique}}. <br />
Successively, type sites (like Wadi Boura) of the [[Shepherd Neolithic]] have been discovered at [[Qaa]] and [[Maqne I]]. Other sites with Shepherd Neolithic finds in the area include [[Douris (Baalbek)|Douris]], [[Hermel II]], [[Hermel III]], [[Kamouh el Hermel]], [[Qalaat Tannour]] and possibly [[Rayak North]] and [[Riha Station]]. <br />
Indeed Shepherd Neolithic material can be found dispersed over a wide area of the north Beqaa Valley in low concentrations. Furthermore, archeologist [[Maurice Tallon|Tallon]] wondered whether the Wadi Boura [[Cairn|cairns]] represented covered examples of "Dolmens" known in [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]]Fraser; chapter 5 <br />
At the wadi Boura have been found some remains of [[Roman Phoenicia|Roman tombs]]Wescombe-Copeland; p.50.<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Fraser, James. ''Dolmens in the Levant''. Publisher Routledge. Sydney, 2018 {{ISBN|1351375423}}<br />
* Krebs, Robert E. & Carolyn A. (2003). ''Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions & Discoveries of the Ancient World''. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. {{ISBN|0-313-31342-3}}.<br />
* Moore, A.M. ''The Neolithic of the Levant''. Oxford University. Oxford, 1978 ( <a href="http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/206.html" target="_blank" title="http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/206.html">http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/206.ht...</a>])<br />
* Tallon, Maurice. ''Tumulus et mégalithes du Hermel et de la Beqāʹ Nord'' Imprim. Catholique. Beyrouth, 1959 ( <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yAtbHAAACAAJ" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=yAtbHAAACAAJ">https://books.google.com/books?id=yAtbHA...</a>])<br />
* Wescombe-Copeland. ''Inventory of Stone-Age Sites in Lebanon: North, South and East-Central Lebanon'' Université Saint-Joseph. Impr. Catholique. Beirut, 1966<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Wadi Koura]]<br />
* [[Rayak North]]<br />
* [[Hermel]]<br />
* [[Duris, Lebanon|Douris]]<br />
{{Heavy Neolithic sites}}<br />
{{Shepherd Neolithic sites}}<br />
{{Archaeological sites in Lebanon}}<br />
[[Category:Wadis of Lebanon|Boura]]<br />
[[Category:Neolithic sites of Asia]]<br />
[[Category:Shepherd Neolithic sites]]<br />
[[Category:Neolithic settlements]]<br />
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Lebanon]]<br />
============================================<br />
Nile exploration by Roman emperor Nero (copia cache)<br />
Nile exploration by Roman emperor Nero was a Roman expedition undertaken around 61 AD that aimed to reach the sources of the Nile.<br />
Contents [hide]<br />
1<br />
History<br />
2<br />
See also<br />
3<br />
Notes<br />
4<br />
Bibliography<br />
History[edit]<br />
Emperor Nero sent a small group of Praetorian guards to explore the sources of the Nile in Africa around 61 AD. He did this in order to obtain information for a possible conquest of Ethiopia, as equatorial Africa was called by the Romans.[2]<br />
The Roman legionaries navigating the Nile from southern Egypt reached the city of Meroe and, later, the Sudd, where they found it difficult to go further.<br />
From Meroe the Roman party travelled 600 miles up the White Nile, until they reached the swamp-like Sudd in what is now southern Sudan, a fetid wetland filled with ferns, papyrus reeds and thick mats of rotting vegetation. In the rainy season, it covers an area larger than England, with a vast humid swamp teeming with mosquitoes and other insects. The only large animals in the Sudd were the crocodiles and hippos that occupied the muddy pools within its vast expanse. Those who entered this region had to endure severe heat and risk disease and starvation. The Sudd was discovered to be too deep to be crossed safely on foot, but its waters were also too shallow to be explored any further by boat. The Romans ‘reached an area where the swamp could only bear a small boat containing one person’. At this point the party despaired of ever finding a definite source for the Nile and turned back reluctantly to report their findings to the emperor in Rome. They had probably reached a position nearly 1,500 miles south of the Roman-Egyptian border.<br />
— Raoul McLaughlin, Desert Legions: The Romans in Africa, History Today, Volume 64, Issue 6, June 2014<br />
Seneca the Younger's De Nubibus in Naturales Quaestiones documents the expedition to "explore the top of the world" (caput mundi investigandum). In this book he recounts what two legionaries told him about their discovery of the source of the Nile:<br />
"There we saw two huge rocks, from which the power of the river went out in a powerful way.....[The Nile] comes from a very large lake of the [African] lands."[3]<br />
Furthermore, Seneca wrote that the legionaries told him that the water of the Nile river, that jumped through two huge rocks, was coming from a very big lake inside the African lands. This lake - according to Vannini and others - could only be Lake Victoria, the biggest African lake. And the only river that goes out from this huge lake is the White Nile (named "Victoria Nile" when exits the lake), that in Jinja (Uganda) goes north toward the "Murchison Falls".<br />
Historian Giovanni Vannini argues that this place is Murchison Falls in northern Uganda, meaning that the Romans reached Equatorial Africa. Vannini wrote in the magazine Nigrizia in 1996 that the legionaries made an exploratory journey of more than 5,000 km from Meroe to Uganda, a remarkable feat undertaken with small boats in order to bypass the Sudd, a vast swamp full of dangerous Nile crocodiles. According to Vannini, the Nero expedition from Roman Egypt reached the area of Jinja in present-day Uganda; he believes that the legionaries were able to reach Lake Victoria, based on the description of waterfall.<br />
Murchison Falls, with the huge gap in the rocks<br />
Vannini noted that the falls described in Seneca's interview with the legionaries cannot be found in the "Sudd" area, but are very similar to Murchison Falls, where the Nile forces its way through a gap in the rocks, only 7 metres (23 ft) wide and falls 43 metres (141 ft) before flowing west into Lake Albert. Furthermore, according to Vannini, the lake described by the legionaries could only be Lake Victoria, the largest lake in Africa and the source of the White Nile (known as the "Victoria Nile" when exits the lake), which only flows north from Jinja toward Murchison Falls and the Sudd.<br />
However it is noteworthy to pinpoint that the legionaries, according to Seneca (who is the only to have written in full detail about this expedition/exploration discovery), saw the Nile water coming with enormous power from a big lake behind the huge rocks that are described as the Murchison Falls, but they never declared failure in finding the Nile sources (as was mistakenly stated by McLaughlin): the same Nero declared to have "found" the 'Caput mundi' from where the Nile river comes.<br />
Subsequently, historian David Braund wrote in 2015 that Nero's expedition to the Nile's sources probably opened a new route toward the Indian Ocean, bypassing the dangers of piracy in the Red Sea area while allowing future Roman trade with India and Azania:[4]<br />
What begins to emerge is an on-going process under the early emperors, whereby Roman imperium was indeed stretching towards the rubrum mare in every sense of the term, embracing the Red Sea, Indian Ocean... No provincia Aethiopia was ever established or seriously attempted, but Roman imperium could be said to have reached across Nubia to the Red Sea. David Braun[5]<br />
However, the death of Nero prevented further exploration of the Nile as well as Roman conquest south of Egypt.[6]<br />
See also[edit]<br />
Nero<br />
Sudd<br />
Murchison Falls<br />
Romans in Sub-Saharan Africa<br />
Notes[edit]<br />
Jump up<br />
^ Romans in Azania-Raphta<br />
Jump up<br />
^ Accounts are found in Seneca the Younger (VI.8.3) and Pliny (Natural History, VI.XXXV, p. 181-187)<br />
Jump up<br />
^ Ibi Vidimus duas Petras, ex quibus ingens vis fluminis excidebat...ex magno terrarum lacu ascendere.<br />
Jump up<br />
^ David Braund: Nero’s Nubian Nile, India and the rubrum mare (Tacitus, Annals 2.61)<br />
Jump up<br />
^ David Braun; p.155<br />
Jump up<br />
^ Buckley & Dinter: A Companion to the Neronian Age<br />
Bibliography[edit]<br />
Braund, David. Kings beyond the claustra. Nero’s Nubian Nile, India and the rubrum mare (Tacitus, Annals2.61) University of Exeter (UK), 2015 ([1])<br />
Buckley, Emma & Martin Dinter. A Companion to the Neronian Age. Publisher John Wiley & Sons. London, 2013 ISBN 1118316533<br />
Emberling, Geoff. Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa. Institute for the Study of the Ancient World. New York, 2011 ISBN 978-0-615-48102-9.<br />
Vantini, Giovanni. Nigrizia (it) (article of 1996 edition); Comboniani editions. Roma, 1996 ([2])<br />
===============================================<b></b><i></i><u></u><sub></sub><sup></sup><strike></strike></div>
===============================================<br />
GS Asm ara (copia cache)<br />
GS Asmara<br />
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br />
Jump to: navigation, search<br />
GS Asmara<br />
Full name<br />
Gruppo Sportivo Asmara<br />
Ground<br />
Cicero Stadium<br />
Asmara, Eritrea<br />
Capacity<br />
20,000<br />
League<br />
Main Eritrean Championship<br />
GS Asmara (officially called Gruppo Sportivo Asmara) was an Eritrean football club based in Asmara and founded in 1936.[1]<br />
Contents [hide]<br />
1<br />
History<br />
2<br />
Achievements & Honours<br />
3<br />
Performance in CAF competitions<br />
4<br />
See also<br />
5<br />
References<br />
History[edit]<br />
The GS Asmara (usually called Asmara calcio) was in the Eritrean football championships since the colonial times of Eritrea. The team was initially founded in 1936 with the name Gruppo Sportivo Cicero [2] and soon was the favorite football team of the Italian "Asmarini" (as were called the Italians residents in Asmara). In 1938 the (still existing now) Cicero Stadium of Asmara was inaugurated by the GS Asmara[3].<br />
So, in the first Eritrean championships the GS Cicero was one of the top teams[4]. In the championship 1939/1940 the "GS Cicero" changed name in "GS Asmara". In the years 1944/45, 1946/47, 1949 the GS Asmara won the Eritrea championship under the coaching of famous Enzo Artioli[5]<br />
In 1958-1960 the GS Asmara won the local championship of Ethiopian Eritrea (because in those years Eritrea was partially annexed to Ethiopia), with the performance of the Italian Eritrean football star Luciano Vassalo.<br />
By then in his mid-twenties, Luciano Vassalo came of age as a player while wearing the colours of GS Asmara. His left the defensive line to become an astute advanced playmaker. He wove patterns of play masterfully, but he had also become an insidious shooter. A successful team, during the run-up to the 1959 Africa Cup of Nations GS Asmara had managed to humiliate the Ethiopia national team in a friendly match. A picture of the 1960 GS Asmara squad is featured on the Mai Taclì: among 10 white faces wearing the team’s vertical-striped black and red jersey, Luciano Vassallo’s light brown skin stands out. Damiano Benzoni [6]<br />
When Eritrea was officially a part of Ethiopia the GS Asmara won in 1962/63 and in 1963/64 the Ethiopian Championship in the region Eritrea[7]. When united to the Tele S.C. the team (called with the new name "Tele SC Asmara") won also in 1972 and 1973 the "Ethiopian championship" under the leadership of the famous "Eritrean Herrera" (the coach Massimo Fenili) [8].<br />
The team as "Tele SC Asmara" participated in two editions of the "African Cup of Champions Clubs" in the early 1970s. Since the late 1970s the team has disappeared from the championships of Eritrea and Ethiopia, also as a consequence of the nearly complete disappearance of the Italian community in those countries with the Mengistu dictatorship.<br />
Achievements & Honours[edit]<br />
Eritrean Championship: 1944/45, 1946/47 and 1949<br />
Local Eritrean Championship (as part of Ethiopia): 1958/59 and 1959/1960<br />
Ethiopian Premier League's Champion as "Tele SC Asmara": 1972 and 1973<br />
Performance in CAF competitions[edit]<br />
CAF Champions League: 2 appearances<br />
1973 African Cup of Champions Clubs<br />
1974 African Cup of Champions Clubs<br />
See also[edit]<br />
Football in Eritrea<br />
Tele S.C.<br />
Luciano Vassalo<br />
References[edit]<br />
Jump up<br />
^ Photo of the 1960 "GS Asmara", showing the Italo-eritrean champion Luciano Vassalo standing second to the right<br />
Jump up<br />
^ 1936-1941 first football championships in Eritrea (in Italian)<br />
Jump up<br />
^ Inauguration of Cicero Stadium in 1938<br />
Jump up<br />
^ [ <a href="http://www.rsssf.com/tablese/erit36.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.rsssf.com/tablese/erit36.html">http://www.rsssf.com/tablese/erit36.html</a> First Eritrea Championship in 1936 ]<br />
Jump up<br />
^ Eritrean list of Champions<br />
Jump up<br />
^ "Citizen of Nowhere" ([1])]<br />
Jump up<br />
^ List of Eritrea football Champions<br />
Jump up<br />
^ Massimo Fenili and Tele SC Asmara<br />
[show]<br />
vte<br />
Football in Eritrea<br />
[show]<br />
vte<br />
Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)<br />
Categories: Football clubs in EritreaAsmara<br />
========================================<br />
MASSAuA UNDERITALIAN RULE (copioa cache)<br />
Massaua under Italian rule<br />
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br />
Jump to: navigation, search <br />
Massaua in 1887<br />
Massaua or Massaua under Italian rule (called Massaua italiana in Italian language) was the main port of Eritrea during the Italian colonization of the region. It is now called Massawa.[1]<br />
Contents [hide]<br />
1<br />
History<br />
2<br />
Notes<br />
3<br />
Bibliography<br />
4<br />
See also<br />
History[edit]<br />
Massawa was originally a small seaside village, lying in lands coextensive with the Kingdom of Axum in antiquity and overshadowed by the nearby port of Adulis about 50 kilometres (31 mi) to the south[2].<br />
O. G. S. Crawford believed that the medieval city of Massawa (like Suakin to the north) remained a center of Christianity into the 13th century.Venetian merchants were said to have lived in Massawa in the 15th century.<br />
The "Hotel Torino" (built in 1938), an example of Venetian influenced architecture in the old Ottoman section of the city<br />
Following the Ottoman controlled Khedivate of Egypt's defeat at the Battle of Gura, Egyptian control of the port withered. With the help of the British, the city eventually came under Italian control: the Italians occupied the city at the end of the XIX century. It was initially the capital of their newly created colony of Eritrea, before Asmara. In the 1920s (after the 1921 earthquake that destroyed 70% of the buildings) their started a huge urbanization of the city, with enlargement of its port facilities[3].<br />
The construction of buildings during the Italian administration in Massawa can be categorized into two main periods. The first period (1923-1930s) is a result of the destruction from major disasters of fire-burning and the two earth quakes, in 1884 and July14, 1921. Italian colonial architects and construction engineers repaired and rebuilt the damaged houses by maintaining and improving on features of the traditional Turkish and Egyptian styles. In the second period (1930s- 1940s), the construction continued in a modern architectural style. Hotels, open-air cinemas, bathing pools, officers´ clubs, administrative buildings and villas were constructed. It was a period of considerable urban development and infrastructure. Most of the buildings were constructed in Tawalud, and some near the port area like Hotel Torino, Hotel Savoia, Banca d’Italia, etc. Hotel Torino in Re´esi Midri (Wishti Batsie), which was built during the 1930s, was one of the fascinating buildings that were constructed following the modernist architectural style, popular during that time. Most of the Italian buildings were constructed on the island of Tawalud in response to the growing population density in the island. The Italians implemented the discrimination policy to divide the city racially and apparently had chosen Tawlud to be a district for the Italian citizens. During the Italian period, coral block was retained as a building material in most of these buildings, though other key additions have been made to include stone, brick and reinforced concrete.Eritrea Ministry of Information: Massaua, Pearl of the Red Sea<br />
An airport was built in the 1930s to the west of the city, near Fort Otumlo: it was called Aerodromo Otumlo. Also were inaugurated in the same decade a huge Hospital (then named "Umberto 1"), a modern radio-telegraph station (linked to Rome), the state-of-the-art Asmara-Massawa Cableway and a railway station of the Eritrean Railway (that connected the city with Asmara).<br />
Ocean liner "Conte Biancamano" docked at the Massaua port in 1939<br />
Massaua under the Italian rule increased from a village of nearly 1,000 native persons in February 5, 1985 (when the Italians occupied the place for the first time[4]) to a modern (and cosmopolitan) city with a population of nearly 16,000 inhabitants in 1938/39. The Italians in the city were more than 2,000 before the start of WW2 and promoted the development of Catholicism in the city: they built the new Cathedral in the late 1930s[5].<br />
A cable/rope linked Asmara to the port of Massawa during the Italian colonial period. This transportation system is said to have had a capacity of transporting about 200 tons one way. The whole system was dismantled during the British rule in the 1940s.GH Tesfagiorgis[6]<br />
In the port of Italian Massaua was based the Red Sea Flotilla of the Italian Royal Navy. This Red Sea Italian Flotilla in 1940 had seven destroyers in two squadrons, a squadron of five Motor Torpedo Boats (MAS, Motoscafo Armato Silurante) and eight submarines in two squadrons.<br />
Italian Massaua suffered huge damage when was conquered by the British in April 1941.[7]<br />
Notes[edit]<br />
Jump up<br />
^ Map of Italian Massaua (1929)<br />
Jump up<br />
^ Adulis excavation videos<br />
Jump up<br />
^ Historical photos of Italian Massaua in the early 1900s: [1]<br />
Jump up<br />
^ Treccani: History of Massaua (in Italian)<br />
Jump up<br />
^ Massaua Cathedral<br />
Jump up<br />
^ G. Tesfagiorgis. "Emergent Eritrea"; p. 255]<br />
Jump up<br />
^ Map of the conquest of Massaua in 1941<br />
Bibliography[edit]<br />
Negash, Tekeste. Italian colonialism in Eritrea 1882-1941 (Politics, Praxis and Impact). Uppsala University. Uppsala, 1987.<br />
Tesfagiorgis. Emergent Eritrea: Challenges of Economic Development. The Red Sea Press. Trenton/NJ, 1993 ISBN 0932415911<br />
See also[edit]<br />
Asmara under Italian rule<br />
[hide]<br />
vte<br />
Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)<br />
Main authorities<br />
King & Emperor Vittorio Emanuele IIIPrime Minister Benito MussoliniList of viceroys of Italian East Africa <br />
Eritrea Italiana. Red points are the new borders of Eritrea, enlarged in 1936 in the Governorate of Eritrea<br />
Governors<br />
Italian Governors of EritreaGovernorate of Eritrea: Pietro Badoglio, Alfredo Guzzoni, Vincenzo De Feo, Luigi Frusci<br />
General History<br />
Italian EritreaEritrea GovernorateBattle of KassalaBattle of DogaliFirst Italo-Ethiopian WarSecond Italo-Ethiopian WarEast African CampaignBattle of KerenRed Sea FlotillaEritrea (colonial ship)<br />
Infrastructures<br />
Eritrean RailwayAsmara-Massawa CablewayRailway stations in EritreaLinea dell'ImperoAsmara International AirportMassaua International AirportGovernor's Palace (Asmara)Asmara Presidential Palace (Asmara)Church of Our Lady of the Rosary, AsmaraCinema ImperoCicero StadiumFiat Tagliero BuildingAsmara's Opera<br />
Related articles<br />
Italian EritreansImperial ItalyItalian East AfricaAsmara under Italian ruleMassaua under Italian ruleItalian language in EritreaLiceo Marconi di AsmaraEritrean talleroItalian East African liraPostage stamps and postal history of Italian East AfricaEritrean Catholic ChurchItalian Eritrean cuisineFootball in Italian EritreaAsmara calcioAsmara circuitAsmara Brewery<br />
Colonial troops<br />
Eritrean AscariRoyal Corps of Colonial TroopsItalian 1st Eritrean DivisionItalian 2nd Eritrean DivisionItalian guerrilla units (A.O.I.)Italian African PoliceBandsZaptiéSpahis<br />
Categories: Italian EritreaItalian colonisation in Africa<br />
==========================================<br />
ASMARA UNDER ITAWLIAN RULE (copia c ache)<br />
Asmara under Italian rule<br />
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br />
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Map of Asmara in 1929<br />
Asmara under Italian rule was a colonial period when Eritrea's capital was ruled by the Italians. The city of Asmara came under Italian control in the 1880s after they conquered the territory of Italian Eritrea. In 1897, it was made the capital of the territory. The Italians subsequently referred to the city as Piccola Roma.[1]<br />
Contents [hide]<br />
1<br />
History<br />
2<br />
Italian architecture<br />
2.1<br />
Features<br />
3<br />
See also<br />
4<br />
Notes<br />
5<br />
References<br />
History[edit]<br />
Asmara acquired some importance as a result of Alula's choice for the capital of his province, but started to grow in a huge way when it was occupied by Italy in 1889 and was made the capital city of Italian Eritrea in preference to Massawa by Governor Martini in 1897.<br />
In the early 20th century, a railway line was built to the coast, passing through the town of Ghinda, under the direction of Carlo Cavanna. In both 1913 and 1915 the city suffered only slight damage in large earthquakes.[2] In the late 1930s the Italians changed the face of the town, with a new structure and new buildings: Asmara was called Piccola Roma (Little Rome).[3]<br />
Asmara was populated by a large Italian community and consequently the city acquired an Italian architectural look. The city of Asmara had a population of 98,000, of which 53,000 were Italian according to the Italian census of 1939. This fact made Asmara the main "Italian town" of the Italian empire in Africa. In all of Eritrea the population of Italians was only 75,000 in total in that year, making Asmara by far their largest centre.[4] Italia Asmara enjoyed a huge development in the 1930s, not only economically but even socially and culturally: Italians even created the theater Asmara's Opera and the car race "Circuito Asmara".<br />
Many industrial investments were made by Italy in Asmara (and surrounding areas of Eritrea),[5] but the beginning of World War II stopped the blossoming industrialization of the area.<br />
Italian architecture[edit]<br />
Italian Asmara represents one of the most concentrated and intact assemblage of "Modernist architecture" anywhere in the world. The urban design within the "Historic Perimeter" of modern Asmara has remained untouched since its original implementation and subsequent evolution in the 1930s, and the architectural elements exemplifies a superlative example of Modernist architecture in a complete urban setting.<br />
The city's architecture is heavily influenced by Italian architecture, even since 1914, the Italians created urban plans for Asmara. The best plan was done in 1937 by Cafiero:<br />
Vittorio Cafiero in 1937 did a new "Urban Plan" for Asmara ... maintaining the old street plans -done by the "Cavagnari Plan" in 1914- that divided Asmara in four sections: the Italian, the native Eritrean, the governmental and the industrial. He added a new section for future development with a "circular circle avenue". The improvement of the axis around "Rome square", "Mussolini boulevard", "Cadorna boulevard" and the "railways station", moved to the south the administrative/economic center of the planned city ...to the southeast there was the green quarter with rich villas around the Gamma Band "hill ... and to the north of the 'Milano boulevard' there was the indigenous quarter. Santoianni; Progettazione_Architettonica<br />
In 1885, the Italians invaded Eritrea and by 1900 Asmara had become the capital city: the site was chosen mainly for its salubrious highland climate, reliable water supply and ideal geographic location in the center of Eritrea.<br />
The "President's Office" in Asmara, built in 1897<br />
In the early twentieth century, Asmara was a small city/village that grew to become a well-established town by the 1920s.<br />
However, by the 1930s, it was clear that Italy, under the rule of Benito Mussolini, was intent on invading Ethiopia and would use Eritrea as the launch pad for this long-held ambition. In preparation for this substantial military attack, an unprecedented quantity of materials and labor flowed into Eritrea throughout the 1930s. In a matter of months, Asmara became a vast building site, as over 70,000 Italians arrived to established new lives for themselves.<br />
The rapid transformation of Asmara, from a small town into Africa's most modern and sophisticated city, involved the global proliferation of "Modernism" and its various forms, including "Futurism", "Rationalism,"Novecento Italiano", and "Art Deco": the spirit of this new world of ideas and of the new forms of architecture was present in Asmara transformation and evolution to become a typical Italian city.<br />
From 1935-1941, thousands of buildings were constructed in the city, most of which reflect various Modernist styles and some of which represent inimitable architectural forms, such as petroleum stations mimicking aeroplanes and boats, commercial buildings designed as trains, cavernous cinemas with fine period plasterwork and Art Deco interiors, fine ultra-modern hotels and offices, and government buildings with highly politicized monumental designs.<br />
Features[edit]<br />
The Cinema Impero was constructed in Asmara in 1937. It is a famous example of the Art Deco style<br />
"Governor's Palace", now City Hall of Asmara<br />
Fiat Tagliero Building<br />
The city is known for its early 20th century buildings, including the Art Deco "Cinema Impero" (opened in 1937 and considered by the experts one of the world's finest examples of Art Déco style building), the Cubist "Africa Pension", the rationalist "Governor's Palace", the eclectic Eritrean Orthodox "Tewahdo" Church, the former "Asmara Opera House", the futurist architecture "Fiat Tagliero Building", the neo-Romanesque architecture "Roman Catholic Cathedral", and the neoclassical architecture "Presicent's Palace". The city is adorned by Italian colonial villas and mansions, one prominent example being the "Asmara's World Bank Building".<br />
Most of central Asmara was built between 1935 and 1941, so effectively the Italians managed to build almost an entire city in just six short years [6].<br />
At this time, the dictator Benito Mussolini had great plans for a second Roman Empire in Africa. War cut this short, but his injection of funds created the Asmara of today, which supposedly was to be a symbol that his "Fascism" worked and that it was an ideal system of government.<br />
The city shows off most early 20th century architectural styles. Some buildings are "neo-Romanesque architecture", such as the Roman Catholic Cathedral, some villas are built in a late "Victorian Architecture" style. Art Deco influences are found throughout the city; essentially Asmara was then what Dubai is now.<br />
Architects were restricted by nothing more than the bounds of their imaginations and were given the funds to create masterpieces which we can see today. Essences of "Cubism" can be found on the "Africa Pension Building", and on a small collection of buildings. The "Fiat Tagliero Building" shows almost the height of futurism, just as it was coming into big fashion in Italy. In recent times, some buildings have been functionally built which sometimes can spoil the atmosphere of some cities, but they fit into Asmara as it is such a modern city.<br />
Italian Asmara was known in 1940 to be an exceptionally modern city, not only because of its architecture, but even because had more "traffic lights" than Rome had when the city was being built. The city incorporates many features of a planned city. Indeed, Asmara was an early example of an ideal modern city created by architects, an idea which was introduced into many cities across the world, such as Brasilia, but which was not altogether popular. Features include designated city zoning and planning, wide treed boulevards, political areas and districts and space and scope for development.<br />
The city has been regarded as "New Rome" or "Italy's African City" due to its quintessential Italian touch, not only for the architecture, but also for the wide streets, piazzas and coffee bars. While the boulevards are lined with palms and indigenous shiba'kha trees, there are numerable pizzerias and coffee bars, serving "cappuccinos" and "lattes", as well as "ice cream" parlours.<br />
Indeed the first brewery in Asmara (and Eritrea) was the Melotti Brewery, that was founded in 1939 by Luigi Melotti: even now it exists but with the new name "Asmara Brewery" and supports one of the best football teams in Eritrea (the "Asmara Brewery F.C.").<br />
Asmara has been proposed as a possible new addition to the UNESCO's World Heritage Sites, under the direction of the "Cultural Assets Rehabilitation Project", for its outstanding examples of 20th century architecture and town planning when was called Asmara italiana.<br />
Asmara, a village that became the capital in 1891, still conserves an almost intact urban structure and architectural features from its half century of colonialism. The first expansion of Asmara was regulated by a scheme plan, approved in 1902, which included the area to the East of the original military outpost on the Mai Belà river. The grid pattern was marked by two major arteries, parallel to each other: the King’s Way (il Corso del Re) and the Queen’s Avenue (il Viale della Regina). After the space of a decade, Cavagnari’s plan was the first to separate the European settlement from the indigenous zone. The advent of Fascism did not have an immediate impact in Eritrea; by then the capital had developed a well-integrated population. One is continuously surprised by testimonies of the residents in Asmara in the Thirties, which express a state of mind shared by both colonizers and colonized, describing the city as: ‘beautiful [...] inhabited by a mixed race, Italians and Africans ... a lot of traffic, shops, cinemas and restaurants...’ . It is commonplace to refer to ‘good Italian people’ (italiani brava gente), which is a most difficult viewpoint to abandon, and is also a most relevant perspective when considering the architectural patrimony of Asmara as a shared heritage.M. Casciato, University of Bologna[7]<br />
See also[edit]<br />
Asmara history and timeline<br />
Italian Eritrea<br />
Massaua under Italian rule<br />
Mogadishu under Italian rule<br />
Notes[edit]<br />
Jump up<br />
^ Italian Asmara<br />
Jump up<br />
^ Ambraseys, Nicolas; Melville, C.P.; Adams, R.D. (1994). The Seismicity of Egypt, Arabia and the Red Sea: A Historical Review. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-39120-2.<br />
Jump up<br />
^ Italian architectural planification of Asmara (in Italian) p. 64-66<br />
Jump up<br />
^ "Benvenuto sul sito del Maitacli" (in Italian). Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 8 July 2011.<br />
Jump up<br />
^ Italian Eritrea industries<br />
Jump up<br />
^ BBC: Reviving Asmara; [1]<br />
Jump up<br />
^ "Da campo militare a capitale: Asmara colonia italiana e oltre"<br />
References[edit]<br />
Boness, Stephan. Asmara - Africa´s Jewel of Modernity. Jovis Verlag, Berlin 2016, ISBN 978-3-86859-435-5<br />
Gresleri et al. Architettura italiana d'oltremare (1870-1940)Ed. Marsilio. Roma, 1993 ISBN 8831759183<br />
[hide]<br />
vte<br />
Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)<br />
Main authorities<br />
King & Emperor Vittorio Emanuele IIIPrime Minister Benito MussoliniList of viceroys of Italian East Africa <br />
Eritrea Italiana. Red points are the new borders of Eritrea, enlarged in 1936 in the Governorate of Eritrea<br />
Governors<br />
Italian Governors of EritreaGovernorate of Eritrea: Pietro Badoglio, Alfredo Guzzoni, Vincenzo De Feo, Luigi Frusci<br />
General History<br />
Italian EritreaEritrea GovernorateBattle of KassalaBattle of DogaliFirst Italo-Ethiopian WarSecond Italo-Ethiopian WarEast African CampaignBattle of KerenRed Sea FlotillaEritrea (colonial ship)<br />
Infrastructures<br />
Eritrean RailwayAsmara-Massawa CablewayRailway stations in EritreaLinea dell'ImperoAsmara International AirportMassaua International AirportGovernor's Palace (Asmara)Asmara Presidential Palace (Asmara)Church of Our Lady of the Rosary, AsmaraCinema ImperoCicero StadiumFiat Tagliero BuildingAsmara's Opera<br />
Related articles<br />
Italian EritreansImperial ItalyItalian East AfricaAsmara under Italian ruleMassaua under Italian ruleItalian language in EritreaLiceo Marconi di AsmaraEritrean talleroItalian East African liraPostage stamps and postal history of Italian East AfricaEritrean Catholic ChurchItalian Eritrean cuisineFootball in Italian EritreaAsmara calcioAsmara circuitAsmara Brewery<br />
Colonial troops<br />
Eritrean AscariRoyal Corps of Colonial TroopsItalian 1st Eritrean DivisionItalian 2nd Eritrean DivisionItalian guerrilla units (A.O.I.)Italian African PoliceBandsZaptiéSpahis<br />
Categories: Asmara19th century in Eritrea20th century in Eritrea<br />
============================================<br />
Carla MAWRIA PUCCINI (copia cache)<br />
Carla Maria Puccini<br />
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br />
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Carla Puccini on the right of the photo<br />
Carla Maria Puccini (born in Gondar -Italian Ethiopia- in February 1941) is a former Italian actress and TV star.[1]<br />
Contents [hide]<br />
1<br />
Life<br />
2<br />
Filmography<br />
3<br />
Notes<br />
4<br />
See also<br />
Life[edit]<br />
She was born in Gondar when the city was part of the Italian Ethiopia. After a few years living between the Italians of Ethiopia, since late childhood she moved back to Italy, where she started a career of actress while still being a teenager. She was the second wife of Romano Mussolini, son of the Italian head of Fascism, from whom she had a daughter (Rachele).<br />
After being in 1965 in the cast of Italian television miniseries "The woman of flowers"[2] with Ubaldo Lay (and successively in the cast of another TV miniseries called "These our sons" in 1967), she presented in 1966 the Sanremo Festival. The show was presented by Mike Bongiorno, assisted by Paola Penni e Carla Maria Puccini. Gianni Ravera served as artistic director.[3]<br />
In 1968 Carla Puccini did her most famous film: Red roses for the Führer.[4]<br />
After her marriage, she retired to private life and in 1974 had her daughter Rachele (named as grandmother Rachele Mussolini). When her husband Romano died, she filed in 2009 a suit in order to get back a Mussolini property: the "Rocca delle Caminate".[5]<br />
Filmography[edit]<br />
The woman of flowers (1965), TV miniseries directed by Anton Giulio Majano<br />
Questi nostri figli (1967), TV miniseries directed by Mario Landi<br />
Red roses for the Führer (1968), Film directed by Fernando Di Leo<br />
Notes[edit]<br />
Jump up<br />
^ "FOTOGRAFIA CARLA MARIA PUCCINI - eBay". www.ebay.it. Retrieved 16 February 2018.<br />
Jump up<br />
^ "La donna di fiori". Retrieved 16 February 2018 – via <a href="http://www.imdb.com/" target="_blank" title="http://www.imdb. ">www.imdb.com</a>.<br />
Jump up<br />
^ Eddy Anselmi. Festival di Sanremo: almanacco illustrato della canzone italiana. Panini Comics, 2009. ISBN 8863462291.<br />
Jump up<br />
^ "Code Name, Red Roses". 24 April 1968. Retrieved 16 February 2018 – via <a href="http://www.imdb.com/" target="_blank" title="http://www.imdb. ">www.imdb.com</a>.<br />
Jump up<br />
^ MonrifNet. "Il Resto Del Carlino - Forlì - I Mussolini all'attacco: "Ridateci la Rocca"". www.ilrestodelcarlino.it. Retrieved 16 February 2018.<br />
See also[edit]<br />
Romano Mussolini<br />
Sanremo Music Festival 1966<br />
Italians of Ethiopia<br />
Categories: Italian film actressesItalian television actressesPeople from Gondar20th-century Italian actresses1941 birthsLiving peopleMussolini family<br />
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This page was last edited on 17 February 2018, at 00:03.<br />
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New roads in Italian Ethiopia (copia cache)<br />
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br />
Jump to: navigation, search <br />
Map showing in red the new roads (like the "Imperial road" between Asmara and Addis Abeba, and those in construction in 1941) created by the Italians in Ethiopia<br />
New roads in Italian Ethiopia are the State roads of Ethiopia created as infrastructures for great communication, which from 1936 to 1941 were realized by the Kingdom of Italy in the territories of Italian East Africa (called in Italian: Africa Orientale Italiana, AOI).<br />
Contents [hide]<br />
1<br />
Characteristics<br />
1.1<br />
Bus services<br />
2<br />
The New Roads<br />
3<br />
Notes<br />
4<br />
Bibliography<br />
5<br />
See also<br />
Characteristics[edit]<br />
No paved roads existed in Ethiopia before the Italian conquest.<br />
At the outset of the Italian-Ethiopian war, few roads were completed and none had modern asphalt surface. Only two major unpaved tracks for lorries existed in 1935, the Jimma-Addis Ababa and the Addis Ababa-Dessié. M.Bertazzini[1]<br />
The total development of the new roads in all AOI was almost 5,000 km, of which 400 km were already built in Italian Eritrea during the preparation phase of the war for the Italian conquest of Ethiopia. [2]<br />
With the main roads of this AOI road plan, all asphalted and served by important infrastructural works, at the same time it was created a widespread secondary connection network (up to 4,000 km of development) that guaranteed the links of the smaller centers to the primary roads. [3]<br />
According to historian Stefano Cecini in December 1937 there were 63.530 Italians and 52.742 Ethiopians/Eritreans working on the roads construction (with additionally 46.000 Sudanese & Yemenis at work on the Assab-Dessie under "very hot" temperatures)[4]. The work conditions were often very difficult (for example to make the Massaua-Decamerè in seven months died 247 Italians and more than 500 natives, mainly because of a cholera epidemy)[5]. Additionally in the first years there was the problem of the guerrilla attacks from the Ethiopian resistance fighters, that only in 1939 petered out.<br />
However the construction of the AOI road system was carried out urgently on Mussolini's orders, but there were considerable increases in the cost of the works (that reached nearly 3/4 of the total Italian budget for the colonies)[6]. His fascist propaganda in 1940 pinpointed that Italy has given to Ethiopia two big "improvements" in just a few years: the abolition of slavery and the creation of an efficient paved roads system.<br />
Indeed at the beginning of spring 1940, all the roads of the first "AOI road plan" of 1936 were realized, with the exception of some sections of the Addis Ababa-Gondar (a road that was also included in the next multi-year plan) and of the Gondar-Dessie.<br />
But of the second road project of 1937, only the Addis Ababa-Harar was completed before summer 1940. There was also huge works on two of the three transoceanic roads that had to connect Italian Mogadiscio to the center of the Empire (that was the Governorate of Scioa, with the capital Addis Abeba).<br />
Moreover, at the beginning of the World War 2 it was nearly completed the work on the roads Gimma - Sirè, Lechemti - Ghimbi and Gimma - Scioa Ghimira.<br />
Bus services[edit]<br />
The road systems was complemented with the 1938 creation of the Compagnia Italiana Trasporti Africa Orientale (CITAO), that served with Fiat buses[7] eight routes and related hotels/lodgings to rest[8]:<br />
1. Massaua-Asmara-Gondar (hotel in Asmara & Adi Arcai);<br />
2. Massaua-Dessiè-Addis Abeba (hotel in Quiha & Dessiè);<br />
3. Assab-Dessiè-Addis Abeba (hotel in Dessiè);<br />
4. Addis Abeba-Gimma;<br />
5. Addis Abeba-Ambò (hotel in Lechemti);<br />
6. Mogadiscio-Chisimaio (hotel in Modum);<br />
7. Mogadiscio-Dolo (hotel in Baidoa);<br />
8. Mogadiscio-Bulo Burti-Rocca Littorio (hotel in El Mos)<br />
The New Roads[edit]<br />
The simple list of the projected roads gives an idea of the magnitude of the investments undertaken. The vast majority of the works were managed by the AASS(Azienda Autonoma Statale della Strada), a public company purposely created by the Minister of the public works. The AASS obtained an incredibly large budget from Rome: not only did the six-year development plan destine more than 7.7bn Italian Lire (out of the total 12bn!) for road construction, but the AASS even received additional 3.1bn Lire, for the financial year 1936-7. In 1939, the newly built colonial transportation network totaled roughly 4,625 km of paved roads and 4,877 km of unpaved tracks.M. Bertazzini [9]<br />
The following table shows the AOI new roads (in spring 1941) according to their number assigned, highlighting the urban centers connected to them (there are included also those in Eritrea [10]):<br />
Number<br />
Official Name<br />
Length<br />
Main connected cities<br />
Note<br />
1<br />
Strada di Dogali<br />
km 116<br />
Massaua – Nefasit – Asmara<br />
Fully asphalted<br />
2<br />
Strada della Vittoria<br />
km 1,077<br />
Asmara – Dessiè – Addis Abeba<br />
Fully asphalted<br />
3<br />
Strada statale 3 Strada per Decamerè<br />
km 40<br />
Nefasit – Decamerè<br />
4<br />
Strada statale 4 Strada della Dancalia<br />
km 485<br />
Assab – Sardò – Dessiè<br />
Fully asphalted<br />
5<br />
Strada statale 5 Strada dell'Eritrea Occidentale<br />
km 379<br />
Asmara – Agordat – Tessenei – Sabderat<br />
Fully asphalted<br />
6<br />
Strada statale 6 Strada del Lago Tana<br />
km 1,262<br />
Asmara – Adua – Debarec – Gondar – Dangila – Debra Marcos – Ficcè – Addis Abeba<br />
7<br />
Strada statale 7 Strada del Gimma<br />
km 340<br />
Addis Abeba – Gimma – Gore – Gambèla<br />
In construction<br />
8<br />
Strada statale 8 Strada di Lechemti<br />
km 330<br />
Addis Abeba – Lechemti – Ghimbi – Border near Kurmuk<br />
In construction<br />
9<br />
Strada statale 9 Strada di Debra Tabor<br />
km 360<br />
Gondar – Debra Tabor – Dessiè<br />
10<br />
Strada statale 10 Addis Abeba-Deuallè<br />
km 600<br />
Addis Abeba – Dire Daua – Deuallè – Border near Ali Sabieh<br />
11<br />
Strada statale 11 Addis Abeba-Méga<br />
km 400<br />
Addis Abeba – Wondo – Méga<br />
12<br />
Strada statale 12 Addis Abeba-Mogadiscio<br />
km 1,500<br />
Addis Abeba – Sciasciamanna – Ginir – Imi – Ferfer – Mogadiscio<br />
13<br />
Strada statale 13 Wondo-Mogadiscio<br />
km 1,350<br />
Wondo – Neghelli – Dolo – Mogadiscio<br />
14<br />
Strada statale 14 Dire Daua-Garbaillè<br />
km 300<br />
Dire Daua – Harar – Giggiga – Garbaillec – Border near Aubarre<br />
15<br />
Strada statale 15 Giggiga-Mogadiscio<br />
km 900<br />
Giggiga – Ferfer – Mogadiscio<br />
16<br />
Strada statale 16 Giggiga-Buràmo<br />
km 50<br />
Giggiga – Buràmo – Border near Zeila<br />
17<br />
Strada statale 17 Mega-Neghelli<br />
km 300<br />
Mega – Neghelli<br />
18<br />
Strada statale 18 Sciasciamanna-Gimma<br />
km 200<br />
Sciasciamanna – Soddu – Gimma<br />
In construction<br />
Notes[edit]<br />
Jump up<br />
^ Road construction in Ethiopia before 1935; p.10<br />
Jump up<br />
^ Stefano Cecini: "La realizzazione della rete stradale in Africa orientale italiana (1936-41)", Dipartimento di Storia Moderna e Contemporanea – Università di Roma La Sapienza, 2007 (in Italian)<br />
Jump up<br />
^ Nicky Di Paolo: Le strade italiane in Africa Orientale" (in Italian)<br />
Jump up<br />
^ Stefano Cecini. "La realizzazione della rete stradale in Africa orientale italiana (1936-41)<br />
Jump up<br />
^ Stefano Cecini; p.3<br />
Jump up<br />
^ Alessio Gagliardi: "La mancata «valorizzazione» dell’Impero" (in Italian)<br />
Jump up<br />
^ 1938 Photo of Dire Dawa bus service to Harrar<br />
Jump up<br />
^ Stefano Cecini; p.4<br />
Jump up<br />
^ Bertazzini."The long-term impact of Italian colonial roads in the Horn of Africa. 1935-2000"; p.13<br />
Jump up<br />
^ Video of the 1937 works in the Gondar-Asmara<br />
Bibliography[edit]<br />
Attillo, Arcangelo. La camionale Mar Rosso – Altipiano Eritreo, Istituto Grafico Tibertino 1914<br />
Cecini, Stefano. La realizzazione della rete stradale in Africa orientale italiana (1936-41), Dipartimento Storia Moderna e Contemporanea – Università La Sapienza. Roma, 2007<br />
Fiore, Giacinto. Duecento pagine sull'Eritrea, Stab. Tipografico Percotto, 1950<br />
Larebo H.M. The Building o fan Empire: Italian Land Policy and Practice in Ethiopia. 1935-1941 Clarendon P. Oxford, 1994<br />
Bertazzini, Mattia. The long-term impact of Italian colonial roads in the Horn of Africa. 1935-2000. Department of Economic History; London School of Economics. London, 2016<br />
Autori Vari, Annali dell'Africa Italiana (Le Opere Pubbliche), Mondadori 1939<br />
Autori Vari, Strade Romane in Dancalia, Giuseppe Cobolli Gigli 1941<br />
Guida dell' Africa Orientale Italiana. Editore CTI. Milano, 1938<br />
See also[edit]<br />
Italian Ethiopia<br />
Italian Empire<br />
[hide]<br />
vte<br />
Etiopia italiana<br />
Main authorities<br />
King & Emperor Vittorio Emanuele IIIPrime Minister Benito MussoliniList of viceroys of Italian East Africa <br />
Governors<br />
List of Italian Governors of Addis AbabaList of Italian Governors of AmharaList of Italian Governors of Galla-SidamoList of Italian Governors of HararList of Italian Governors of Scioa<br />
Main Colonial governors: Agenore Frangipani; Guglielmo Nasi; Enrico Cerulli; Pietro Gazzera; Luigi Frusci; Alessandro Pirzio Biroli<br />
General History<br />
Italian EthiopiaAmhara GovernorateHarrar GovernorateGalla-Sidamo GovernorateScioa GovernorateFirst Italo-Ethiopian WarAbyssinia CrisisSecond Italo-Ethiopian WarItalian conquest of British SomalilandItalian attacks in KenyaItalian tentative to occupy French SomalilandEast African CampaignLast stand at Amba AlagiBattle of GondarBattle of CulqualberItalian guerrilla war in A.O.I. (1941-1943)<br />
Infrastructures<br />
New roads in Italian EthiopiaLinea aerea dell'ImperoItalian colonial railwaysEthio-Djibouti RailwaysAddis Ababa Stadium<br />
Related articles<br />
Italian EthiopiansAddis Abeba under Italian ruleImperial ItalyItalian East Africa40th Infantry Division Cacciatori d'AfricaItalian East African liraPostage stamps and postal history of Italian East AfricaRoman Catholicism in Ethiopia<br />
Related personalities<br />
Prince Amedeo d'AostaRodolfo GrazianiTito MinnitiLuciano ViolanteElisa Angela MeneguzziCarla Maria PucciniRosa DainelliAmedeo Guillet<br />
Colonial troops<br />
Royal Corps of Colonial TroopsItalian African PoliceBands<br />
Categories: Italian East AfricaHistory of EthiopiaRoad transport in Ethiopia<br />
<br />
<br />
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PANNONIAN ROMANCE<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|name=Pannonian Romance<br />
|region=[[Pannonia]]<br />
|era=ca. 500–700 CE<br />
|ref=linglist<br />
|familycolor=Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[Italic languages|Italic]]<br />
|fam3 = [[Romance languages|Romance]]<br />
|linglist=lat-pan<br />
|glotto=none<br />
}}<br />
'''Pannonian Romance''' was a Romance language that developed in [[Pannonia]] after the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]]. It seems to have lasted until the 10th century. The development of Pannonian Romance shows some similarities with that of [[British Latin|British Romance]], lasting only a few centuries.<br />
==History==<br />
{{Quote|In the north, a Roman population probably still lived in the former province of Pannonia at least in all the 6th century and the question whether the "dialect" spoken there belonged to East Latin or to the Occidental dialects has been discussed by scholars without a definite conclusion.André du Nay. ''The Origins of the Rumanians. The early history of the Rumanian language''}}<br />
The Romanized population of Pannonia (for which the historian [[Theodor Mommsen]] calculated a population of about 200,000 around the 4th century) survived Barbarian invasions (by the [[Huns]], [[Goths]], [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]] and others), although they were reduced to a few thousands by the 6th century, living mainly in fortified villages like [[Keszthely]] and Fenékpuszta.<br />
There were other places in [[Pannonia]] where the local population continued to speak forms of [[Vulgar Latin]] after the 5th century: Pécs, Sopron, Szombathely, Dunaújváros. Many Christian relics with inscriptions in Latin have been found in these towns.<br />
[[File:RomanPannoniagirl.jpg|thumb|Image of Roman Pannonia girl (6th century), wearing ornaments of the [[Keszthely culture]]]]<br />
But it was on the western shore of [[Lake Balaton]] where a peculiar society of craftsmen formed, called the [[Keszthely culture]], of which more than 6,000 artisan tombs and many products (including in gold) are left.<br />
Romance dialects disappeared due to assimilation with German and Slavic invaders in borders areas of the Roman [[limes]] near the [[Danube]] river in Pannonia, [[Raetia]] (today Bavaria and Switzerland) and [[Noricum]] (today Austria), <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=lULWOT1o0SsC&pg=PA2&lpg=PA2&dq=romance+language+in+tunisia&source=bl&ots=MtU9ZzHkcO&sig=VQr_kh1CNJ6syaSIRrZ38dPQV48&hl=en&ei=VLc3Sp-zJpqetweKganWDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6#PPA2,M1" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.com/books?id=lULWOT1o0SsC&pg=PA2&lpg=PA2&dq=romance+language+in+tunisia&source=bl&ots=MtU9ZzHkcO&sig=VQr_kh1CNJ6syaSIRrZ38dPQV48&hl=en&ei=VLc3Sp-zJpqetweKganWDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6#PPA2,M1">http://books.google.com/books?id=lULWOT1...</a> Romance disappearance in "Romania submersa"] but in the area of Lake Balaton survived because the Avars needed a population of skilled artisans and craftsmen for their own needs.<br />
After the Avars were defeated by [[Charlemagne]] and disappeared at the beginning of the 9th century, the Romanized craftsmen of the "Keszthely culture" were no longer needed and so quickly were assimilated: their language, Pannonian Romance, soon disappeared with them in the 10th century.Sós, Árthur/Salamon Á. ''Cemeteries of the Early Middle Ages (6th-9th c.) at Pókaszepetk''<br />
==Geography==<br />
Pannonian Romance was spoken around Lake Balaton in western [[Hungary]], mainly in the fortified villages of Keszthely and Fenékpuszta.{{dubious||reason=strange statement considering the size of Pannonia, the Roman province|date=March 2014}}{{Citation needed|date=March 2014}}<br />
Other places where Romanized tombs of Pannonians of the 6th century were found include Pécs (the Roman Sopianae), Sopron (Scarbantia), Szombathely (Savaria), Tokod and Dunaújváros.<br />
The area around Lake Balaton has an almost [[Mediterranean]] climate, similar to the one of the subalpine lakes in the north of [[Italy]].<br />
According to Alexandru Magdearu, this special mild climate is one of the reasons of why the Pannonians remained in Keszthely and did not flee during the Barbarian incursions towards the relatively near coasts of the [[Adriatic Sea]].<br />
==Language==<br />
[[File:Hungary Pecs 2005 June 085.jpg|thumb|Remains of a Christian church of the 5th century in [[Sopianae]] (Pécs), Pannonia (Hungary)]]<br />
{{Quote|At Fenekpuszta (Keszthely) [...] excavations have brought to light a unique group of finds that suggest not only Christians but Romans too [...] There are finds such as a gold pin with the name BONOSA proving that some ethnic group of Roman complexion remained at Fenekpuszta (after the barbarian invasions) [...] <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=6L49AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA353&lpg=PA353&dq=keszthely+pannonia&source=bl&ots=A6n78Vc_la&sig=uCG5K9u8KuG7lGRZ8xAysOHdSC4&ei=barHS9L1I8L98Aa9_9SFBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CAkQ6AEwATge#v=onepage&q=keszthely%20pannonia&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.com/books?id=6L49AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA353&lpg=PA353&dq=keszthely+pannonia&source=bl&ots=A6n78Vc_la&sig=uCG5K9u8KuG7lGRZ8xAysOHdSC4&ei=barHS9L1I8L98Aa9_9SFBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CAkQ6AEwATge#v=onepage&q=keszthely%20pannonia&f=false">http://books.google.com/books?id=6L49AAA...</a> Romans in Kezsthely (Fenekpuszta) in the fifth and sixth century (Google book)]<br />
}}<br />
Some words in Pannonian Romance were of [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] or [[Illyrian languages|Illyrian]] origin.{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}} According to the linguist Roxana Curc,{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}} the main source of evidence on this extinct language are the numerous toponyms in the area of [[Lake Balaton]] and some anthroponyms, hydronyms and ethnonyms that come from the [[Keszthely culture]].<br />
The name ''Keszthely'' ([[IPA]] ['kεst.hεj]) could be related to the [[Istriot language|Istriot]]–[[Venetian language|Venetian]] ''castei'', which means "castle", and is probably an original word of the Pannonian Romance language, according to the Austrian linguist [[Julius Pokorny]].''[[Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch]]'' He also posits that the word ''Pannonia'' is derived via Illyrian from a [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] root ''*pen-'' "swamp, water, wet". If true, that would suggest that the pre-Roman language of Pannonia was an Illyrian language.<br />
According to Romanian linguist Alexandru Rossetti,Istoria limbii române'' Pannonian Romance probably contributed to the creation of the 300 basic words of the "Latin substratum" of the Balkan Romance languages.<br />
Some scholars argue that the Pannonian Romance lacks clear evidences of existence, because no written sources exist. However, according to Árthur Sós,''Cemeteries of the Early Middle Ages (6th-9th c.) at Pókaszepetkin'' in some of the 6000 tombs of the Keszthely culture, there are words in [[vernacular Latin]]. This is the case, for example, of a gold pin with the inscription ''BONOSA''.Mócsy, András. ''Pannonia and Upper Moesia: a history of the middle Danube provinces of the Roman Empire'' p.353 In the opinion of Árthur Sós, the Pannonian Romance has probably links with the [[Rhaeto-Romance languages|Rhaeto Romance]] of the Alps.<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[African Romance]]<br />
* [[Moselle Romance]]<br />
* [[British Latin]]<br />
* [[Keszthely culture]]<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Du Nay, Andre. ''The Origins of the Rumanians—The early history of the Rumanian language''. Matthias Corvinus Publishing. Toronto,1996<br />
* Magdearu, Alexandru. ''Românii în opera Notarului Anonym''. Centrul de Studii Transilvane, Bibliotheca Rerum Transsylvaniae, XXVII. Cluj-Napoca 2001.<br />
* Mócsy, András. ''Pannonia and Upper Moesia: a history of the middle Danube provinces of the Roman Empire''. Publisher Routledge. London, 1974 ISBN 0-7100-7714-9<br />
* Mommsen, Theodore. ''The Provinces of the Roman empire''. Barnes & Noble Books. New York 2003<br />
* Remondon, Roger. ''La crise de l’Empire romain''. Collection Nouvelle Clio – l’histoire et ses problèmes. Paris 1970<br />
* Rosetti, Alexandru. "History of the Romanian language" (''Istoria limbii române''), 2 vols., Bucharest, 1965-1969.<br />
* Sós, Árthur/Salamon Á. ''Cemeteries of the Early Middle Ages (6th-9 th c.) at Pókaszepetk''. Ed by. B. M. Szőke. Budapest 1995.<br />
* Szemerényi, Oswald. ''Studies in the Kinship Terminology of the Indo-European Languages''. Leiden 1977<br />
* Tagliavini, Carlo. ''Le origini delle lingue neolatine''. Patron Ed. Bologna 1982<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2010}}<br />
{{Romance languages}}<br />
[[Category:Extinct Romance languages]]<br />
============================<br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhELUsGkQrIoc8HfQvwIQQZaOkTgsJCunw7JEdGAk-dmIHFQobI0bGk7kI4e6wDItVfI0M_dVMYdfg_cUcFj_8saSGXwZoapqMhtZq0RN2-1mHpOc4VsEpXRKAnUwSth2ZPwY4QFMKM58k/s640/Oasi_di_Cufra_el_Tag_Rava_e_Siciliani.jpg" target="_blank" title="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhELUsGkQrIoc8HfQvwIQQZaOkTgsJCunw7JEdGAk-dmIHFQobI0bGk7kI4e6wDItVfI0M_dVMYdfg_cUcFj_8saSGXwZoapqMhtZq0RN2-1mHpOc4VsEpXRKAnUwSth2ZPwY4QFMKM58k/s640/Oasi_di_Cufra_el_Tag_Rava_e_Siciliani.jpg">https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-L8UNyPKWwoQ/V...</a> FOTO IN LIBIA DI MAURIZIO RAVA, governatore Somalia 1931-1935 (il primo in alto a sinistra a fianco della bandierra italiana)<br />
=========================================<br />
<a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ti6GDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=conferenza+somala+1948&source=bl&ots=wfpYM3mz9j&sig=VDbgzVCPrMvvB8OyngHOPrP8WkQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi57Muh7OLXAhUq0oMKHVWBDw8Q6AEIOzAE#v=onepage&q=conferenza%20somala%201948&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=ti6GDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=conferenza+somala+1948&source=bl&ots=wfpYM3mz9j&sig=VDbgzVCPrMvvB8OyngHOPrP8WkQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi57Muh7OLXAhUq0oMKHVWBDw8Q6AEIOzAE#v=onepage&q=conferenza%20somala%201948&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=ti6GDA...</a> The Colonial Legacy in Somalia , Paolo Tripodi (OTTIMO sui 1948 riots contro italiani a Mogadiscio)<br />
============================<br />
<a href="http://afriques.revues.org/1145?lang=en" target="_blank" title="http://afriques.revues.org/1145?lang=en">http://afriques.revues.org/1145?lang=en</a> Roman commerce in sub-Saharan west Africa Sonja Magnavita (Initial Encounters: Seeking traces of ancient trade connections between West Africa and the wider world)<br />
(see also map to Jenne-jeno in my computer files)<br />
=============================<br />
ROMANS IN SUBSAHARAN AFRICA<br />
[[File:RomanexplorationsinSubSaharanWesternAfrica.png|thumb|right|350px|Map showing the main Roman expeditions in Sub-Saharan western Africa]]<br />
'''Romans in Sub-Saharan Africa''' were a group of expeditions & explorations to [[Lake Chad]] and [[West Africa|western Africa]]. These expeditions were done by a group of military and commercial units of [[Roman Empire|Romans]] who moved across the [[Sahara Desert]] and into the interior of Africa and its coast. They were made by the [[Roman Empire]] between the first and the fourth century [[AD]]. The primary motivation for the expeditions was to secure sources of gold and spices.Roman objects are, indeed, found in the Sahara, and, significantly, along the western caravan route. Numerous Roman artifacts have been found at the Garamantes’ capital of Germa in the [[Fezzan]]. There is evidence of Roman style irrigation being introduced and for at least some Garamantes adopting a sedentary and a town, if not urban, lifestyle. Most striking is the large Roman-syle mausoleum found there, evidence either of Roman presence or of Romanization of the elite. Between Germa and Ghat in the Hoggar have been found Roman ceramics, glass, jewelry and coins dating from the 1st to the 4th centuries. Farther down the route, at the oasis of Abelessa, is the site known locally as the Palace of Tin Hinan. There is a charming local legend about it, but it seems to have been a fortress, in one room of which was found the skeletal remains of a woman, along with a number of Late Roman objects, including a lamp, a golden bracelet and a 4th century coin. Finally, there was a cache of Roman coins found at Timissao only 600 kilometers from the Niger. Heinemann-University of California-UNESCO ( <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gB6DcMU94GUC&pg=PA515&lpg=PA515&dq=roman+casablanca&source=bl&ots=VZOUuNtdVj&sig=aLyuhpVSvx4Xo-B5TiC9XxK97OA&hl=en&ei=L5nITMyPKcP68AbTjrUL&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result#v=onepage&q=roman%20casablanca&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=gB6DcMU94GUC&pg=PA515&lpg=PA515&dq=roman+casablanca&source=bl&ots=VZOUuNtdVj&sig=aLyuhpVSvx4Xo-B5TiC9XxK97OA&hl=en&ei=L5nITMyPKcP68AbTjrUL&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result#v=onepage&q=roman%20casablanca&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=gB6DcM...</a> p.514 Map])<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
The Romans organized expeditions to cross the [[Sahara]] desert with five different routes:<br />
*through the western Sahara, toward the [[Niger]] river and actual [[Timbuktu]].<br />
*through the Tibesti mountains, toward Lake Chad and actual [[Nigeria]].<br />
*through the [[Nile]] river, toward actual [[Uganda]] (and [[Ethiopia]]).<br />
*through the western coast of Africa, toward the [[Canary Islands]] and the [[Cape Verde]] islands.<br />
*through the [[Red Sea]], toward actual [[Somalia]] and perhaps [[Tanzania]]. <a href="http://researchomnia.blogspot.com/2015/10/romans-in-azaniaraphta.html" target="_blank" title="http://researchomnia.blogspot.com/2015/10/romans-in-azaniaraphta.html">http://researchomnia.blogspot.com/2015/1...</a> Romans in Azania/Raphta]<br />
All these expeditions were supported by legionaries and had mainly a commercial purpose. Only the one done by emperor [[Nero]] seemed to be a preparative for the conquest of [[Ethiopia]] or [[Nubia]]: in 62 AD two [[Nile exploration by Roman emperor Nero|legionaries explored the sources of the Nile river]].<br />
One of the main reasons of the explorations was to get gold using the camel to transport it.Roth, Jonathan 2002. ''The Roman Army in Tripolitana and Gold Trade with Sub-Saharan Africa''. APA Annual Convention. New Orleans.<br />
The explorations near the African western and eastern coasts were supported by Roman ships and deeply related to the naval commerce (mainly toward the [[Indian Ocean]]).<br />
==Main explorations==<br />
The main explorations were four (two in western Sahara and two in central Sahara) plus one (done by Festus) in the lake Chad/Niger river area.<br />
===Western Sahara expeditions===<br />
In western Sahara there were two Roman expeditions, just south of the [[Atlas Mountains|Atlas mountains]]:<br />
* ''Cornelius Balbus expedition'': <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTNTz3POoZUC&pg=PA286&lpg=PA286&dq=balbus+expedition+in+sahara&source=bl&ots=qV9iDfzo4t&sig=c07yAoFsTwaGF4wRUUJbiVQ-O6Q&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwicxZ6Op4bRAhVCLSYKHfmgCUsQ6AEIJzAC#v=onepage&q=balbus%20expedition%20in%20sahara&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTNTz3POoZUC&pg=PA286&lpg=PA286&dq=balbus+expedition+in+sahara&source=bl&ots=qV9iDfzo4t&sig=c07yAoFsTwaGF4wRUUJbiVQ-O6Q&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwicxZ6Op4bRAhVCLSYKHfmgCUsQ6AEIJzAC#v=onepage&q=balbus%20expedition%20in%20sahara&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTNTz3...</a> Balbus expedition and successive expeditions, with map]<br />
The first expedition done by Romans in the Sahara—according to Plinius—was the one of [[Lucius Cornelius Balbus the Younger|Cornelius Balbus]], who in 19 BC probably reached the river Niger near Timbouctou. He moved from Libyan [[Sabratha]] and conquered with ten thousand legionaries the [[Garamantes]] capital in [[Fezzan]] and sent a small group of his legionaries further south across the [[Ahaggar]] mountains in order to explore the "land of the lions": they found a huge river (the [[Niger river|Niger]]) that in their opinion was going toward the Nile river. Indeed in 1955, many Roman coins and some Latin ceramics were found in the area of actual [[Mali]].<br />
{{Quote|''According to Plinius this (Balbus) expedition started with the conquest of [[Gadames]] and later of Rapsa, actual [[Ghat]]. After the conquest of [[Garama]] and surrounding area, Plinius wrote that the Roman legionaries went further south to the [[Tassili]] mountains: the [[Legio III Augusta]] of Cornelius Balbus reached the oasis of Bistra in southern [[Algeria]], and then reached Alasi ([[Abalessa]] in the [[Ahaggar]]) and Balsa (actual Ilezy), until some rivers then existing (but now disappeared) like the Dasibari river. According to the scholar [[Henri Lhote]], Balbus probably used the old "road of carts", an old caravan route on the east side of the Bahr Attla, the "Atlantis sea", named even in the [[Bible]]. Along this road there are some stone inscription showing the Garamantes charriots. The Romans then crossed the Tamanrasset area on the actual border between Algeria and [[Niger]], and reached the [[river Niger]] near actual [[Gao]] after crossing the caravan center of [[Tadmekka|Tabemekka]] (in [[Mali]]).''Jonathan Roth. San Jose State University}}<br />
According to Jonathan Roth, some Roman coins have been recently discovered in the Mali northern region, confirming this expedition. Roman objects are, indeed, found in the Sahara, and, significantly, along the western caravan route: many Roman artifacts have been found at the [[Garamantes]] capital of Germa in the [[Fezzan]]. There is evidence of Roman style irrigation being introduced and for at least some Garamantes adopting a sedentary and a town, if not urban, lifestyle. Most striking is the large Roman-syle mausoleum found there, evidence either of Roman presence or of Romanization of the elite. Between Germa and Ghat in the Hoggar have been found Roman ceramics, glass, jewelry and coins dating from the 1st to the 4th centuries. Farther down the route, at the oasis of [[Abelessa]], is the site known locally as the Palace of [[Tin Hinan tomb|Tin Hinan]]. There is a charming local legend about it, but it seems to have been a fortress, in one room of which was found the skeletal remains of a woman, along with a number of Late Roman objects, including a lamp, a golden bracelet and a 4th century coin. Finally, there was a cache of Roman coins found recently at Timissao, only 600 kilometers from the Niger river.<br />
* ''Suetonius Paulinus expedition'':<br />
The second was done in the year 41 AD by [[Gaius Suetonius Paulinus|Suetonius Paulinus]], a Roman Consul, who was the first of the Romans who led an army across the Atlas range. At the end of ten days' march he reached the mountains summit covered by snow and later he arrived at a river called Gerj. He then penetrated into the semi deserted country south of [[Morocco]] and some of his legionaries probably went near the river Daras (modern [[Senegal river]]).<br />
{{Quote|''In the year 41 AD Suetonius Paulinus, afterwards Consul, was the first of the Romans who led an army across Mount Atlas. At the end of a ten days' march he reached the summit,—which even in summer was covered with snow,—and from thence, after passing a desert of black sand and burnt rocks, he arrived at a river called Gerj...he then penetrated into the country of the Canarii and Perorsi, the former of whom inhabited a woody region abounding in elephants and serpents, and the latter were Ethiopians, not far distant from the Pharusii and the river Daras (modern river Senegal)''.The journal of the Royal Geographical Society of LondonRoyal Geographical Society (Great Britain). Journal Vol. 1-10; page 7}}<br />
From the first century after Christ there is evidence (coins, fibulas) of Roman commerce and contacts in [[Akjoujt]] and Tamkartkart near Tichit in [[Mauritania]].<br />
===Central Sahara expeditions===<br />
The two main explorations/expeditions in the central Sahara were:<br />
*''Flaccus expedition'':<br />
During [[Augustus]] times [[lake Chad]] was a huge lake and two Roman expeditions were done in order to reach it: Septimius Flaccus and Julius Maternus reached the "lake of ippopotamus" (as was called the lake Chad by Claudius Ptolomeus). They moved from coastal Tripolitania and passed near the Tibesti mountains. Both did their expeditions through the [[Garamantes]] territories, and were able to leave a small garrison on the "lake of ippopotamus and rhinoceros" after 3 months of travel in desert lands.<br />
Ptolemy wrote that in 50 AD Septimius Flaccus did his expedition in order to retaliate against nomad raiders who attacked [[Leptis Magna]], and reached Sebha and the territory of Aozou <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LY5Lmc-To7cC&pg=PA26&lpg=PA26&dq=Julius+Maternus&source=bl&ots=c_B-BRikfW&sig=kJPT8BjjIZRqah3j22Dg4Sn7Erw&hl=en&ei=-dz5S_GWFoH6lweK45CFCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CCgQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Julius%20Maternus&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=LY5Lmc-To7cC&pg=PA26&lpg=PA26&dq=Julius+Maternus&source=bl&ots=c_B-BRikfW&sig=kJPT8BjjIZRqah3j22Dg4Sn7Erw&hl=en&ei=-dz5S_GWFoH6lweK45CFCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CCgQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Julius%20Maternus&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=LY5Lmc...</a> John Coleman De Graft-Johnson." African Glory: The Story of Vanished Negro Civilizations"; p.26]. He then reached the rivers Bahr Ergig, Chari and Logone in the lake Chad area, described as the "land of Ethiopes" (or black men) and called ''[[Agisymba]]''.<br />
*''Matiernus expedition'':<br />
Ptolomeus even wrote that around 90 AD Julius Maternus (or Matiernus) did a mainly commercial expedition. From the Sirte gulf he reached the Oasis of Cufra and the Oasis of Archei, then arrived -after 4 months travelling with the king of the Garamantes- to the river Bahr Salamat and Bahr Aouk, near the actual Central African Republic in a region then called Agisymba. He went back to [[Rome]] with a rhinoceros with two horns, that was shown in the [[Colosseum]]. <a href="http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-pauly/agisymba-e108180" target="_blank" title="http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-pauly/agisymba-e108180">http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/en...</a> Agisymba and Maternus]<br />
According to Raffael Joorde, Maternus was a diplomat who explored with the king of Garamantes the territory south of the [[Tibesti mountains]], while this king did a military campaign against rebellious subjects or as a "razzia". Raffael Joorde."<br />
Römische Vorstöße ins Innere Afrikas südlich der Sahara: die geheimnisvolle<br />
Landschaft Agisymba", Dortmund, 2015 ( <a href="https://www.academia.edu/16951827/R%C3%B6mische_Vorst%C3%B6%C3%9Fe_ins_Innere_Afrikas_s%C3%BCdlich_der_Sahara_die_geheimnisvolle_Landschaft_Agisymba" target="_blank" title="https://www.academia.edu/16951827/R%C3%B6mische_Vorst%C3%B6%C3%9Fe_ins_Innere_Afrikas_s%C3%BCdlich_der_Sahara_die_geheimnisvolle_Landschaft_Agisymba">https://www.academia.edu/16951827/R%C3%B...</a>])<br />
===Niger river area===<br />
However some historians (like Susan Raven Raven, Susan. Rome in Africa. 3rd ed. London, 1993 ( <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WEd8NeiykjAC&pg=PT3&lpg=PT3&dq=Raven,+Susan.+Rome+in+Africa.+3rd+ed.+London,+1993&source=bl&ots=uBGRMu7B9v&sig=-B7Wa5Ho3wr_tOJ3iqnDcBFaJrU&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwif1MOFs-nWAhVKrFQKHS26Bt8Q6AEIQjAG#v=onepage&q=Raven%2C%20Susan.%20Rome%20in%20Africa.%203rd%20ed.%20London%2C%201993&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=WEd8NeiykjAC&pg=PT3&lpg=PT3&dq=Raven,+Susan.+Rome+in+Africa.+3rd+ed.+London,+1993&source=bl&ots=uBGRMu7B9v&sig=-B7Wa5Ho3wr_tOJ3iqnDcBFaJrU&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwif1MOFs-nWAhVKrFQKHS26Bt8Q6AEIQjAG#v=onepage&q=Raven%2C%20Susan.%20Rome%20in%20Africa.%203rd%20ed.%20London%2C%201993&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=WEd8Ne...</a>])) believe that there was even another Roman expedition to sub-saharan central Africa: the one of Valerius Festus, that could have reached the equatorial Africa thanks to the Niger river.<br />
[[File:Sub-Saharan Roman expeditions-explorations.png|thumb|right|250px|Map showing the Festus expedition, during Roman explorations of Sub-Saharan Africa]]<br />
*''Festus expedition'':<br />
Plinius wrote Plinius the Elder. "Naturalis Historia", V, 5.36 that in 70 AD a legatus of the [[Legio III Augusta]] named Festus repeated the Balbus expedition toward the Niger river. He went to the eastern [[Hoggar Mountains]] and the entered the [[Air Mountains]] until the [[Gadoufaoua]] plain (full of dinosaur fossils). Gadoufaoua (Touareg for “the place where camels fear to go”) is a site in the [[Tenere]] desert of [[Niger]] known for its extensive fossil graveyard, where remains of [[Sarcosuchus imperator]], popularly known as SuperCroc, have been found. Festus finally arrived to the area were now there it is [[Timbouctou]] and [[Gao]]. <br />
But a few academics -like Fage <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTNTz3POoZUC&pg=PA286&lpg=PA286&dq=valerius+festus+in+libya&source=bl&ots=qU8iIgxt6t&sig=oHRF_f5ZWp2NL5kR-7yCCttZu74&hl=en&sa=X&ei=JEnUUd7dEILC0gG4vYCAAQ&ved=0CC0Q6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q=valerius%20festus%20in%20libya&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTNTz3POoZUC&pg=PA286&lpg=PA286&dq=valerius+festus+in+libya&source=bl&ots=qU8iIgxt6t&sig=oHRF_f5ZWp2NL5kR-7yCCttZu74&hl=en&sa=X&ei=JEnUUd7dEILC0gG4vYCAAQ&ved=0CC0Q6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q=valerius%20festus%20in%20libya&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTNTz3...</a> Cambridge History of Africa; p.286]- think that he only reached the [[Ghat]] region in southern [[Libya]], near the border with southern Algeria and Niger (however it is possible that a few "explorers" of his legionaries reached the Niger river and went down to the equatorial forests navigating the river toward the delta in actual [[Nigeria]], like happened in the [[Nile exploration by Roman emperor Nero|Nile river exploration done under Nero emperor]] when Roman centurions reached the [[lake Victoria]] region).<br />
However it is noteworthy to pinpoint that in actual [[Burkina Faso]] there it is a place -near the border with Niger (and Gao)- where in 1975 has been discovered the so called [[Bura culture]]. This culture existed since the late first century (when the Festus expedition was done) and produced a variety of distinctive [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]] made of [[clay]], [[iron]] and stone.Note the exhibits of Bura culture artifacts (someone a bit similar to the Roman Africa artifacts ) at the Hamill Gallery at {{cite web|url=http://www.hamillgallery.com/BURA |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2009-10-16 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807214209/http://www.hamillgallery.com/BURA/ |archivedate=2011-08-07 |df= }} and the Barakat Gallery at <a href="http://www.barakatgallery.com/" target="_blank" title="http://www.barakatgallery.com">http://www.barakatgallery.com</a>]. Christopher Kelly claims that analysis of copper-based objects found at Kissih in northen Burkina Faso (and belonging to the Bura culture) suggests that material of them is derived from ores in the north Africa Mediterranean area under Roman control: this fact shows highly probable Roman merchants presence in Burkina FasoKelly Christopher. Burkina Faso ("Italy invades" section)<br />
==Maritime explorations==<br />
The western coast of Africa was explored by the Romans after the conquest of northern Morocco (then called ''[[Mauretania Tingitana]]''): the Roman vassal king Juba II organized a successful trade from the area of [[Volubilis]]. Pliny the Elder, a 1st century Roman author and military officer, drawing upon the accounts of Juba II, king of Mauretania, stated that a Roman expedition from Mauritania visited the islands of the archipelago of the Canaries and [[Madeira]] around 10 AD and found great ruins but no population, only dogs (from those animals he called the islands, using the latin word "canarius" or "canis" for dog).<br />
<br />
According to Pliny the Elder, an expedition of Mauretanians sent by Juba II to the archipelago visited the islands: when King Juba II dispatched a contingent to re-open the dye production facility at [[Mogador]] (historical name of Essaouira, [[Morocco]]) in the early 1st century CE Juba's naval force was subsequently sent on an exploration of the [[Canary Islands]], [[Madeira]] and probably the Cape Verde islands, using Mogador as their mission base.<br />
We have even recorded historically that, according to Pliny the Elder, the Greek Xenophon of Lampsacus stated that the "Gorgades" ([[Cape Verde islands]]) were situated two days from "Hesperu Ceras" (today called Cap-Vert), the westernmost part of the African continent, showing a knowledge of the area by the Romans.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, according to Pliny the Elder and his citation by Gaius Julius Solinus, the sea voyage time crossing the Gorgades (Cape Verde islands) to the islands of the Ladies of the West ("Hesperides"Some historians argue that the "Hesperides" of Solinus could have been the eastern Antilles, actual São Tomé and Príncipe and Fernando Po) was around 40 days: this fact has created academic discussions about the possibility of further Roman travels toward Guinea and even the Gulf of Guinea. A Roman coin of the emperor [[Trajan]] has been found in [[Congo]]Kelly Christopher. Republic of Congo ("Italy invades" section). Other Roman coins have been found in [[Nigeria]] and [[Niger]], but also in [[Guinea]], [[Togo]] and [[Ghana]].<br />
Additionally must be remembered that emperor [[Augustus]] decided that the circumnavigation of Africa should also be attempted (in 1 BC). Romans had two naval ouposts in the Atlantic coast of Africa: Sala colonia near present [[Rabat]] and [[Essaouira|Mogador]] in southern Morocco (north of [[Agadir]]). The [[Mogador island|island of Mogador]] prospered for the local exploitation of purple (highly esteemed in imperial Rome) from Augustus until Septimius Severus times. Augustus, based even in the discovery of a sunken merchant ship from southern Roman Hispania (Spain) in the [[Djibuti]] area (done by his adoptive son Gaius Caesar when he sailed toward [[Aden]]), wanted to organize an expedition from [[Egypt]] to Mogador and Sala around Africa. But it was never done.<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Roman Empire]]<br />
* [[Exploration of Africa]]<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
*Coleman De Graft-Johnson, John. ''African glory: the story of vanished Negro civilizations''. Black Classic Press. New York, 1986 {{ISBN|0933121032}}<br />
*Fage, JD. ''The Cambridge History of Africa'' Volume 2. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, 1979 {{ISBN|0521215927}}<br />
*Kelly, Christopher & Stuart Laycock. ''Italy invades''. Publisher Greenleaf Book Group. Washington, 2015 ISBN 0996882502 ( <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3rqACwAAQBAJ&pg=PT29&dq=roman+coins+in+nigeria&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=roman%20coins%20in%20nigeria&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.com/books?id=3rqACwAAQBAJ&pg=PT29&dq=roman+coins+in+nigeria&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=roman%20coins%20in%20nigeria&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=3rqACw...</a> ])<br />
*Mattern, Susan. ''Rome and the enemy: imperial strategy in the principate''. University of California Press. San Francisco, 2002 {{ISBN|0520236831}}<br />
*Miller, J. Innes. ''The Cinnamon Route in the Spice Trade of the Roman Empire''. University Press. Oxford, 1996 {{ISBN|0-19-814264-1}}<br />
*Raven, Susan. ''Rome in Africa''. Publisher Routledge. London, 2012 {{ISBN|113489239X}}<br />
*Roth, Jonathan. ''The logistics of the Roman Army at war (264 B.C. - A.D. 235)''. Köln : Brill, 1998 (Columbia studies in the classical tradition ; Vol. 23) ISBN 90–04–11271–5<br />
*The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2 (from CA. 500 B.C. to A.D. 1050). Michael Crowder (& J. Fage). Cambridge University Press, 1975 ISBN {{ISBN|052122215X}}<br />
{{Territories with limited Roman Empire occupation & presence}}<br />
[[Category:Exploration]]<br />
[[Category:Roman Empire]]<br />
============================<br />
<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqZMCS7cN7Q&list=PLoFOWsu4qD6O6G5Nx-evPvLLwnjg4Xdy5&index=646" target="_blank" title="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqZMCS7cN7Q&list=PLoFOWsu4qD6O6G5Nx-evPvLLwnjg4Xdy5&index=646">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqZMCS7c...</a> LIRATV simonacataldo 29-09-2015<br />
=========================<br />
L"ITALIA IN GUERRA (OTTIMISSIMO E PERFETTO!!!!!!)<br />
<a href="http://www.difesa.it/Area_Storica_HTML/editoria/1993/in-guerra-III/Pagine/files/basic-html/page371.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.difesa.it/Area_Storica_HTML/editoria/1993/in-guerra-III/Pagine/files/basic-html/page371.html">http://www.difesa.it/Area_Storica_HTML/e...</a> Isole Ionie pag 371<br />
PERFETTISSIMOOOOOO!!!!!!:<br />
<a href="http://www.difesa.it/Area_Storica_HTML/editoria/1993/in-guerra-III/Pagine/mobile/index.html#p=1" target="_blank" title="http://www.difesa.it/Area_Storica_HTML/editoria/1993/in-guerra-III/Pagine/mobile/index.html#p=1">http://www.difesa.it/Area_Storica_HTML/e...</a> STATO MAGGIOE$ DIFESA - UFFICIO STORICO (TERZO ANNO DI GUERRA:1942)<br />
<a href="http://www.difesa.it/Area_Storica_HTML/editoria/1992/in-guerra-II/Pagine/mobile/index.html#p=1" target="_blank" title="http://www.difesa.it/Area_Storica_HTML/editoria/1992/in-guerra-II/Pagine/mobile/index.html#p=1">http://www.difesa.it/Area_Storica_HTML/e...</a> IL SECONDO ANNO DI GUERRA - 1941<br />
<a href="http://www.difesa.it/Area_Storica_HTML/editoria/1991/in-guerra-I/Pagine/mobile/index.html#p=1" target="_blank" title="http://www.difesa.it/Area_Storica_HTML/editoria/1991/in-guerra-I/Pagine/mobile/index.html#p=1">http://www.difesa.it/Area_Storica_HTML/e...</a> IL PRIMO ANNO DI GUERRA - 1940<br />
=========================<br />
LA CARLOTA - Rincon italiano di Caracas<br />
<a href="http://www.eluniversal.com/noticias/caracas/carlota-campo-claro-pedacito-italia-caracas_671185" target="_blank" title="http://www.eluniversal.com/noticias/caracas/carlota-campo-claro-pedacito-italia-caracas_671185">http://www.eluniversal.com/noticias/cara...</a><br />
======================<br />
<a href="https://www.viqueria.com/occupazione-fascista-jugoslavia-brava-gente/" target="_blank" title="https://www.viqueria.com/occupazione-fascista-jugoslavia-brava-gente/">https://www.viqueria.com/occupazione-fas...</a> Isole Ionie italiane nel 1941<br />
===================<br />
MAPPA GERMANIA ROMANA<br />
<img alt="germania romana" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5Yf1eNk1aN0qvhHmhBlLXel5MZdWvcnscBgvEVcsCpGMeFzsIT6ic46q9ZA9c7AQJyFbMgs_HpZndtXl0rkVorG60DNHIH4xeCO-WzyymYzwT7cB1RFIU7NTYTJKgv5CP4MiLJSE3BNme/s1600/Germania+romana.jpg" /><br />
GERMANIA (Roman province)<br />
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Germania_" target="_blank" title="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Germania_">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?tit...</a>(Roman_province)&oldid=794601194 (da wikipedia "reverted")<br />
MAPPA OLANDA ROMANA<br />
<a href="https://i.pinimg.com/736x/63/14/ec/6314ecd3961b2aa56e24f7ab8d6cf3ae--vintage-maps-ecce-romani.jpg" target="_blank" title="https://i.pinimg.com/736x/63/14/ec/6314ecd3961b2aa56e24f7ab8d6cf3ae--vintage-maps-ecce-romani.jpg">https://i.pinimg.com/736x/63/14/ec/6314e...</a><br />
MAPPA E STORIA TUNISIA/ALGERIA ROMANA (Roman colonies in Berber Africa)<br />
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_colonies_in_Berber_Africa&oldid=748055258" target="_blank" title="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_colonies_in_Berber_Africa&oldid=748055258">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?tit...</a><br />
================<br />
Oberaden (Roman Fort)<br />
Actual area of the Oberaden castrum<br />
The Oberaden (Roman Fort) was a big castrum of 56 hectares at Oberaden, a district of Bergkamen in Westphalia (actual Germany).[1] The castrum -for 15000 legionaries- was built during the Drusus campaign against the Germanic population of Catti in the Wetterau region, probably around 11 BC.<br />
Contents [hide]<br />
1<br />
History<br />
2<br />
Data<br />
3<br />
Discovery<br />
4<br />
Notes<br />
5<br />
Bibliography<br />
6<br />
See also<br />
History[edit]<br />
Drusus had begun construction of large camps on the right of the Rhine. Some of these places were abandoned a few years later, perhaps in the 8 BC, such as Oberaden or Rödgen, important only for military purposes. Werner Eck; University of Bologna [2]<br />
In the late summer of 11 BC, in the course of the planned expansion of the Roman Empire from the Rhine to the Elbe by Roman legions under the orders of Drusus, a stepson of the Emperor Augustus, the Roman camp Oberaden was built on a hill in today's district Bergkamen-Oberaden: it was a legion castrum for two legions and auxiliary troops, that was used also and in order to create the Roman province of Germania.<br />
Indeed, Drusus in 11 BC set crossed the Rhine river and entered inside Magna Germania with a force consisting of five legions in addition to auxiliaries. Setting out from Vetera castra on the Rhine, he ascended the River Lippe. Here he encountered the Tencteri and Usipetes, whom he defeated in two separate engagements.[3] He reached the Werra Valley before deciding to turn back for the season, as winter was starting and supplies were dwindling. While his forces were making their way back through the territory of the Cherusci, the latter tribe laid an ambush for them at Arbalo. The Cherusci failed to capitalize on their initial advantage, whereupon the Romans broke through their lines and defeated the Germanic attackers. To show his continued mastery of the area, Drusus garrisoned a number of positions within western Germania during the winter of 11–10 BC, including one in Cheruscan territory: Oberaden.<br />
Map of the short-lived "Germania provincia", showing the location of Oberaden castrum<br />
Oberaden castrum remained active from 11 BC until 8 BC, when was substituted by the Aliso/Haltern castrum.[4] In that year it seems the Romans withdrew to the west of the Rhine river and burned the castrum: it was abandoned after the subjugation of the Germanic tribes of the Sicambri and the Bructeri. But recent excavations indicate that some sections were not destroyed and were used until the Varus disaster in 9 AD.<br />
However, probably was used again by Germanicus in his campaigns from 14 AD to 16 AD. Since then the castrum has disappeared from History, even because there was no civilian Canabae near the military fortifications after Germanicus withdrawal to the west of the Rhine river.<br />
Data[edit]<br />
The castrum of 56 hectares lies on a hill south of the Lippe river. It has a seven-corner shape and has an area of 571200 m² with its sides of about 840 x 680 meters. The Oberaden fort was surrounded by a 2.7 kilometer-long encirclement, consisting of a four to five-meter wide trench, which was two to three meters deep. Then there was a three-meter-wide wooden wall, with every 25 yards defensive towers. Four Gate structures were found in the north, east, south and west of the fortification.<br />
The inner area of the castrum was built according to a rectangular pattern. The buildings consisted of a half-timbered structure with a clay roof. Near the wooden wall there were the houses of the centurions and the legionaries barracks. A complex building structure was discovered in the area between the "Praetorium" (commander's house) located north of the camp and the southern gate. The Praetorium was about 41 × 59 meters in size. To the south, separated by the 42-meter-wide "Via principalis" (main road of the castrum), there was the 94 x 103 meters staff building, called "Principia". Between the staff building and the southern gate stood five small "villas" with annexed peristyle farms. The largest of these houses covered an area of 39 x 29 meters and also had a perimeter garden of 36 x 17.5 meters. These houses were reserved for the military leadership (military tribunes, centurions and legates).[5]<br />
The Oberaden castrum was supported by a small fortlet, located not far away on the Lippe river: Beckinghausen.<br />
The fortlet at Beckinghausen lies ca. 2 km W of the fortress on gently rising ground immediately S of the Lippe. It is 1.6 ha in extent, oval in plan, and surrounded by three V-shaped ditches, except on the river side. One is inclined to think of harbor installations and to imagine that goods brought by ship up the Lippe for the great fortress at Oberaden were unloaded here. H. Schonberger [6]<br />
Inside the area of the castrum there were 40 wells to get water for the legionaries. Because of the enormous storage space, an occupancy of three legions with auxilia troops is not excluded.<br />
Oberaden castrum is the largest Roman military camp north of the Alps and the oldest known castrum in Westphalia. Some finds [7] and reconstructions can be found in the town museum of Bergkamen.[8]<br />
Discovery[edit]<br />
This Roman military camp was discovered in 1905 by the priest Otto Prein, who had already indicated to the archaeologists the remains of the much smaller Roman camp in Beckinghausen that was used by "auxiliaria".<br />
The first excavations began in 1906 under the leadership of Gerhard Kropachek, and they continued until 1914. Further excavations were carried out in 1937 and 1938 under the direction of Christoph Albrecht, in the years 1962/1963 and since 1976 in continuous succession under the direction of the Münsteran archaeologist Johann Sebastian Coolborn.<br />
Notes[edit]<br />
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^ Imaginary reconstruction of the castrum in the actual city of Bergkamen<br />
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^ Germania of Augustus<br />
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^ The legions in question this time were the I Germanica, the V Alaudae, the XVII, the XVIII, and the XIX.<br />
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^ D.B.Campbell, Roman legionary fortresses 27 BC - AD 378, Oxford 2006, p.8<br />
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^ Treccani: Oberaden (in Italian)<br />
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^ Princeton: "Oberaden"<br />
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^ Gladiator "sica" found inside Oberaden castrum<br />
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^ Stadtmuseum-Bergkamen<br />
Bibliography[edit]<br />
Albrecht, Christoph. Das Römerlager in Oberaden. Veröffentlichung des Städtischen Museums für Vor - und Frühgeschichte, Dortmund II, l (Dortmund, 1938)<br />
Campbell, D.B. Roman Legionary Fortresses 27 BC-AD 378 Oxford-N.Y. 2006<br />
Kühlborn, Johann-Sebastian. Oberaden in: Bendix Trier (Hrsg.): 2000 Jahre Römer in Westfalen (Ausstellungskatalog, Zabern). Mainz 1989, ISBN 3-8053-1100-1.<br />
Wells, C.M. The german policy of Augustus 1972.<br />
See also[edit]<br />
Germania (Roman province)<br />
Anreppen<br />
Rodgen (Roman Fort)<br />
Hedemunden (Roman Fort)<br />
[hide]<br />
vte<br />
Roman Forts in "Germania Provincia"<br />
Roman Civilian Vicus & Fort<br />
AlisoMarktbreitWaldgirmes <br />
Main Legionary Castrum<br />
AnreppenOberadenRodgenHedemunden<br />
Camp (small & marching)<br />
FlevumErmeloBentumersielTeceliaHolsterhausenOlfenNidaBeckinghausenKneblinghausenPorta WestfalicaLimburgOberbrechenLahnau-DorlarHachelbichWilkenburgTreva (possible marching camp)<br />
Civis/Fort in actual Germany<br />
Colonia Ulpia TraianaColoniaAugusta TreverorumAugusta VindelicorumCastra Regina<br />
Categories: Roman sites in GermanyGermania (Roman province)Roman Germany<br />
===============<br />
Beckinghausen<br />
Aereal photo of the Lippe river in the area of Benckinghausen-Lünen<br />
Beckinhause was a Roman fortification of 1.6 hectares on the Lippe river.[1] Actually the camp is located inside the city of Lünen in northwestern Germany.<br />
Contents [hide]<br />
1<br />
Discovery<br />
2<br />
History<br />
3<br />
Notes<br />
4<br />
Bibliography<br />
5<br />
See also<br />
Discovery[edit]<br />
The discovery of the Roman camp near Beckinghausen (now a district of Lünen), known as a river bank, is based on the assumptions of the priest Otto Prein.[2]<br />
As he found out, Roman finds were supposedly discovered in the area of the Beckinghaus cemetery in the river Lippe in the 19th century. Even a ford through the lip should have existed at that time. Prein therefore presumed that the Romans could have built a fortified lip junction in this area.<br />
In 1906 there were actually found pottery pieces, which were dated by Constantin Koenen from Neuss in the first half of the 1st century AD. In 1911, the excavators of the nearby Oberaden castrum (Albert Baum and Gerhard Kropatschek) were able to confirm Prein's guessing in a search excavation. Further excavations took place in the years 1912 to 1914. The size and shape of the fixture could be determined by means of individual search sections; Larger areas were not explored.<br />
Also in 1937 and 1938 the area was dug. The last excavation took place in 1995–1998. An extensive finding was not obtained because the area is considerably affected by floods. Only a safe building in the inner part of the camp was discovererd, that is a 12.9 m wide and 13.20 m long storage building (horreum).<br />
History[edit]<br />
In the late summer of 11 BC, in the course of the planned expansion of the Roman Empire from the Rhine to the Elbe rivers by Roman legions under the orders of Drusus, a stepson of the Emperor Augustus, the Roman small camp Beckinghausen was built on the river Lippe. Romans in order to create the Roman province of Germania invaded Magna Germania and to show their continued mastery of the area, they garrisoned a number of positions within western Germania during the winter of 11–10 BC, including two in Cherusci territory: Beckinghausen and the big castrum Oberaden.<br />
The fortlet at Beckinghausen lies ca. 2 km W of the fortress on gently rising ground immediately S of the Lippe. It is 1.6 ha in extent, oval in plan, and surrounded by three V-shaped ditches, except on the river side. One is inclined to think of harbor installations and to imagine that goods brought by ship up the Lippe for the great fortress at Oberaden were unloaded here. That is possible, but it is also conceivable that Beckinghausen was a largely independent supply base that played a role in military activities farther up the Lippe. At any rate, both Oberaden and Beckinghausen were occupied for more than just a summer. At Beckinghausen a long period of occupation is proved by the fact that pottery kilns were constructed here to supply the needs of the garrison.H. Schonberger[3]<br />
The military camp lies on a high bank sloping down to the lip; It is of oval shape. With a maximum length of 185 meters and a width of 88 meters, its area measures around 1.6 hectares.<br />
Map of the short-lived "Germania provincia", showing the location of the Beckinghausen fortification<br />
Three parallel trenches surrounded the plant in the west, south and east, the inner up to 3.7 meters wide and more than two meters deep. Towards the north the eleven meters of the steep bank of the Lippe river protected the camp.<br />
Behind the trenches lay a three-meter wide wooden-earth wall, possibly reinforced every 30 meters by towers. A gateway was found only in the west of the facility. The two inner peaks were interrupted by an earth bridge.<br />
Within the camp were found four road trenches. At the gate in the west were discovered -in addition to two unclear building grounds- some pits. Two of them were pottery furnaces in which Roman pottery was made. Several brick-like stones were found in one of the stoves.[4]<br />
A few coins and ceramics -that were discovered in the excavations- are also classified as contemporary with the finds from the nearby Oberaden castrum.<br />
The end of its use could have occurred with the defeat of Varus in 9 AD. The fortification could have been also re-used during the Germanicus campaigns of 14-16 AD. No canabae evidences have been found around the small castrum, meaning that the area remained depopulated since then and until the Middle Ages.<br />
Notes[edit]<br />
Jump up<br />
^ Map of Beckinghausen Roman fortlet near the Lippe river<br />
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^ Kuhlborn: Das romische uferkastell Beckinghausen (in German)<br />
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^ "The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, OAKWOOD, Selkirkshire, Scotland – OBERADEN Kr.Unna, Land Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany". <a href="http://perseus.tufts.edu/" target="_blank" title="http://perseus.tufts. ">perseus.tufts.edu</a>. Retrieved 2017-08-03.<br />
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^ Beckinghausen excavation results<br />
Bibliography[edit]<br />
Albrecht, Christoph. Das Römerlager in Oberaden und das Uferkastell in Beckinghausen an der Lippe. Veröffentlichung aus dem Städtischen Museum für Vor- und Frühgeschichte. Dortmund II,1. 1938, S. 21–24.<br />
Campbell, D.B. Roman Legionary Fortresses 27 BC-AD 378 Oxford-N.Y. 2006<br />
Berke, Stephan. Beckinghausen. In: Bendix Trier (Hrsg.): 2000 Jahre Römer in Westfalen. 1989, ISBN 3-8053-1100-1 oder ISBN 3-8053-1115-X (Museumsausgabe), S. 52–54.<br />
Kühlborn, Johann-Sebastian. Das Uferkastell in Beckinghausen. In: Johann Sebastian Kühlborn (Hrsg.): Germaniam pacavi – Germanien habe ich befriedet. Münster 1995, S. 125<br />
Kühlborn, Johann-Sebastian. Das römische Uferkastell Beckinghausen (Museum der Stadt Lünen. Informationen aus dem Museum der Stadt Lünen, 4). Lünen 1996, S. 1–4.<br />
Kühlborn, Johann-Sebastian. Beckinghausen, Stadt Lünen, Kreis Unna. In: Johann-Sebastian Kühlborn: Oberaden, Stadt Bergkamen, Kreis Unna und Beckinghausen, Stadt Lünen, Kreis Unna (Römerlager in Westfalen 3). Münster: Altertumskommission für Westfalen 2008, S. 28–32.<br />
Wells, C.M. The german policy of Augustus 1972.<br />
See also[edit]<br />
Germania (Roman province)<br />
Oberaden (Roman Fort)<br />
Anreppen<br />
Rodgen (Roman Fort)<br />
Hedemunden (Roman Fort)<br />
[hide]<br />
vte<br />
Roman Forts in "Germania Provincia"<br />
Roman Civilian Vicus & Fort<br />
AlisoMarktbreitWaldgirmes <br />
Main Legionary Castrum<br />
AnreppenOberadenRodgenHedemunden<br />
Camp (small & marching)<br />
FlevumErmeloBentumersielTeceliaHolsterhausenOlfenNidaBeckinghausenKneblinghausenPorta WestfalicaLimburgOberbrechenLahnau-DorlarHachelbichWilkenburgTreva (possible marching camp)<br />
Civis/Fort in actual Germany<br />
Colonia Ulpia TraianaColoniaAugusta TreverorumAugusta VindelicorumCastra Regina<br />
Categories: Roman sites in GermanyGermania (Roman province)Roman Germany<br />
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<a href="http://www.altwege.de/roemer-und-kelten/roemer-in-germanien.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.altwege.de/roemer-und-kelten/roemer-in-germanien.html">http://www.altwege.de/roemer-und-kelten/...</a> OTTIMO SU FORTI IN GERMANIA ROMANA (Hogenkamp in Elsfleth)<br />
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<a href="http://nihk.de/index.php?id=460&L=1" target="_blank" title="http://nihk.de/index.php?id=460&L=1">http://nihk.de/index.php?id=460&L=1</a> Elsfleth roman navy base in Weser river estuary (north Germany) OTTIMISSIMO!<br />
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<a href="http://www.wandern-bad-nauheim.de/images/B-stadtteile/rrp1050628i.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.wandern-bad-nauheim.de/images/B-stadtteile/rrp1050628i.jpg">http://www.wandern-bad-nauheim.de/images...</a> Immagine di RODGEN castrum <br />
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ITALIAN MOGADISCIO (cache)<br />
<a href="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:kOlBmcDhTk4J:broom02.revolvy.com/main/index.php%3Fs%3DItalian%2520Mogadiscio%26item_type%3Dtopic+&cd=17&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" target="_blank" title="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:kOlBmcDhTk4J:broom02.revolvy.com/main/index.php%3Fs%3DItalian%2520Mogadiscio%26item_type%3Dtopic+&cd=17&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us">http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se...</a><br />
Mogadishu, or Mogadiscio, was the capital of Italian Somalia in the first half of the 20th century. In Italian language, the city was called Mogadiscio italiana and the inhabitants were called Mogadiscini. Italian Mogadiscio [1] was under direct Italian control from 1885 until February 1941, but formal control was only officially ended with the recognition of the independence of Ethiopia in the 1947 Treaty of Peace with Italy following the end of World War II.<br />
History<br />
Mogadishu (or Mukdishu) is mentioned by Marco Polo and described by Ibn Batuta as an “immense” city. This was in the early part of the 14th century.....In 1892 it was transferred to Italy. The name of the town is spelt in a great variety of ways, including Madeigascar, whence the name of the island of Madagascar. Alfred Grandidier points out that the Portuguese, misled by Marco Polo's description of Mukdishu as an island, fancied they had discovered the land of which he wrote when they touched at Madagascar 1911 E. Britannica<br />
The first Italian to write about Mogadiscio was Marco Polo, who knew of the city during his merchant travels in Asia. But the Italians showed up in Mogadishu's history only in the late 19th century, when the commerce company "Filonardi" from Italy took control of facilities in the port of Mogadishu.<br />
By 1882, Mogadishu was under the joint control of the Somali Geledi Sultanate (which was also holding sway over the Shebelle Valley region in the interior called Benadir) and the Omani Sultan of Zanzibar.[2] In 1885, Ali bin Said leased the city to an Italian chartered company owned by Vincenzo Filonardi. This "Compagnia Filonardi" (1893–96) -and later the "Società Anonima Commerciale Italiana del Benadir" (1899-1905)- was finally taken by the Italian government, that obtained the control of the entire region of Benadir with the port of Mogadishu through an agreement with the British government in 1892. From 3 August 1889 to 15 May 1893 Filonardi was the first Governor of the "Somalia italiana" (he was governor again from 1896 to 1897).<br />
"Banca d'Italia" building<br />
The Kingdom of Italy purchased the city in 1905 and made Mogadishu the capital of the newly established Somalia italiana. The Italians subsequently referred to the city as Mogadiscio.<br />
The city was soon modernized in the early 1910s with the creation of the first sewage system, the first hospital, the first paved roads and the new electricity facilities. In the 1910s and 1920s the Italians enlarged the Port of Mogadishu and created the first airport (initially only for military airplanes). In the 1910s was created the first radio-telegraph station in eastern Africa, under the supervision of Guglielmo Marconi, that was able to connect Mogadishu directly with Italian Eritrea and Rome: it was celebrated worldwide.<br />
From 5 April 1908 to 5 May 1936, the Royal Corps of Somali Colonial Troops (Regio corpo truppe coloniali della Somalia Italiana), originally called the "Guard Corps of Benadir", served as the territory's formal military corps with headquarters in Mogadiscio. At the start of its establishment, the force had 2,600 Italian officers.[3] Between 1911 and 1912, over 1,000 Somalis from Mogadishu served as combat units along with Eritrean and Italian soldiers in the Italo-Turkish War.[4] Most of the troops stationed never returned home until they were transferred back to Italian Somaliland in preparation for the invasion of Ethiopia in 1935.[5]<br />
In November 1920, the Banca d'Italia, the first modern bank in Italian Somaliland, was established in Mogadishu.[6] [7] Later were founded in the city the branches of other Italian banks: in 1936 Banco di Roma and in 1938 Banco di Napoli established their offices in the Somalia's capital (Banco di Napoli replaced Cassa di Risparmio di Torino, which had opened an office in Mogadishu in 1932). After WWII, from the Banca d'Italia was developed the Central Bank of Somalia: on July 1960, the newly independent Republic of Somalia established in Mogadishu the Banca Nazionale Somala (National Bank of Somalia) to take over the activities of the Cassa per la Circolazione Monetaria della Somalia and the Mogadishu branch of "Banca d'Italia" (the new bank combined central banking activities with commercial banking activities); and on February 1975, the Somalian government renamed the "Banca Nazionale Somala" with the name "Central Bank of Somalia" (Bankiga Dhexe ee Soomaaliya).<br />
On December 5, 1923, Cesare Maria De Vecchi di Val Cismon was named Governor in charge of the new colonial administration and promoted the process of complete pacification of the Somalia italiana, with the initial integration of the native population. Italian colonial policy followed two principles in Italian Somaliland: preservation of the dominant clan and ethnic configurations and respect for Islam as the territory's religion.[8]<br />
In 1928, the Italian authorities built the Mogadishu Cathedral (Cattedrale di Mogadiscio). It was constructed in a Norman Gothic style, based on the Cefalù Cathedral in Cefalù, Sicily.[9] Following its establishment, Crown Prince Umberto II made his first publicized visit to Mogadishu.[10] [11] To commemorate the visit, the Arch of Umberto was constructed.[11] The arch was built at the center of Mogadishu Garden.[12] The Mogadishu International Airport was constructed that same year. The facility was regarded as one of the finest in the region.<br />
In the early 1930s, the new Italian Governors, Guido Corni and Maurizio Rava, started a policy of full assimilation of the Somalis. Many Somalis were enrolled in the Italian colonial troops, and thousands of Italian colonists moved to live in Mogadishu. The city grew in size and some small manufacturing companies opened up. The Italians also settled in agricultural areas around the capital, such as Villabruzzi (actual Jowhar) and Genale (actual Janaale).[13]<br />
year<br />
Italians<br />
Mogadishu population<br />
%<br />
1905<br />
100<br />
5,000<br />
2%<br />
1914<br />
900<br />
18,000<br />
5%<br />
1930<br />
17,000<br />
50,000<br />
30%<br />
1940<br />
30,000<br />
90,000<br />
33%<br />
1945<br />
40,000<br />
100,000<br />
40%<br />
1960<br />
9,000<br />
118,000<br />
10%<br />
1970<br />
1,962<br />
230,000<br />
1%<br />
1989<br />
500<br />
800,000<br />
0,1%<br />
The Italian population in Mogadishu, from 1905 to 1989<br />
In 1930, there were 22,000 Italians living in Italian Somaliland, representing 2% of the territory's population. The majority resided in the capital Mogadishu, with other Italian communities concentrated in Jowhar (Villabruzzi), Adale (Itala), Janale (Genale), Barawa (Brava), Marka (Merca), Hafun (Dante) and Kismayo (Chisimaio).[14] [15]<br />
By 1935, Mogadishu began to serve as a major naval base and port for the Italians.[16] Then Prime Minister of Italy Benito Mussolini regarded Greater Somalia (La Grande Somalia) with capital Mogadiscio as the crown jewel in Italy's colonial empire in eastern Africa. Consequently, from 1936 to 1940, new roads were constructed in the region around Mogadiscio, such as the "Imperial Road" from Mogadishu to Addis Abeba. New railways (114 km from Mogadishu to Jowhar) and many schools, hospitals, ports and bridges were also built.[17]<br />
Mogadishu airport was established in 1928 with the name Petrella-Mogadiscio aeroporto, the first such facility to be opened in the Horn of Africa. It served as the main military airport for Italian Somaliland. In the mid-1930s, the airport began offering civilian and commercial flights. A regular Asmara-Assab-Mogadishu commercial route was started in 1935, with an Ala Littoria Caproni 133 providing 13-hour flights from the Mogadishu airport to Italian Eritrea. The aircraft had a maximal capacity of 18 passengers, which at the time was a record. In 1936, Ala Littoria launched an intercontinental connection between Mogadishu-Asmara-Khartoum-Tripoli and Rome. The voyage lasted four days and was one of the first long range flights in the world.[18]<br />
The port of Italian Mogadiscio had an exportation in 1934 of 43.467 tons of agricultural products (mainly bananas) toward Italy and Europe. For this commercial transport were used the service of special container-ships called "RAMB" (that were built with the possibility to be converted to be an auxiliary cruiser). The Ramb II was a banana boat based even in Mogadishu. Ramb II was the second of four sister ships all built to the same design: the other ships were the Ramb I, the Ramb III, and the Ramb IV. The four ships were built for the Royal Banana Monopoly Business ("Regia Azienda Monopolio Banane") to transport refrigerated bananas from Italian Somalia to Italy.<br />
The Italian ocean liner Vulcania was the biggest ship to serve the port of Mogadishu<br />
From 1936 the port started to have a weekly international ship line for passengers, connecting Mogadishu with Massaua in Eritrea and Genova in Italy with the Italian Lloyd Triestino and Italian Line.[19] The MS Vulcania was a transatlantic ship that served the port of Mogadiscio. Later, in 1941 the port was damaged by British bombings during WWII.<br />
In the 1930s, Italian authorities began to organize professional sport in Somalia. These sports were initially concentrated only in the capital Mogadishu.[20] In 1931 governor Maurizio Rava created the Federazione Sportiva della Somalia, which organized competences of athletics, tennis and football for the Italian community and promoted the first sport activities among the young native population. In 1933 the first Somalian football championship was created in Mogadishu, called Coppa Federazione Sportiva, with three teams ("Societa' Mogadiscio", "Marina" and "Milizia"). In 1938 the football championship was won by the "Amaruini" team, made up mainly of local Somalians; in 1939 the winning team was the "Araba". In 1938 competitions of other sports, like swimming and cycling, were held.<br />
In summer 1938 was created the Circuito Mogadiscio (called even "Circuito di Mogadiscio" and in English: "Mogadishu Circuit"), a car race done in the main streets of Mogadishu that was one of the firsts in Africa.[21] The main Italian newspaper of Mogadiscio and the Italian colonies, "Il Littoriale",[22] reported that on mid-August 1938 was done the first car race circuit of Mogadiscio. Indeed, on August 15 the Governor Francesco Saveno flagged the start of a car race followed by many thousands in the "Corso Vittorio Emanuele" (actual "Somalia Boulevard") of Somalia's capital, where there were the main stands. On Mogadiscio streets many native Somalis enjoyed enthusiastically to the first car race in their country. It was followed even by a motorcycle race, done with 250 cc and 350 cc category. The "Circuito di Mogadiscio" was repeated in 1939, but the edition of 1940 was not done because of the beginning of the war.<br />
Since 1925 the currency in Mogadiscio was the Lira Somala, that was in use (with the AOI lira) until 1941 and that after WWII -with the Cassa per la circolazione monetaria della Somalia in 1950- was to develop into the Somalo, the only currency of Somalia with a name -by orders of the Italian government- not related/associated to a foreign money (like rupia, lira or shilling).<br />
The Somalo was the only currency in Mogadiscio & Somalia with no reference to foreign money<br />
After the conquest of Ethiopia and the enlargement of Italian Somalia with the addition of the Ogaden, the Viceroy Amedeo d'Aosta wanted to create a manufacturing area in southern Mogadiscio. So, between the port and the new "Petrella" airport an area with mechanical facilities was developed: later there were assembled the first Fiat trucks to serve all Somalia.[23] In 1939 in this area was also established the headquarter of the biggest salt mine of the 1930s world: the Saline Dante.<br />
Furthermore, Prince Amedeo d'Aosta promoted in early 1940 the construction of a Somalian coastal road (similar to the Via Balbia in coastal Libya) from Kismayo up to Dante, but WWII blocked his proposal. However he was able (together with Francesco Saveno Caroselli, governor of the Somalia Governorate) to get asphalted all the roads of Mogadiscio and its outskirsts for the first vehicles circulating in Somalia (3,026 in December 1939, using the tag Som [24] ).<br />
In the first years of the 20th century there were only one hundred Italian civilians (mostly members of the colonial administration with their families) in Mogadishu, but soon started to arrive thousands of colonists (with some merchants and entrepreneurs) from Italy: by March 1940, over 30,000 Italians lived in Mogadishu, representing around 33% of the city's total 90,000 residents.[25] [26] They frequented local Italian schools that the colonial authorities had opened, such as a local "Liceum".[27] So, in early 1940 "Africa Orientale Italiana", Mogadiscio was second only to Asmara as a city used to live an Italian way-of-life with plenty of café-bars, shops and restaurants for people strolling in the afternoon.[28]<br />
During WWII Italian Mogadiscio was conquered by the British in February 1941: nearly all the Italians in Somalia took refuge in the city -for security reasons- during those war years until 1945. Because of these refugees Mogadishu in those years had a population that was nearly half Italian, when added the nearly 7,000 descendants of Italian soldiers who had illegitimate offsprings with Somalian girls.[29]<br />
Since then the Italian population of Mogadiscio started to diminish, mainly after 1948 when there was the killing of Italians by the Somali Youth League,[30] and practically disappeared a few decades later. Indeed, Somali nationalist agitation against the possibility of renewed Italian rule reached the level of violent confrontation in 1948, when on 11 January, large riots broke out that left fifty-two Italians dead in the streets of Mogadishu and other coastal cities in which many more were injured.[31]<br />
Even if there was an important community of nearly 10,000 Italians in Mogadishu in the 1950s, when Italy administrated the country with a ONU mandate, in the late 1990s practically there were no more Italians in Mogadishu.<br />
Legacy<br />
The legacy of the Italian presence in Mogadishu is mainly related to the decision to develop this city as the capital of actual Somalia: in 1885 the Italians found a small city/village with 3,000 inhabitants living in ruined medieval buildings[32] and in just half a century the city was transformed in a modern capital (of one of the biggest countries in eastern Africa) with 100,000 inhabitants, that was nicknamed the White Pearl of the Indian Ocean.<br />
However some other legacies of the Italian presence in Mogadishu still remain: from the diffused use of pasta (baasto) such as spaghetti and of polenta (mishaari),[33] that comes from the Italian Somalis families, to the latin script in the Somalian language and to the architecture of the city.<br />
Architecture<br />
The story of Mogadishu’s Modernist buildings begins during the time of Italian colonial rule. Unlike Asmara in Eritrea and Tripoli in Libya, where the Italians built their colonial city alongside the native walled town, in Mogadishu the walls of the old medina were torn down and the occupiers’ buildings imposed in the city centre.Rakesh Ramchum [34]<br />
In 1905 was started a plan to develop the city, that the Italians found divided in two medieval areas: Amaruini and Scingani. In the middle was built the new "Corso Vittorio Emanuele III" (the main avenue) and governmental buildings with a garden area (that in 1934 was beautified with the "Arch of Umberto"). In 1928 was created the "Piano regolatore di Mogadiscio", the first urban planification for the city, when the medioeval Scingani was demolished and was created a modern area with new buildings and tree lined roads.<br />
Villa Somalia in 1938<br />
Since then in Mogadishu were made many architectural improvements before WWII.[35] The most important are:<br />
1) Villa Somalia. It is the official residential palace and principal workplace of the President of Somalia, Hassan Sheikh Mohamud. It sits on high ground that overlooks the city on the Indian Ocean, with access to both the harbour and airport.[36]<br />
The edifice was built -in partially modern art deco style[37] - by the colonial authorities in Italian Somaliland, serving as a residence for the Italian Governors.[38]<br />
Villa Somalia (originally called Villa Vicereale when inaugurated in October 1936 [39] ) sits on high ground that overlooks Mogadishu on the Indian Ocean, with nearby the first athletic structure for sport in Somalia. It was originally a large, squarish stucco building with a modern tiled roof.[36]<br />
Villa Somalia was built in the new section of the city created by the Italians in the late 1930s: it was a worldwide famous symbol of modernist "Art Deco" architecture.<br />
2) Palazzo degli Uffici del Governo.[40] In the late 1920s was built a huge building for the offices of the Italian colonial government in Somalia, located in front of the Catholic Cathedral. Later it was used as headquarters for the Amministrazione Fiduciaria della Somalia italiana (1950-1960). In front of the Palazzo's central balcony there was located a beautiful water fountain,[41] still existing.[42]<br />
Actually it has been restructured -after the civil war damages- and reopened in 2015:[43] now it is the City Hall of Mogadishu[44] <br />
Image of the Governor Palace<br />
3) Governor's Palace of Mogadishu. In the 1930s it was the seat of the governor of Italian Somaliland, and then the administrator of the Trust Territory of Somalia.It was built during the colonial period (in the late 1920s) in the capital city of Mogadishu: in those decades the city was improved with Italian architecture and urbanism: this palace was one of the most representatives of the colonial fascist architecture.[45]<br />
It was located on the "Corso Umberto", the main street of Italian Mogadiscio, and overlooked the ocean & the port. The architecture was a mixture of Italian and Arab styles, with the second floor decorated with Italian Renaissance furniture. A huge garden was created in front of the main entrance.<br />
In the Palace, among other things, there were the following halls in the lower floor:<br />
Arab hall with decorations, which were derived from the Islamic architecture of the old Mogadishu.<br />
Rooms of "Queen Elena of Italy" with tapestries.<br />
"Sala della Giustizia" with furniture in the Gothic style of the Aosta Valley.<br />
Hall of deliberations, with the wall-scenes taken from the classical style of the Italian architecture and with a huge panel showing "San Giorgio".<br />
The second floor was for private use, with rooms for royal guest.<br />
It was inaugurated by Italian governor Cesare Maria De Vecchi, who ruled from 1923 to 1929. He ordered excavations in the gardens in front of the Palace that proved to be the ancient Arab palace of "El Muzaffar".[46]<br />
In 1975 the Palace was completely razed to the ground (for political reasons) and the site was dedicated to the new construction of the luxurious "Al Uruba" (Curuuba) Hotel.[47] <br />
The main avenue of Mogadishu in 1936, the "Corso Vittorio Emanuele III", with the "Arch of Umberto" and the "Mogadiscio Catholic Cathedral" in the background<br />
4) Mogadishu Cathedral. Known as the "Cattedrale di Mogadiscio" (when inaugurated on March first, 1928), the Mogadishu Cathedral was constructed in a Norman Gothic style, based on the Cefalù Cathedral in Cefalù, Sicily. It was built in nearly six years by the Italian authorities in their former Italian Somaliland, in a central area of the capital not far from the Governor's Palace[48]<br />
Indeed, the Cathedral was built as the biggest in eastern Africa by order of Cesare Maria De Vecchi, a catholic governor of "Somalia italiana" who promoted the "Missionari della Consolata" Christianization of Somalian people.[49] It was built between 1923 and 1928 and was used as a model the "Cathedral of Cefalu" (in northern Sicily), created to commemorate the Christian reconquest of Sicily from the Arabs in the 10th century.<br />
The Cathedral was done in "Norman" Gothic style, designed by architect Antonio Vandone. The facade, with an impressive appearance, was delimited to the sides by two towers, each 37.50 meters high. The plan of the building was a Latin cross; inside was divided into three naves separated by piers with pointed arches.[50]<br />
The church was entrusted to the "Consolata" missionaries,[51] then replaced by the Franciscans (Friars Minor). The altar had a huge statue -done by sculptor Cesare Biscarra- of the Virgin Mary of Consolata,[52] that looked at the parishioners in an impressive way like a statue of Roman Gods inside an ancient imperial temple.[53]<br />
5) Garesa Museum. In 1933, the building that used to be the "Garesa" residence of the Zanzibar Sultanate was totally reconstructed by the Italian governor Rava and adapted to the Somalia Museum (Museo della Somalia).[54] It was the most important cultural place in Italian Mogadiscio.[55]<br />
The "Museo della Garesa" (as was called by the Italian colonists) was officially opened to the public the next year by Governor Maurizio Rava.[56] The museum suffered heavy damages during WWII. After WWII, the old Garesa Museum was turned into the National Museum of Somalia. The National Museum was later moved in 1985, renamed to the Garesa Museum, and converted to a regional museum.[57] [58] After shutting down, the National Museum later reopened. As of January 2014, it holds many culturally important artefacts, including old coins, bartering tools, traditional artwork, ancient weaponry and pottery items.[59]<br />
6) Arch of Umberto. In 1934 Crown Prince Umberto II made his first publicized visit to Mogadishu.[10] [11] To commemorate the visit, the Arch of Umberto was constructed.[11] The arch was built at the center of Mogadishu Garden.[12] <br />
Cinema Italia<br />
7) Ginnasio De Bono. Originally was inaugurated in 1935 as the first Liceum of Mogadiscio with the name "Ginnasio Emilio De Bono",[60] then after WWII it was enlarged with a new floor and was renamed " Liceo scientifico Leonardo da Vinci". Following Somalia independence, in the 1960s it was called by Somalian authorities "Yusuf AlKowneyn Secondary School"[61]<br />
<img alt="8)" class="wp-smiley" src="http://brunodam.blog.kataweb.it/wp-includes/images/smilies/icon_cool.gif" /> Fiat's Boero Building. In 1939 Mogadishu was created a building that was judged as a masterpiece of Italian-Arab architecture. In the surrounding manufacturing area was created the "Inataree" Somali version of the famous Fiat 650 truck.[62]<br />
9) Other important architectures & buildings were: the Casa del Fascio [63] (later headquarter of Somalian Parliament in the 1960s); the Arco Trionfale [64] (made in 1928); the Albergo Croce del Sud[65] (a modern art deco hotel); the Scuola Regina Elena [66] (the first educational building in Mogadiscio); the Monumento ai Caduti (initially created in the 1930s to honor the unknown soldier of the Italian Army including the Somalian colonial troops[67] and rebuilt in the late 1970s as "Victory Monument"[68] of the Somalia republic); the Palazzo De Vincenzi [69] (one of the main social centers with its famous "Caffé Nazionale") and the Cinema Italia (the first cinema theater in Mogadishu).<br />
See also<br />
Italian Somaliland<br />
Italians of Somalia<br />
Mogadishu<br />
History of Mogadishu<br />
Villabruzzi<br />
Genale<br />
Notes <br />
Map of Mogadiscio Somalia in 1930<br />
I. M. Lewis, A modern history of Somalia: nation and state in the Horn of Africa, (Westview Press: 1988), p.38<br />
Robert L. Hess. Italian colonialism in Somalia. p. 91.<br />
W. Mitchell. Journal of the Royal United Service Institution, Whitehall Yard, Volume 57, Issue 2. p. 997.<br />
William James Makin. War Over Ethiopia. p. 227.<br />
Abdi Kusow. Putting the cart before the horse: contested nationalism and the crisis of the nation-state in Somalia. p. 179.<br />
Salah Mohamed Ali. Huddur & the history of Southern Somalia. p. 68.<br />
Ben-Ghiat, p. 311<br />
Giovanni Tebaldi. Consolata Missionaries in the World (1901-2001). p. 127.<br />
R. J. B. Bosworth. Mussolini's Italy: Life Under the Fascist Dictatorship, 1915-1945. p. 48.<br />
Peter Bridges. Safirka: An American Envoy. p. 71.<br />
Mohamed Osman Omar. The road to zero: Somalia's self-destruction. p. 35.<br />
Bevilacqua, Piero. Storia dell'emigrazione italiana. p. 233<br />
Article with photos on a 2005 visit to 'Villaggio Duca degli Abruzzi' and areas of former Italian Somaliland (in Italian)<br />
Population of Somalia in 1939<br />
Robert E. Harkavy. Strategic Basing and the Great Powers, 1200-2000. p. 87.<br />
Paul S. Gilbert, Scott Winfield Street, Robert A. Blume. Beginning Somali History. p. 75.<br />
Flavio Riccitelli (A.I.D.A.). "ALA LITTORIA S.A. (1934–1941)". Il Postalista. Retrieved 7 October 2013.<br />
Ship lines of Mogadishu port (in Italian)<br />
Sport e fascismo (in Italian); p. 248<br />
Photo of the Circuit Stands<br />
"Il Littorale" on the 1938 Auto Circuit on page 5 (in Italian)<br />
in the 1950s in Mogadishu was assembled the "Inataree" Somali version of the famous Fiat 650 truck, exported even to Ethiopia and Kenya<br />
Targhe colonie italiane: Somalia<br />
Alexander Hopkins McDannald. Yearbook of the Encyclopedia Americana. Retrieved 2014-04-06.<br />
Ferdinando Quaranta di San Severino (barone). Development of Italian East Africa. Retrieved 2014-06-22.<br />
"Photo of a mixed Italian and Somali school in Mogadishu". 11 October 2008. Retrieved 2014-03-29.<br />
One of the main "Caffe" & cinema in the city<br />
According to historian Tripodi, in Somalia nearly 10,000 children were born from Italians (mainly soldiers) and Somalian native girls during the half a century of colonial presence in Italian Somalia. Most of them lived in the Mogadishu area<br />
Video related to January 1948 massacre<br />
Mogadishu massacre on January 1948<br />
Map of 1890s Mogadishu, showing in an inlet small map the original medieval walls<br />
Somalian recipes (in Italian)<br />
Italian era modernist buildings in Mogadishu<br />
Italian architecture -with images- in 1935 Mogadiscio (in Italian)<br />
Reports Service: Northeast Africa series, Volume 13, Issue 1. American Universities Field Staff. 1966.<br />
Photo of Ogaden authorities looking the art deco characteristics of Villa Vicereale<br />
1938 photo, showing the athletic race track near the newly built Villa Somalia<br />
Video showing (in the second section) the inauguration of Villa Somalia in October 1936 in front of Somalian leaders from the Ogaden just united to Italian Somalia<br />
Photo of the "Palazzo degli Uffici"<br />
The "Uffici" fountain in 1935<br />
Actual "Italianate" Water Fountain<br />
Historic Mogadishu Mayoral Seat reopened in 2015<br />
Photo of reopened "City Hall"<br />
Mogadiscio's colonial architecture<br />
Photo taken 1935 showing the gardens around the Governor's Palace and the ruins of "El Muzaffar" (enlarge the photo center)<br />
Photo of the "Al Uruba" Hotel<br />
Giovanni Tebaldi. Consolata Missionaries in the World (1901-2001). p. 127. Retrieved 2014-04-06.<br />
The catholic missionaries of "Consolata" promoted by governor De Vecchi (in Italian)<br />
Religious ceremony inside the naves<br />
Photo of "Missione della Consolata" in Mogadiscio<br />
Statue & decorations inside the Mogadiscio Cathedral<br />
Image of the Virgin Mary over the Altar<br />
Postcard showing the works done to the "Garesa" in the early 1930s<br />
Museo della Garesa: original detailed information when inaugurated in 1934 (in Italian)<br />
Mohamed Haji Mukhtar. Historical Dictionary of Somalia. p. xxxi. Retrieved 2014-04-06.<br />
Crespo-Toral, H. (1988). "Museum development and monuments conservation: Somalia" (PDF). UNESCO. Retrieved 23 January 2014.<br />
Lengyel, Oguz Janos (1982). "National Museum of Somalia, Mogadiscio: Roof Restoration Project" (PDF). UNESCO. Retrieved 23 January 2014.<br />
"Mogadishu Points of interest". Aden Adde International Airport. Retrieved 24 January 2014.<br />
Photo of Ginnasio De Bono in 1938<br />
Actual secondary school building in 2009<br />
Photo of a "Inataree" Fiat in Somalia<br />
Photo of "Casa del Fascio"<br />
Photo of Arco trionfale<br />
Photo of the Albergo Croce del Sud<br />
Photo of Regina Elena<br />
Photo of Monumento ai Caduti<br />
Photo of "Victory Monument"<br />
Photo of "Palazzo De Vincenzi", one example of private buildings with Italian-Arab architecture in the city<br />
Bibliography<br />
Antonicelli, Franco. Trent'anni di storia italiana 1915 - 1945. Mondadori Editore. Torino, 1961.<br />
Bevilacqua, Piero. Storia dell'emigrazione italiana. Donzelli Editore. Roma, 2002 ISBN 88-7989-655-5<br />
Fitzgerald, Nina J. Somalia. Nova Science, Inc. New York, 2002.<br />
Hess, Robert L. Italian Colonialism in Somalia. University of Chicago P. Chicago, 1966.<br />
Abdisalam Issa-Salwe. The Collapse of the Somali State: The Impact of the Colonial Legacy. Haan Associates Ed. London, 1996 ISBN 187420991X ([1])<br />
Pedrini, Carlo. Regio Laboratorio Foto Cinematografico Mogadiscio."Rivista Aeronautica" of January 1929. Mogadiscio, 1932 ([2])<br />
Tripodi, Paolo. The Colonial Legacy in Somalia: Rome and Mogadishu. Michigan State University Press. Chicago, 1999<br />
External links<br />
Italian architecture in Somalia (in Italian)<br />
Video of 1936 Mogadiscio with governor Graziani<br />
Video of 1939 Mogadiscio<br />
1939 Map of roads in Mogadishu & Benadir area<br />
Website with many postcards of Italian Somalia & Mogadiscio (click to enlarge)<br />
Original photos of Italian Mogadiscio<b></b><i></i><u></u><sub></sub><sup></sup><strike></strike><br />
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CHULLU (Roman colonia)<br />
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<span abp="24" lang="EN-GB">This is the actual place Collo on the coast of <st1:country-region abp="25" w:st="on">Algeria</st1:country-region> near the <st1:place abp="26" w:st="on"><st1:placetype abp="27" w:st="on">cape</st1:placetype> <st1:placename abp="28" w:st="on">Bougarouni</st1:placename></st1:place>, which was called by Pomp.Mela (I,33) the Promontorium Metagonium. Others say it is the Promotorium Tretum. There is no certainty about the Phoenician name for Chullu. When we are looking at the Latin name Chullu, it could be ḥ w l = corridor, gallery, circumference, but that is not certain, because of the double LL in the name of Chullu.<o:p abp="29"></o:p></span></div>
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<span abp="31" lang="EN-GB">The town is mentioned by some classical authors:<o:p abp="32"></o:p></span></div>
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<span abp="34" lang="EN-GB">Pseudo-Skylax (par.110-111) : “Thapsa is followed by Kaukakis, a city and harbour.” This should mean, that Chullu = Kaukakis. We will find out, this is not the case.<o:p abp="35"></o:p></span></div>
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<span abp="37" lang="EN-GB">Itinerario Antoninus p.3<o:p abp="38"></o:p></span></div>
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<span abp="40" lang="EN-GB">Tabulae Peutingeriana<o:p abp="41"></o:p></span></div>
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<span abp="43" lang="EN-GB">Ptolemeus (IV,3,2) : Κολλο ψ Μέγαϛ ηχούλλον as a double name. In IV 2,2: Κανομκιϛ. This last name we see also in <st1:place abp="44" w:st="on">Chios</st1:place> in the Aegean area as Καύκασα en Καύκασν.<o:p abp="45"></o:p></span></div>
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<span abp="47" lang="EN-GB">Chullu was probably a Punic settlement in a rather late period, because they have unearthed mostly Punic caves, where burials took place. There were cremations as well as burials. One of these caves of the Punic period was constructed according to a plan of a row of chambers after each-other. The same we encounter at Leptis-minus in Byzacium. In the graves they have found Punic ceramics, which could be associated with importations in the Hellenistic period: vases with black varnish, lamps of Greek character, ewers with trefoil mouth, hemispheric cups with moulded vegetal ornaments).<o:p abp="48"></o:p></span></div>
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<span abp="50" lang="EN-GB">Furthermore they have found Carthaginian and Numidian coins. All this can be dated to the 3<sup abp="51">rd</sup> century BC to the beginning of the 1<sup abp="52">st</sup> century BC. Under Caesar and Augustus it was port colony that depended on what Plinius (V 22) calls “Cirta Sittianorum”, together with Rusicade, Milevum and Cuicul in what was an autonomous territory of the new province Africa Nova. In this period it seems that it was also a working place for purple painting, as Solinus tells us (in: Collectanea rerum memorabilium XXVI, 1: Chulli purpurario fuco Tyriis velleribus comparata). In Antonius Pius times (c.138 AD) Chullu was famous for leathers, timber and of course for its dyeing and purple fabrics. Then it was called by Ptolemy “Kollops Magnus”.<o:p abp="53"></o:p></span></div>
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<span abp="55" lang="EN-GB"> </span></div>
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<span abp="58" lang="EN-GB">Before the 3<sup abp="59">rd</sup> century BC however Chullu was not an empty spot. We must take in account, that the Algerian coast was visited for centuries by Phoenician ships. <st1:country-region abp="60" w:st="on"><st1:place abp="61" w:st="on">Iberia</st1:place></st1:country-region> was however the main target for the Phoenicians in the 9<sup abp="62">th</sup>-7<sup abp="63">th</sup> century BC. The North African coast was only important as relay-station on the long journey between <st1:country-region abp="64" w:st="on">Iberia</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region abp="65" w:st="on"><st1:place abp="66" w:st="on">Phoenicia</st1:place></st1:country-region> and mostly on the way back home! So they made some provisionally stations, just enough for victualling crew and repair ships. That is why there are hardly any findings out of these early centuries.<o:p abp="67"></o:p></span></div>
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<span abp="69" lang="EN-GB">This view came into the picture during the 1<sup abp="70">st</sup> colloquium of the CEFYP (1998) in the proceedings: Intercambio y commercio preclassico en el Mediterraneo. La citta fenicie del Nord-Africa: problemi di integrazione etnica e risorse. L.I.Manfredi made the following distinction in the occupation of North-Africa by the Phoenicians:<o:p abp="71"></o:p></span></div>
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<span abp="73" lang="EN-GB">I.c.750-c.650 BC only some bigger towns as <st1:city abp="74" w:st="on">Carthage</st1:city>, <st1:place abp="75" w:st="on"><st1:city abp="76" w:st="on">Utica</st1:city></st1:place>, Rusaddir (Mellila).<o:p abp="77"></o:p></span></div>
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<span abp="79" lang="EN-GB">II.c.650-c.600 BC some colonial expansion.<o:p abp="80"></o:p></span></div>
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<span abp="82" lang="EN-GB">III.c.600-c.500 BC integration into the Carthaginian economy (Mercantilism)<o:p abp="83"></o:p></span></div>
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<span abp="85" lang="EN-GB">In the last period a Liby-Phoenician class is formed.<o:p abp="86"></o:p></span></div>
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<span abp="88" lang="EN-GB"> </span></div>
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<span abp="91" lang="EN-GB">Chullu may have been taken over by a Numidian ruler, trying to develop the economy of his country by calling <st1:city abp="92" w:st="on"><st1:place abp="93" w:st="on">Carthage</st1:place></st1:city> and her culture for the advancement of his kingdom. After the fall of <st1:city abp="94" w:st="on"><st1:place abp="95" w:st="on">Carthage</st1:place></st1:city> in 146 BC many Carthaginians fled to the west and the interior and also Chullu gets a boost in welfare. In the Roman period Chullu took part in the confederation of Cirta in the time of Sittius, who was an ally of Caesar and who got a symbolic independent territory in 46 BC for a short period in <st1:country-region abp="96" w:st="on"><st1:place abp="97" w:st="on">Numidia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Under Trajanus (98-117 AD) Chullu became a Roman colony. It became COLONAE MINERVIAE CHULLU.<span abp="98"> </span>Only some Roman quay walls are left out of the Roman period.<o:p abp="99"></o:p></span></div>
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<span abp="101" lang="EN-GB">During the Donatist schism Chullu has even two bishops: Quillitanus and Fidentius.<o:p abp="102"></o:p></span></div>
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<span abp="104" lang="EN-GB">In the Vandal period the city was partially razed by them and by an earthquake and when the Arabs came all glory came to an end, but in all the following centuries it kept her name: COLLO.<o:p abp="105"></o:p></span></div>
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<span abp="107" lang="EN-GB"> </span></div>
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<span abp="110" lang="EN-GB">Chullu should not be confused with the Municipium Chul, which was near Menzel Bou Zelfa on <st1:place abp="111" w:st="on">Cape Bon</st1:place> (CRAI 1975, p.112-118) and also not with the municipium Chlulitanum or Chullitanum in Byzacium (CIL VI,1684). It is not identical with the town Acholla on the eastcoast of Tunesia. <span abp="112"> </span>Nevertheless these name similarities gives food for thought, that there could have been a migration from Byzacium to Chullu in <st1:country-region abp="113" w:st="on"><st1:place abp="114" w:st="on">Numidia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. This is just a thought.<o:p abp="115"></o:p></span></div>
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<span abp="117" lang="EN-GB"> </span></div>
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<span abp="120" lang="FR">Some literature:<o:p abp="121"></o:p></span></div>
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<span abp="123" lang="FR">F.Decret – M.Fantar. L’Afrique du Nord dans l’antiquité, Paris, 1981 p.154-158<o:p abp="124"></o:p></span></div>
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<span abp="126" lang="FR">E.Lipinski. Itineraria Phoenicia, OLA 127. St.Phoenicia XVIII, Leuven, 2004 blz.395.<o:p abp="127"></o:p></span></div>
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<span abp="129" lang="FR">Capitain Hélo, Notice sur la nécropole liby-phénicienne de Collo, BAC 1895, p.343-368.<o:p abp="130"></o:p></span></div>
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</span><b></b><i></i><u></u><sub></sub><sup></sup><strike></strike>mappista59http://www.blogger.com/profile/17629549463392207787noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-508143919763220478.post-42080442970361697492015-05-01T14:39:00.000-07:002015-05-19T18:31:26.809-07:00Supposed Al-Shabaab support inside Wikipedia<strong><u>MIDDAYEXPRESS: supposed involvement in MUSLIM TERRORISM SUPPORT </u></strong><br />
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<em>Middayexpress is supporting Al-Shabaab?</em><br />
<em></em><br />
User Middayexpress is a controversial user of English Wikipedia.<br />
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She is a Somali woman (according to user Chuckupd and others) living in the UK, probably in London, who is accused to be with "pathological behavior" while controlling in en.wiki all articles on Somalia. She has caused to abandon Wikipedia at least one user (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Chuckupd">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Chuckupd</a>), who wrote that "I'm not the only one being attacked (by Middayexpress) without mercy" and "Middayexpress, you are hopelessly insane " and finally "I give up on Wikipedia. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Middayexpress" title="User:Middayexpress">Middayexpress</a> has accused me with so many lies that it has become unbearably depressing. I'm not the only one being attacked without mercy. One of these days, I hope she will be banned and then I might consider returning here."<br />
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Another wiki user (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Buckshot06" title="User:Buckshot06">Buckshot06</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Buckshot06" title="User talk:Buckshot06">(talk)</a> ) wrote that "Middayexpress is in long-standing, continual violation of <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NPOV" title="Wikipedia:NPOV">WP:NPOV</a>, continually rolls back edits that do not reflect his views (IDONTLIKEIT/Disruptive editing, plus WP:UNDUE over-positive views of the Somali situation), and continually attempts to <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:OWN" title="Wikipedia:OWN">WP:OWN</a> a wide range of Somalia articles." And this statement was supported by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Bobrayner" title="User:Bobrayner">User:Bobrayner</a>, who wrote that "I share Buckshot06's concerns. However, I feel the problem may be more widespread, as I have seen Middayexpress doing the same kind of pov-pushing on <i>other</i> articles related to Somalia and the surrounding region".<br />
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Buckshot06 wrote (on 17 February 2014): "Middayexpress, I remain increasingly concerned about your distortions of sources in both these articles. Beyond the issue of the TFG's security forces in Mogadishu in December 2006-January 2007, these include putting words in the mouth of a senior Ethiopian official, who did not say that Ethiopia had 8,000 troops in Somalia in November 2013, distorting a meeting between Italian and Somali officials in 2012 into a claim that Somali had started rebuilding its air force in 2000-2010, and inventing aircraft numbers and entire aircraft from the Library of Congress Country Study. Why do you continually readd the SM-1019s that are not listed in the Country Study?".....and user <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Nick-D" title="User:Nick-D">Nick-D</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Nick-D" title="User talk:Nick-D">talk</a>) added:" I've noticed that your edits to these articles seem to put an unduly positive "spin" on things. For instance, in your most recent edit to the Somali Civil War article <a class="external autonumber" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Somali_Civil_War&diff=prev&oldid=595520654">[1]</a> you removed material sourced to a January 2013 academic journal article by Laura Hammond in which she argued that "[M]uch of rural Somalia remains in the hands of Al-Shabaab" and replaced it with more positive material sourced to a November 2012 news story which argues that 85% of the country was under government control at the time. You did not provide a rationale for this change (especially removing material outright rather than noting differing viewpoints) and I'm wondering why you made this change?"<br />
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Gobonobo" title="User:Gobonobo">User:Gobonobo</a> added the negative comments that "Middayexpress can be a difficult editor to work with. Middayexpress tends to exert <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:OWN" title="Wikipedia:OWN">ownership</a> over Somalia-related articles, employing an editing style that is combative and adversarial, often refactoring other's contributions and/or edit-warring to preserve their preferred version of an article. Sometimes Middayexpress exhibits tendentious behavior, removing sourced material that is critical of Somalia or Somali people". Additionally <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:StoneProphet" title="User:StoneProphet">User:StoneProphet</a> pinpointed that Middayexpress did "rampant cherry-picking of sources and content".<br />
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Middaexpress had fights from her first wiki-moments even with admins (like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Kwamikagami/old">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Kwamikagami/old</a> , who accused Middayexpress of "violating basic Wikipedia policy") and with many other users. <br />
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Middayexpress has even insulted users, like User:Sherurcij, who was called "racist" ( <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Somalia_Affair&action=historysubmit&diff=303950062&oldid=303948740">http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Somalia_Affair&action=historysubmit&diff=303950062&oldid=303948740</a> ). Middayexpress has even been defined "a bit stupid", because with her attacks & aggressive attitude she is getting some enemies in Wikipedia with no reason: there it is even a "theory of complot" against her.<br />
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Middayexpress was "restricted" from posting by admin EdJohnston for some months in June 2010, after an edit-warring with user StoneProphet (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Middayexpress/Archive_11">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Middayexpress/Archive_11</a>).<br />
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User <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Baboon43" title="User:Baboon43">Baboon43</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Baboon43" title="User talk:Baboon43">talk</a>) accused Middayexpress of meatpuppetry in a sockpuppet investigation (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Sockpuppet_investigations/Runehelmet/Archive">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Sockpuppet_investigations/Runehelmet/Archive</a> ). He wrote:<br />
"Middayexpress is a meatpuppet master for Runehelmet as seen on Runehelmets talk page once middayexpress began into a dispute with me he went over to call runehelmet into the discussion [<a class="external autonumber" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk%3ARunehelmet&diff=493692434&oldid=493684898">[27]</a>] and rune also does the same vice versa [<a class="external autonumber" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk%3AMiddayexpress&diff=481333681&oldid=481333233">[28]</a>]..These two individuals would rather have a page dominated by somali-centric material and seem to turn a blind eye on other ethnic groups as seen here [<a class="external autonumber" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AAhmad_ibn_Ibrihim_al-Ghazi&diff=524662017&oldid=524641751">[29]</a>]..Gyrofrog does not enter discussion on a wide scale like Runehelmet does so that is not comparable..If an editor pushes pov and seems to take your side in a discussion always and you go invite him then that is not acceptable..also your example about you and runehelmet disagreeing on article doesnt matter because that article is strictly somali oriented(squabbling in your own pot)..runehelmet would rather tag team if possible based on his behavior & he prefers to tag team strictly with Middayexpress....User Runehelmet also seems like a meatpuppet for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Middayexpress" title="User talk:Middayexpress">User_talk:Middayexpress</a> as clearly seen on runehelmets talk page <a class="external autonumber" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Runehelmet">[6]</a>..midday passes on articles for runehelmet to add on his watchlist clearing way for both users to appear on <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:OBSART" title="Wikipedia:OBSART">WP:OBSART</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:CAN" title="Wikipedia:CAN">wp:CAN</a>..it seems other users have brought up their behavior in previous discussion [<a class="external autonumber" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3ASomali_passport&diff=453054705&oldid=453039639">[7]</a>]..middayexpress invites runehelmet to discussions which is also clearly seen on the talk page..they back each other to push consensus seen here <a class="external autonumber" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3ASomali_people&diff=515845244&oldid=515840271">[8]</a> & <a class="external autonumber" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AAhmad_ibn_Ibrihim_al-Ghazi&diff=524662017&oldid=524641751">[9]</a>..also the only time Runehelmet seems to accept consensus in a dispute is if middayexpress enters the discussion as seen here <a class="external autonumber" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Walashma_dynasty&diff=504270060&oldid=504174325">[10]</a> & <a class="external autonumber" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abadir_Umar_Ar-Rida&diff=501428925&oldid=501417300">[11]</a>" <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Baboon43" title="User:Baboon43">Baboon43</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Baboon43" title="User talk:Baboon43">talk</a>) 09:35, 26 November 2012 (UTC). Furthermore, it seems that user AcidSnow is a "meatpuppet" of Middayexpress, because he always defends her POVs in all the Somalia discussions and "fights".<br />
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User:Bricology found that Middaexpress was "hiding it in a long, dense and relatively undifferentiated timeline" the issue of poaching as a source of funds for the Somalian terrorist group Al-Shabaab. (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Al-Shabaab_(militant_group)#Moving_on">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Al-Shabaab_(militant_group)#Moving_on</a>...). He even wrote: "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Middayexpress" title="User:Middayexpress">Middayexpress</a>, you either presume that you have the power to unilaterally change other editors' work or you misunderstand the relevant issue, or both". <br />
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This tentative to "help" the image of Al-Shabaab in Wikipedia (similar to the one denounced by user <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Nick-D" title="User:Nick-D">Nick-D</a> ) raises serious doubts, and creates the possibility that Middayexpress has a supposed involvement in Muslim terrorism support. Indeed she has an astonishing knowledge of Al-Shabaab activity in the last years: <strong><u>this knowledge can only be possessed by an insider (or a closely-related insider) of this terrorist organization! </u></strong><br />
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Furthermore, Middayexpress has shown a "fanatical hate" (similar to the one of members of Al-Shabaab) against Christianity in Somalia, as is clearly evidenced from her cancellation of serious bibliography and data in the voice "Roman Catholicism in Somalia" (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_Catholicism_in_Somalia&oldid=320544261">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_Catholicism_in_Somalia&oldid=320544261</a>): she has made disappear that "The Bishop of Mogadishu, Franco Filippini, declared in 1940 that there were nearly 40,000 Somali Catholics due to the work of missionaries in the rural regions of Juba and Shebelle, but [[WWII]] damaged in an irreversibly way most of the catholic missions in [[Italian Somalia]].<ref>Tripodi, Paolo. ''The Colonial Legacy in Somalia''. p. 66</ref> ". She angrily (as a possible al-Shabaab member or sympathizer) denied her POV-caused disappearances (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Roman_Catholicism_in_Somalia&oldid=320948362">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Roman_Catholicism_in_Somalia&oldid=320948362</a>).<br />
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Middayexpress even attacked with continuous "malignity" user Oldsettler accusing him of sockpuppetry until she obtained the help of "wikimafia" user Vituzzu: she wanted and obtained to "decapitate without pity in Wikipedia" Oldsettler with the same kind of malignity & hate shown in Syria by ISIS terrorists. Oldsettler wrote "The malignity of this Middayexpress is unbelievable. Why against me? I have never done anything with him/her or against him/her, but -after obtaining to erase my dad's photo- now attacks me continuously repeating the same accusations again and again and again with his/her typical "byzantine phrases" full of the same things. I have read his/her 60 archives and I have found that he/she is a Somalian living in the UK (probably in the London area full of supporters of ISIS (read <a class="external autonumber" href="http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2015/feb/27/emwazi-and-the-london-schoolmates-who-became-militant-jihadis" rel="nofollow">[46]</a>) and that he/she has had "fightings" with many wikipedians. He/she has collected many blocks and menaces of blocks for his/her continuous edit-warrings and seems to promote muslim POVs in a way that remembers the religious fanatism: most important to me, he/she seems to "hate" colonialism and western colonialists, so probably he/she identifies me with the Italians who colonized Somalia....and this can explain his/her attacks against me." <br />
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Furthermore Vituzzu is known in the Italian wiki as one of the main bosses of the “Italian wikimafia”. Some websites denounce him, like “Wikiperle” (read in Italian : htp://wikiperle.blogspot.com/2013/05/wikipedia-mai-criticare-la-famiglia.html) and “Perle Complottiste” (read: <a class="external free" href="http://complottismo.blogspot.com/search/label/Vituzzu?max-results=100" rel="nofollow">http://complottismo.blogspot.com/search/label/Vituzzu?max-results=100</a> ) and so do many Italian wikiusers (read in Italian: <a class="external free" href="http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Amministratori/Riconferma_annuale/Vituzzu/3">http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Amministratori/Riconferma_annuale/Vituzzu/3</a> ; <a class="external free" href="http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Amministratori/Riconferma_annuale/Archivio/Archivio_riconferme_tacite/2012#Vituzzu">http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Amministratori/Riconferma_annuale/Archivio/Archivio_riconferme_tacite/2012#Vituzzu</a> ; <a class="external free" href="http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Amministratori/Riconferma_annuale/Archivio/Archivio_riconferme_tacite/2013#Vituzzu">http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Amministratori/Riconferma_annuale/Archivio/Archivio_riconferme_tacite/2013#Vituzzu</a> ). <br />
Vituzzu -he is from Calabria, the home of Ndrangheta (<a href="http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2015/02/150224083921277.html">http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2015/02/150224083921277.html</a>)- has even been "blocked" many times in the Italian Wikipedia, even if he is an admin, and "strangely" survived without ever being banned (<a class="external free" href="http://it.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?titl…">http://it.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?titl…</a> ): but this could only be possible because of his powerful "mafia" relationships!). <br />
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This help from wikimafia Vituzzu could or seems to be related to the growing relationship between muslim terrorism organizations and the mafia against & inside the Christian Western industrial societies (<a href="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:PZMgorG2ojMJ:www.europarl.europa.eu/document/activities/cont/201211/20121127ATT56707/20121127ATT56707EN.pdf+&cd=7&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us">http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:PZMgorG2ojMJ:www.europarl.europa.eu/document/activities/cont/201211/20121127ATT56707/20121127ATT56707EN.pdf+&cd=7&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us</a>): may be it is even related -as a clear possible proof- to the Middayexpress supposed involvement in Muslim terrorism support. Even a possible link to Al-Kaeda cannot be excluded, because of the growing contacts between Somalian Al-Shabaab and ISIS (read: <a href="http://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2015/03/24/isis-reaches-out-to-somali-terror-group-al-shabaab/">http://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2015/03/24/isis-reaches-out-to-somali-terror-group-al-shabaab/</a> ).<br />
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Indeed in London, between some members of the huge Somalian community, there it is a growing "hidden" support for Al-Shabaab; and Middaexpress seems to live there (<a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2964218/Somali-terror-group-Al-Shabaab-calls-Westgate-style-shopping-centre-attack-London-s-Oxford-Street-chilling-new-video.html">http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2964218/Somali-terror-group-Al-Shabaab-calls-Westgate-style-shopping-centre-attack-London-s-Oxford-Street-chilling-new-video.html</a> ).<br />
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If interested in further in formation, please go to <a href="http://www.trackingterrorism.org/group/north-london-boys">http://www.trackingterrorism.org/group/north-london-boys</a><br />
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<strong><u>L I N K S :</u></strong><br />
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1)<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Somaliland&diff=prev&oldid=304364788#.22Somaliland:_What_Somalia_Could_Be.22">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Somaliland&diff=prev&oldid=304364788#.22Somaliland:_What_Somalia_Could_Be.22</a><br />
("your behavior is PATHOLOGICAL")<br />
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2)<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Chuckupd">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Chuckupd</a> (Chuckpud farewell...)<br />
3)<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Requests_for_comment/Middayexpress&amp;oldid=630445672#Outside_view_by_Chuckupd">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Requests_for_comment/Middayexpress&amp;oldid=630445672#Outside_view_by_Chuckupd</a> (Attacks from many users against Middayexpress)<br />
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4)<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Somaliland&amp;diff=304240644&amp;oldid=304238863#Dear_Wiki_cocontributor_Middayexpress">http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Somaliland&amp;diff=304240644&amp;oldid=304238863#Dear_Wiki_cocontributor_Middayexpress</a> (Middayexpress)mappista59http://www.blogger.com/profile/17629549463392207787noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-508143919763220478.post-45592884707370122532015-04-26T16:07:00.005-07:002020-10-02T10:28:06.845-07:00MEMORIESThis Blog is created in order to maintain "MEMORIES" from abusively erased articles of Wikipedia. And even other things......<br />
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It is dedicated to the calabrese Vito, nicknamed "MOSCERINO" Vituzzu (and to understand who is, please go to: <a href="http://wikipediocracy.com/forum/viewtopic.php?p=95904">http://wikipediocracy.com/forum/viewtopic.php?p=95904</a> or -if you know Italian- read these articles on wikimafia : <a href="http://wikiperle.blogspot.com/search/label/Vituzzu">http://wikiperle.blogspot.com/search/label/Vituzzu</a> ).<br />
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User Vituzzu (nicknamed "moscerino", that in Italian means "mosquito", because he bothers like a stupid mosquito erasing 1 or 2 % of what I post in Wikipedia) is a not too much clever young man who is excessively ambitious and a bit sick of sadism. He likes to rule the Italian Wikipedia like a little red "ducetto" (dictator), but he has his limits. Limits that have been identified with accuracy by Abd when he wrote the above Wikipediocracy article. Indeed Abd wrote that <strong>"Vituzzu is a loose cannon, and he, with the collaboration of a few others, has been causing massive global activity damaging the projects (of Wikipedia), all out of his "hatred" for "promotion," and his acknowledged impatience with policy. He is not one of the major actors in combatting real spam, see the post above, he's minor. Given that relative lack of activity, his error rate is enormous".</strong> He seems to enjoy to "ban" people on Wikipedia with a sadism that is probably related to a kind of psychological vengeance because he is not working (he lives in Calabria, the poorest region of Italy). He has relatives that seems to be linked to the 'Ndrangheta, a dangerous mafia of Calabria, and he is "bad to the bones" (as a person, who knows him personally, wrote). But -worst of all- he is connected to leftist organizations (like the national-comunists of Croatian Wikipedia) and he is at their service: someone has defined him as "a traitor of his own people" always ready to erase and attack all that can show that the Italians are one of the best people in the world. He wrote that "colonies were, definitely, strategical and economical mistakes built upon violence. Finally, 'all other European nations did the same' cannot justify us".....but forgets that the US (the greatest & most powerful country in the world) is the creation of colonization and so -for example- were Spain and France (that were colonized by the Romans). As said before, his intelligence has limits (like his knowledge.........)<br />
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But not his ambition (that seems infinite), and that is why I have written two dozen letters to "authorities" complaining about him. I warned him personally to let me in peace in Wikipedia, on the contrary he was going to be the REAL loser....he bragged as usual, and so last summer 2014 he stopped collaborating with Wikipedia & Wikimedia for 5 months: some admins wrote that he was "burned" because he was not promoted to high positions inside Wikimedia. On the contrary, he was "put aside" from working there, probably after those 2 dozen letters were written.....and evidently were read by "authorities"! It seems -according to the same admins- that he decided during those 5 months to have a job in his Calabria, but now he is back in Wikipedia since April with his "hate"....probably increased by his failure at this work. Who knows, may be he was even "kicked off" -because of his "problem" personality- by the employers of the work he was doing!<br />
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Vito the moscerino/mosquito cannot understand that in Corporate America only those perfectly "clean" can reach the highest job-levels (because of the strong competence for the best well paid jobs) and that even a couple of letters of well written complaints can damage a career. For example a "professional" letter sent to a US police department will be answered by an investigation that will reach the "Wikimedia " authorities. US police works very seriously! But he, with his "Calabria" mind, cannot understand this. Anyway, I warned him but he wanted all this (against human stupidity there it is nothing we can do, as a philosopher wrote).....but -ALLELUIA!- at least he has started to "disappear" from Wikipedia for some months, and this is a typical indication of withdrawal sooner or later (as seen in many cases of Wikipedians who are no more collaborating with this public encyclopedia).<br />
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<b><u>ITALIAN TRIPOLI</u></b><br />
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[[Image:Grand Hotel, Tripoli.jpg|right|thumb|400px|The original "Grand Hotel Tripoli", built in the 1920s in Italian Tripoli]]<br />
'''Italian Tripoli''' <a href="http://www.ernandes.net/ricordi/rionelido/cap01/tripolimap30.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.ernandes.net/ricordi/rionelido/cap01/tripolimap30.jpg">http://www.ernandes.net/ricordi/rionelid...</a> Map of italian Tripoli in 1930] was the capital of [[Italian Libya]]. It is related to the history of the city of [[Tripoli]] under Italian control, that lasted from 1911 until January 1943. Officially it disappeared in 1947 after the Peace Treaty following [[WWII]].<br />
==History==<br />
During the [[Italo-Turkish War]] of 1911 Tripoli was conquered by the Italian Kingdom. The Italian fleet appeared off Ottoman Tripoli in the evening of September 28, 1911: the city was quickly conquered by 1,500 Italian sailors, welcomed by the population. <a href="https://archive.org/details/tripoliitalianal00mart" target="_blank" title="https://archive.org/details/tripoliitalianal00mart">https://archive.org/details/tripoliitali...</a> Tripoli inhabitants welcomed the Italians (p. 36-40)]<br />
By the 1912 treaty signed in [[Ouchy]], Italian sovereignty was acknowledged by the Ottomans, although the local [[Caliph]] was permitted to exercise religious authority. Italy officially granted autonomy after the war, but gradually occupied the region of [[Tripolitania]]. Originally administered as part of a single colony, [[Italian Tripolitania|Tripoli and its surrounding province]] were a separate colony from 26 June 1927 to 3 December 1934, when all Italian possessions in North Africa were merged into one colony called [[Italian Libya]].<br />
[[File:Fiat train at Tripoli's railway central station.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Fiat train "Littorina" at Tripoli Station]]<br />
Since 1937 the governor [[Italo Balbo]] started a policy of immigration of Italians (mainly farmers) who were called the ''Ventimilli'' and some of them settled in the area of Italian Tripoli. <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N_jA9rzM1Ms" target="_blank" title="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N_jA9rzM1Ms">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N_jA9rzM...</a> Video of Italian settlers arriving in the port of Tripoli] So, by the end of 1937, the city had 108,240 inhabitants, including 39,096 Italians.''The Statesman's Yearbook 1948''. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 1040. At the start of [[WWII]] Italian Tripoli had 111,124 inhabitants of which the Italians were 41,304: 37% of the city's inhabitants. Additionally there were nearly 18,000 [[Jews]] in the Tripoli area. <a href="http://geoimages.berkeley.edu/libyajew/LibyanJews/thejews2west.html" target="_blank" title="http://geoimages.berkeley.edu/libyajew/LibyanJews/thejews2west.html">http://geoimages.berkeley.edu/libyajew/L...</a> Statistics about Jews in northwestern Italian Libya]<br />
Indeed after the Italian occupation of Libya in 1911, the Jews made great strides in education and economic conditions: at that time, there were about 21,000 Jews in the country, the majority in Tripoli. In the late 1930s, Fascist anti-Jewish laws were gradually enforced, and Jews were subject to moderate repression: still, by 1941 -due even to the partial rejection of those laws by governor [[Italo Balbo]]- the Jews accounted for a fifth of the population of Tripoli and maintained 44 synagogues <a href="http://geoimages.berkeley.edu/libyajew/LibyanJews/thejews.html" target="_blank" title="http://geoimages.berkeley.edu/libyajew/LibyanJews/thejews.html">http://geoimages.berkeley.edu/libyajew/L...</a> Jews in Tripoli]<br />
In 1941 and 1942 Tripoli -according to estimates of the Italian governmentIstituto Agricolo Coloniale (Firenze).Ministero degli Esteri, 1946- reached a temporary population of nearly 150,000 inhabitants, due to the arrival of many Italians from [[Benghazi]] and [[Cyrenaica]] who took refuge from the British army attacks during [[WWII]]. As a consequence Tripoli was in those years -for the first time since the Arab conquest in 643 AD- a city mostly [[Christianity|Christian]].<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Town !! Italians !! Arabs !! Jews !! Total !! Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[Tripoli]] || 47,442 || 47,123 || 18,467 || 113,212||Population of the main urban centers of Italian Libya, according to the Census of 1939/40,ISTAT. "I censimenti nell’Italia unita I censimenti nell’Italia unita: ISTITUTO NAZIONALE DI STATISTICA SOCIETÀ ITALIANA DI DEMOGRAFIA STORICA Le fonti di stato della popolazione tra il XIX e il XXI secolo". Annali di Statistica. XII 2: 269 showing that Italians were the main community in the city of Tripoli<br />
|-<br />
| [[Benghazi]] || 23,075 || 40,331 || 3,395 || 66,801||Most of the Italians of Benghazi took refuge in Tripoli in 1941 and 1942<br />
|-<br />
| [[Misrata|Misurata]] || 1,735 || 44,387 || 977 || 47,099||Half of the Italians of Misurata moved to Tripoli in 1941 and 1942<br />
|-<br />
| [[Derna, Libya|Derna]] || 3,562 || 13,555 || 391 || 17,508||Nearly all the Italians of Derna moved to Tripoli in 1941 and 1942<br />
|}<br />
Tripoli underwent a huge architectural and urbanistic improvement under Italian rule: <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=_lrYlxdX7DIC&pg=PA17&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4#v=onepage&q&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.com/books?id=_lrYlxdX7DIC&pg=PA17&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4#v=onepage&q&f=false">http://books.google.com/books?id=_lrYlxd...</a> The incorporation of Tripoli into metropolitan Italy] the first thing the Italians did was to create in the early 1920s a sewage system (that until then lacked) with water & electrical facilities to all the city and a [[Tripoli Central Hospital|modern hospital]]. Furthermore, in the western section of Tripoli was created an industrial area in the 1930s, around a huge tobacco factory (called "Manufattura Tabacchi di Tripoli"), with railway workshops, Fiat Motor works, various food processing plants, electrical engineering workshops, ironworks, water plants, agricultural machinery factories, breweries, distilleries, biscuit factories, tanneries, bakeries, lime, brick and cement works.<br />
Governor Balbo used to say that ''"We Italians found in 1911 a big village of approximately 20,000 inhabitants called Tripoli and now we have in 1940 a modern capital nearly ten times bigger and one of the most developed and vibrant cities of Africa"''. <a href="http://www.paolocason.it/Libia/Pagine%20Web/Tripoli%2700-%2760.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.paolocason.it/Libia/Pagine%20Web/Tripoli'00-'60.htm">http://www.paolocason.it/Libia/Pagine%20...</a> Photos of Italian Tripoli]<br />
In the coast of the province was built in 1937-1938 a section of the [[Via Balbia|Litoranea Balbia]], a road that went from Tripoli and Tunisia's frontier to the border of [[Egypt]]. The [[car tag]] for the Italian province of Tripoli was "TL". <a href="http://www.targheitaliane.it/index_i.html?/italy/colonie/libia_i.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.targheitaliane.it/index_i.html?/italy/colonie/libia_i.html">http://www.targheitaliane.it/index_i.htm...</a> Italian car tags (in Italian)]<br />
[[File:TIF.Tripoli,Libya.jpg|thumb|right|280px|''Fiera internazionale di Tripoli'' ([[Tripoli International Fair]]) in 1939]]<br />
Furthermore the Italians - in order to promote Tripoli's economy - founded in 1927 the [[Tripoli International Fair]], which is considered to be the oldest Trade Fair in [[Africa]]. <a href="http://tripolifair.com/tripoli-international-fair/" target="_blank" title="http://tripolifair.com/tripoli-international-fair/">http://tripolifair.com/tripoli-internati...</a> Tripoli International Fair brief history] The so-called ''Fiera internazionale di Tripoli'' was one of the main international "Fairs" in the colonial world in the 1930s, and was internationally promoted together with the [[Tripoli Grand Prix]] as a showcase of [[Italian Libya]]. <a href="http://cronologia.leonardo.it/storia/a1937f.htm" target="_blank" title="http://cronologia.leonardo.it/storia/a1937f.htm">http://cronologia.leonardo.it/storia/a19...</a> Filippo Giannini: Colonial Italy and Islam (in Italian)]<br />
Indeed the Italians even created the [[Tripoli Grand Prix]], an international motor racing event first held in 1925 on a racing circuit outside Tripoli (it lasted until 1940).{{YouTube|KEtz-wzbs9Y|Video of Tripoli Grand Prix}} Tripoli during the Grand Prix was visited by the elite tourism of the world and had even some "fashion" shops. <a href="http://www.paolocason.it/Libia/fotolibia/wpe118.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.paolocason.it/Libia/fotolibia/wpe118.jpg">http://www.paolocason.it/Libia/fotolibia...</a> Italian women walking near the Tripoli Castle]<br />
The first airport in Libya, the [[Mellaha Air Base]] was built by the [[Italian Air Force]] in 1923 near the Tripoli racing circuit (actually is called [[Mitiga International Airport]]). Tripoli had even a railway station with some [[Italian Libya Railways|small railway connections to nearby cities]], when in August 1941 the Italians started to build a new {{convert|1040|km|0|abbr=off}} railway (with a {{convert|1435|mm|1|abbr=on}} gauge, like the one used in Egypt and Tunisia) between Tripoli and [[Benghazi]]. But the war -with the defeat of the Italian Army- stopped the construction the next year.<br />
Tripoli was controlled by Italy until 1943 when the provinces of [[Tripolitania]] and [[Cyrenaica]] were captured by Allied forces. <a href="http://olive-drab.com/od_history_ww2_ops_battles_1943tunisia.php" target="_blank" title="http://olive-drab.com/od_history_ww2_ops_battles_1943tunisia.php">http://olive-drab.com/od_history_ww2_ops...</a> The city fell] to troops of the British [[Eighth Army (United Kingdom)|Eighth Army]] on 23 January 1943. <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgbqOZ6y_61eg9aB0UGfJQaXNnlYIHKSdniyNnUfRjajnZpy6Z0HO-4KO3ewNoVs2ssxSbefI-canvFlDG3wEIvHCR39OAaHfMrYIAWJtKI8Hj7IPILx9oQvyKQ_APX5gQ3oCYP5IAuJIU/s1600/Men+of+NZ+Engineers+who+played+important+part+in+the+NZ+Division%27s+move+against+Tripoli+meet+children+of+an+Italian+colonist+at+a+village+past+Tahuna,+Libya,+January+1942.jpg" target="_blank" title="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgbqOZ6y_61eg9aB0UGfJQaXNnlYIHKSdniyNnUfRjajnZpy6Z0HO-4KO3ewNoVs2ssxSbefI-canvFlDG3wEIvHCR39OAaHfMrYIAWJtKI8Hj7IPILx9oQvyKQ_APX5gQ3oCYP5IAuJIU/s1600/Men+of+NZ+Engineers+who+played+important+part+in+the+NZ+Division%27s+move+against+Tripoli+meet+children+of+an+Italian+colonist+at+a+village+past+Tahuna,+Libya,+January+1942.jpg">http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-bfxOyMYPV9w/U8...</a> Italian farmer colonists meeting Allies troops in a Tripoli outskirts village] Tripoli was then governed by the British until independence in 1951. Under the terms of the [[Treaty of peace with Italy (1947)|1947 peace treaty]] with the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]], Italy relinquished all claims to Libya. <a href="http://www.tecolahagos.com/part4.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.tecolahagos.com/part4.htm">http://www.tecolahagos.com/part4.htm</a> Treaty Of Peace With Italy (1947), Evaluation and Conclusion]<br />
After [[WWII]] the era of international [[decolonization]] fostered an exodus of Italians from Tripoli, <a href="http://intranet.istoreto.it/esodo/parola.asp?id_parola=25" target="_blank" title="http://intranet.istoreto.it/esodo/parola.asp?id_parola=25">http://intranet.istoreto.it/esodo/parola...</a> Italian exodus from Tripolitania (in Italian)] especially after Libya became independent in 1953. After 1970 the Italian population of the city (called ''Tripolini'') almost disappeared when Libyan president [[Muammar Gaddafi]] ordered the expulsion of Italians. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ax0EpcZqeMkC&pg=PA12&lpg=PA12&dq=gheddafi+expulsion+of+italians&source=bl&ots=OYfkJX6Gd-&sig=7jgJ5We-toLe59m-eIyoYaBjjik&hl=en&sa=X&ei=PMEyVJnpE9C8ggSbzYGIBg&ved=0CF8Q6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=gheddafi%20expulsion%20of%20italians&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.com/books?id=ax0EpcZqeMkC&pg=PA12&lpg=PA12&dq=gheddafi+expulsion+of+italians&source=bl&ots=OYfkJX6Gd-&sig=7jgJ5We-toLe59m-eIyoYaBjjik&hl=en&sa=X&ei=PMEyVJnpE9C8ggSbzYGIBg&ved=0CF8Q6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=gheddafi%20expulsion%20of%20italians&f=false">http://books.google.com/books?id=ax0EpcZ...</a> Gaddafi expulsion of the Italians in 1970] At present, the Libyan Italians are organized in the ''Associazione Italiani Rimpatriati dalla Libia''. <a href="http://www.airl.it/" target="_blank" title="http://www.airl.it">http://www.airl.it</a> Associazione Italiani Rimpatriati dalla Libia] The remaining "Tripolini" struggle to get their confiscated properties<br />
<a href="http://www.airl.it/beta/chi_siamo_nostra.php" target="_blank" title="http://www.airl.it/beta/chi_siamo_nostra.php">http://www.airl.it/beta/chi_siamo_nostra...</a> History of the Italian refugees from Gheddafi Libya (in Italian)] and even to maintain their Italian cemetery. <a href="http://www.corriere.it/esteri/11_giugno_04/tripoli-profanato-cimitero-italiano_0a274038-8ed1-11e0-a8a9-c25beeea819c.shtml" target="_blank" title="http://www.corriere.it/esteri/11_giugno_04/tripoli-profanato-cimitero-italiano_0a274038-8ed1-11e0-a8a9-c25beeea819c.shtml">http://www.corriere.it/esteri/11_giugno_...</a> Attacks on the Tripoli Italian Cemetery]<br />
==Infrastructures==<br />
Since the first years in Italian Tripoli were made many infrastructures by the Italians, even with the participation of the local arab "elite":Journal of Libyan Studies 3, 1 (2002) p. 59-68: "Local Elites and Italian Town Planning Procedures in Early Colonial Tripoli (1911-1912)" by Denis Bocquet and Nora Lafi ( <a href="http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/12/82/40/PDF/lafi-bocquet_local_elites.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/12/82/40/PDF/lafi-bocquet_local_elites.pdf">http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/...</a> Local Elites] ) the most important were the coastal road (called [[Via Balbia]] in honor of Italo Balbo after his death in 1940) between Tripoli and [[Benghazi]] and the [[Italian Libya Railways|railways Tripoli-Zuara, Tripoli-Garian and Tripoli-Tagiura]].<br />
[[Image:LA CATTEDRALE DI TRIPOLI 1960.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Tripoli Cathedral|Cathedral of Tripoli]] in the 1960s.]]<br />
Other important infrastructures were the enlargement of the port of Tripoli with the addition of a [[seaplane]] facility and the creation of the [[Mitiga International Airport|Tripoli airport]] (later in the 1930s was added another [[Tripoli International Airport|"international" airport in nearby Castel Benito]]). The first modern hospital in Tripoli was created by the Italians: the "Tripoli Central Hospital" main buildings that are standing now were built during the Italian administration of Libya in the 1910s. It was known then as ''L'Ospedale Coloniale di Vittorio Emanuele III'' (or Vittorio Emanuele III Colonial Hospital). The service during those days used to be headed by Italian doctors: notable among them was [[Tomaso Casoni]] (1880–1933) who practiced there from 1912 to 1932. He described there a test for diagnosing [[Echinococcosis|hydatid disease]] based on "dermal hypersensitivity", known internationally after him as the [[Casoni test]]. The original building is still standing and is occupied by the hospital's surgery department.<br />
Since 1912 the Italian authorities started creating a "city plan", that was one of the first in the world to respect the ancient medieval city called "medina" (without demolitions of old buildings): it was decided to create a new modern city outside the Ottoman walls. <a href="http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/1/Santoianni_Progettazione_Architettonica.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/1/Santoianni_Progettazione_Architettonica.pdf">http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/1/Santoia...</a> Tripoli city plan and architectural development by Italy (p. 46-66)]<br />
The city of Tripoli underwent a huge transformation in those years, with the creation of new avenues, squares, sea promenades and modern buildings. <a href="http://www.paolocason.it/Libia/Pagine%20Web/Tripoli%20%2770-%2704.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.paolocason.it/Libia/Pagine%20Web/Tripoli%20'70-'04.html">http://www.paolocason.it/Libia/Pagine%20...</a> Photos of Tripoli, before WWII and now] From the central square "Piazza Italia", located just south of the old castle and medina, were created huge boulevards (Corso Sicilia, <a href="http://www.paolocason.it/Libia/fotolibia/wpe181.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.paolocason.it/Libia/fotolibia/wpe181.jpg">http://www.paolocason.it/Libia/fotolibia...</a> Photo of Corso Sicilia] Corso Vittorio Emanuele III, <a href="http://www.paolocason.it/Libia/fotolibia/tripoli30-40/249.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.paolocason.it/Libia/fotolibia/tripoli30-40/249.jpg">http://www.paolocason.it/Libia/fotolibia...</a> Photo of Corso Vittorio Emanuele III] Via Roma, etc.) around which new Italian-style modern buildings were developed.Santoianni. "Tripoli: un centro di sperimentazione urbanistica e architettonica", p. 104 In Tripoli was built the biggest [[Catholicism|catholic]] cathedral of north Africa: the [[Tripoli Cathedral]]. Italian government even restructured the ancient [[Arch of Marcus Aurelius]]. Indeed immediately after the [[Italo-Turkish War|Italian conquest]], this Roman monument received conservation and restoration work from the Italian administration, while the zone around the arch was reorganized by the Italian architect [[Florestano Di Fausto]] in the early 1930s.<br />
Governor Balbo gave Di Fausto in 1938 the task of designing the city plan of Italian Tripoli, and Di Fausto, nominated by Balbo chef of the "Commission for Urban Protection and Esthetics", with the main task of designing Tripoli's city plan,Santoianni (2008), p. 59 started to produce a stream of projects for Libya's capital: there the architect outlined the plan of ''Piazza Castello'' (the area around the [[Red Castle Museum|Red Castle]]) and of the square around the [[Arch of Marcus Aurelius]], in the [[Medina quarter|Medina]]. Moreover, he erected public buildings, churches, markets, hotels, totaling fifteen works in few years.<br />
[[File:Green Square, Tripoli (5282695437).jpg|thumb|left|250px|"Piazza Italia" with Italian-renaissance style fountain and buildings]]<br />
His masterpiece in Tripoli is the multifunctional center [[Al Waddan Hotel|Al Waddan]] (hotel, swimming pools, casino, theater), characterized by a long row of arches parallel to today's ''Sharia al Fatah'' promenade: it was one of the predecessors of "modern [[malls]]". Indeed the actual Al Waddan opened in 1936 as the ''Uaddan Hotel & Casino'', just east of the [[Grand Hotel Tripoli]] (now destroyed as it was when originally built in 1925). Historically it was the grandest hotel in Tripoli and was referenced by an American journalist as being "the [[Waldorf Astoria]] of Tripoli" and was also named "a jewel of modern African architecture".{{cite book|last=Segrè|first=Claudio G.|title=Italo Balbo: A Fascist Life|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=eblfCoh5Mh8C&pg=PA303|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-07199-5|page=303}} It contained a casino and a 500 seat theatre.<br />
In all these works, the architect Di Fausto resumed his Romano-Greek experience, mixing with great virtuosity ''arabisant'' and ''[[Novecento Italiano|novecento]]'' elements. Even the modern futuristic "Church of Saint Francis" in downtown Tripoli was another work of art of him.<br />
The same residence of Governor Balbo was to become after [[WWII]] the "Royal Palace" of the Libya's king. Balbo even promoted the creation of an international airport at "[[RAF Castel Benito|Castel Benito]]" (now called [[Tripoli International Airport]]), connected by the first international flights in Africa to Italy and to [[Ethiopia]]'s Addis Abeba.<br />
The [[Red Castle Museum]] was established in 1919, when the colonial Italians in Libya converted a section of the Tripoli's ancient castle to a museum to house many of the archaeological artifacts scattered across the country since prehistoric times. The square around the castle was designed in the thirties by architect Di Fausto as "Piazza Castello" and was integrated with nearby "Piazza Italia" and the disappeared "Lungomare Conte Volpi".<br />
In 1939 was created the [[7 October Stadium]], a grass football stadium called "Stadio Comunale di Tripoli" and based in the center of the city. The stadium was initially made for 5,000 people and was used even for [[Athletics (sport)|athletism]] and [[cyclism]] <a href="http://www.paolocason.it/Libia/fotolibia/wpe178.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.paolocason.it/Libia/fotolibia/wpe178.jpg">http://www.paolocason.it/Libia/fotolibia...</a> Cyclism in the "Stadio di Tripoli"] sports. It was the only [[Association football|football]] stadium in Tripoli before the [[June 11 Stadium]] was built in the 1970s.<br />
[[File:Palazzo Reale di Tripoli.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The "Palazzo del Governatore" of Balbo, remodeled as Royal Palace in the 1950s]]<br />
The Piazza Italia (now called [[Martyr's Square]]) featured on one side a wide avenue leading towards the seafront with two tall pillars. On top of the pillars still there are an iron-cast, miniature wooden ship on the norther corner, while the other one features a horseback rider. On the Piazza's other side there was the ''Teatro Miramare'', called later [[Royal Miramare Theatre]]: it used to be located across from the Red Castle Museum, but it was demolished by Gaddafi's government after the 1960s to create space for large demonstrations.<br />
Another important building demolished by dictator Gheddafi was the Tripoli railway station, built in 1937. It was the only railway station in Africa served by the state-of-the-art "Littorina" (an Italian passenger train that obtained the world record of speed in 1939 with the model [[FS Class ETR 200]]).<br />
Additionally, a group of villages for Italians and Libyans were created on the coastal tripolitania around Italian Tripoli during the 1930s. <a href="http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/01/Santoianni_Progettazione_Architettonica.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/01/Santoianni_Progettazione_Architettonica.pdf">http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/01/Santoi...</a> Chapter Libya-Tripolitania (in Italian)] They were like satellite towns and interacted with Tripoli. <a href="http://www.architecturebeyond.eu/wp-content/uploads/2010/10/vittoria-capresi_I-centri-rurali-libici.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.architecturebeyond.eu/wp-content/uploads/2010/10/vittoria-capresi_I-centri-rurali-libici.pdf">http://www.architecturebeyond.eu/wp-cont...</a> New villages created for Italians and Libyans] In 1939 the most important created and populated only by native arabs and berbers were: "El Fager" (''al-Fajr'', Alba in Italian language), "Nahima" (Deliziosa), "Azizia" (''‘Aziziyya'', Meravigliosa), "Nahiba" (Risorta), "Mansura" (Vittoriosa), "Chadra" (''khadra'', Verde), "Zahara" (''Zahra'', Fiorita), "Gedida" (''Jadida'', Nuova), "Mamhura" (Fiorente).Santoianni (2008). Progettazione architettonica: Sezione Libia All the villages in the outskirts of Tripoli since 1939 were connected daily by bus service to the "Stazione centrale autobus" (one of the first central [[bus station]]s in north Africa), located in the square of the [[Railway stations in Libya|Tripoli Railway Station]].<br />
==Gallery==<br />
Libia-Tripoli-1935-lungomare-Conte-Volpi.jpg|Lungomare Volpi and Teatro Miramare (1935)<br />
Libia-Tripoli-1935-monumento-ai-Caduti.jpg|Monument to the WWI Victory (1935)<br />
Maydan elgazayer Tripoli,Libya.jpg|Former "Piazza Cattedrale" (1950)<br />
Tripoli Castle & Teatro Miramare.jpg|Tripoli Castle (1940)<br />
The christian cemetery in tripoli libya.JPG|Italian Cemetery (1950)<br />
Old Tripoli Clock tower.jpg|Clock Tower and "Albergo Vittoria" (1935)<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Italian Libya]]<br />
* [[Italian settlers in Libya|Italian Libyans]]<br />
* [[Italian Tripolitania]]<br />
* [[Tripoli Province|Italian Tripoli province]]<br />
* [[Italian Benghazi]]<br />
* [[Linea dell'Impero]]<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist|30em}}<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Chapin Metz, Hellen. ''Libya: A Country Study''. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1987.<br />
* De Martino, Antonio. ''Tripoli italiana, la guerra italo-turca''.Societa' Libraria Italiana. New York, 1912 ( <a href="https://archive.org/stream/tripoliitalianal00mart#page/n3/mode/2up" target="_blank" title="https://archive.org/stream/tripoliitalianal00mart#page/n3/mode/2up">https://archive.org/stream/tripoliitalia...</a> The Library of Congress])<br />
* Istituto Agricolo Coloniale (Firenze). ''La colonizzazione agricola della Tripolitania''. Ministero degli affari esteri, Tip. Del senato di G. Bardi, Roma 1946.<br />
* ISTAT. ''ISTITUTO NAZIONALE DI STATISTICA SOCIETÀ ITALIANA DI DEMOGRAFIA STORICA Le fonti di stato della popolazione tra il XIX e il XXI secolo''. Annali di Statistica. <a href="http://www3.istat.it/dati/catalogo/20120911_00/Annali_serie_XII_vol_2_anno_141_I_Censimenti_nell%27Italia_unita_bis.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www3.istat.it/dati/catalogo/20120911_00/Annali_serie_XII_vol_2_anno_141_I_Censimenti_nell'Italia_unita_bis.pdf">http://www3.istat.it/dati/catalogo/20120...</a>]<br />
* Luiggi, Luigi, ''Le opere pubbliche a Tripoli. Note di Viaggio'', in: Nuova Antologia, XLVII, fasc.965, 1 marzo 1912, p. 115.<br />
* {{cite book|last=McLaren|first=Brian|title=Architecture and tourism in Italian colonial Libya: an original modernism|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=_lrYlxdX7DIC&pg=PA194|year=2006|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=978-0-295-98542-8|page=194}}<br />
* Pagano, Giovanni. ''Architettura e città durante il fascismo''. Editori Laterza. Roma, 1990<br />
* Pal, Go. ''Gaddafi Up-Close'' Publisher AuthorHouse. Bloomington,2011. ISBN 1467041831<br />
* Santoianni, Vittorio. ''Il Razionalismo nelle colonie italiane 1928-1943.La «nuova architettura» delle Terre d’Oltremare''. Ed. Universita' Federico II. Napoli, 2008 ( <a href="http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/1/Santoianni_Progettazione_Architettonica.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/1/Santoianni_Progettazione_Architettonica.pdf">http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/1/Santoia...</a>])<br />
* {{cite web|url=http://escholarship.org/uc/item/9hm1p6m5#page-1|title=The Light and the Line: Florestano Di Fausto and the Politics of Mediterraneità|publisher=University of California, 2010|work=California Italian Studies|author=Sean Anderson}}<br />
{{Italian Libya}}<br />
{{Tripoli}}<br />
[[Category:Italian Libya]]<br />
[[Category:Italian colonisation in Africa]]<br />
[[Category:History of Tripoli]]<br />
[[Category:20th century in Tripoli]]<br />
============================================<br />
<br />
<b><u>ITALIAN ASMARA</u></b><br />
<br />
[[Image:Mappa di Asmara TCI 1929.jpg|thumb|600px|Map of Italian Asmara in 1929]]<br />
'''Italian Asmara''' was the capital of [[Italian Eritrea]] from 1890 to 1941, when [[Eritrea]] was called in [[Italian language|Italian]] with the nickname ''Colonia Primigenia'' (first colony) of the [[Kingdom of Italy (1861-1946)|Kingdom of Italy]]. Italian Asmara was even called in the late 1930s as ''Piccola Roma'' (little [[Rome]]), because looked like a typical small Italian city, with most inhabitants being [[Italian Eritreans|Italians]]. Only in February 1947 -with the Peace Treaty following [[World War II]]- the Italians renounced the city.<br />
==Introduction & historical background==<br />
When in the late 19th century the first Italians arrived in the area where it is now [[Asmara]], they found a small Christian village of nearly 200 inhabitants. The missionary Remedius Prutky had passed through Asmara in 1751, and described in his memoirs that a church built there by [[Jesuit]] priests 130 years before was still intact.J.H. Arrowsmith-Brown, translator and editor, ''Prutky's Travels to Ethiopia and Other Countries'' (London: Hakluyt Society, 1991), p. 78.<br />
[[File:Asmara-cinema Impero.jpeg|thumb|right|300 px|Cinema Impero, built in 1937 "Italian Art Deco"]]<br />
Asmara, which was then part of the independent kingdom of [[Medri Bahri]], was ruled by [[Ras Alula]] who had received the title of governor of Medri Bahri from the emperor of Ethiopia.<br />
[[File:Asmara Church.jpeg|thumb|left|260px|Asmara Roman Catholic Cathedral ([[St Joseph's Cathedral, Asmara|St Joseph's Cathedral]])]]<br />
Asmara acquired importance when it was occupied by Italy in 1889 and was made the capital city of Eritrea in preference to [[Italian Massaua|Massawa]] by Governor [[Ferdinando Martini]] in 1897. In the early 20th century, a railway line was built to the coast, passing through the town of [[Ghinda]], under the direction of Carlo Cavanna. In both [[1913 Asmara Earthquake|1913]] and [[1915 Asmara Earthquake|1915]] the city suffered only slight damage in large earthquakes.{{cite book|last=Ambrayses |first=Nicholas|coauthors=Melville, C.P., Adams, R.D.|title=The Seismicity of Egypt, Arabia and the Red Sea: A Historical Review|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1994|isbn=0-521-39120-2}}<br />
Italian Asmara attracted a small community of [[Italian Jews]], that grew in the 1930s. The first Jews to settle in Eritrea were [[Yemenite Jews]] who began arriving in the late 19th century, attracted by new commercial opportunities driven by [[Italian empire|Italian colonial expansion]], which saw the colonization of Eritrea at the time. In 1906, the [[Asmara Synagogue]] <a href="http://www.asmera.nl/asmara-churches.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.asmera.nl/asmara-churches.htm">http://www.asmera.nl/asmara-churches.htm</a> Photos of the Synagogue and the main churches in Asmara] was completed in Asmara. It includes a main sanctuary which can seat up to 200 people, classrooms, and a small Jewish cemetery. Indeed in the 1930s, the Jewish community was bolstered when many European Jews emigrated to Eritrea to escape [[Nazi]] persecution in Europe.<br />
In the late 1930s the Italians changed the face of the town, with a new structure and new buildings: Asmara was called ''Piccola Roma'' (Little Rome). <a href="http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/01/Santoianni_Progettazione_Architettonica.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/01/Santoianni_Progettazione_Architettonica.pdf">http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/01/Santoi...</a> Italian architectural planification of Asmara (in Italian) p. 64-66] While Eritrea was under Italian colonial rule, architecturally conservative early-20th-century Europeans (mostly Italians) used Asmara "to experiment with radical new designs." <a href="http://washingtontimes.com/article/20070915/ENTERTAINMENT/109150018/1007" target="_blank" title="http://washingtontimes.com/article/20070915/ENTERTAINMENT/109150018/1007">http://washingtontimes.com/article/20070...</a> "Asmara useful for experimenting with radical designs for Europeans"], ''Washington Times'', publication date 15 September 2007 (accessed 8 December 2010) Nowadays the major part of buildings are of Italian origin, and shops still have Italian names (e.g., ''Bar Vittoria'', ''Pasticceria moderna'', ''Casa del formaggio'', and ''Ferramenta'').<br />
[[File:Sweet Asmara Caffe (8351473807).jpg|thumb|right|300px|An "Italian Caffe" still existing]]<br />
Asmara was populated by a numerous Italian community and consequently the city acquired an Italian architectural look. The city of Asmara (called in the Italian Empire: ''Asmara italiana'') had a population of 98,000, of which 53,000 were [[Italian Eritreans]] according to the Italian census of 1939. This fact made Asmara the main "Italian town" of the [[Italian empire]] in Africa. In all Eritrea the Italians were 75,000 in that year. <a href="http://www.maitacli.it/" target="_blank" title="http://www.maitacli.it">http://www.maitacli.it</a> Eritrea, la colonia primigenia]<br />
The official language was the Italian, while the currency was the [[Eritrean tallero]] until 1921 and later the [[Italian East African lira]]. The city was mostly Christian, with [[Catholicism|catholics]] being the most numerous faith (64% in 1940, including the Italians): the government built in 1922 one of the best churches in Africa, the Asmara Roman Catholic Cathedral ([[St Joseph's Cathedral, Asmara|St Joseph's Cathedral]]).<br />
Asmara was connected to [[Addis Ababa]] by the ''Via della Vittoria'', a fully asphalted new road of 1077 km built between 1936 and 1939 and served by a weekly bus service that connected the two capitals in four days. A huge modern hospital (called "Hospitem, Ospedale italiano" <a href="http://www.asmera.nl/asmara-hospitals.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.asmera.nl/asmara-hospitals.htm">http://www.asmera.nl/asmara-hospitals.ht...</a> Actual Photos of "Hospital Italiano" & "Hospital Regina Elena"]) was inaugurated in 1937. Asmara had [[Asmara airport|one of the first airports]] in eastern Africa and was connected to Italy by the [[Linea dell'Impero]], an international flight of nearly 7000 kms between Rome and [[Mogadiscio]]. The first sport activities and structures were made in Italian Asmara in the 1930s: it was even created a football tournament linked to the Italian championships. <a href="http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/cassetto34.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/cassetto34.htm">http://www.ilchichingiolo.it/cassetto34....</a> Calcio (soccer) in Italian Asmara (in Italian)] Furthermore, many industrial investments <a href="http://researchomnia.blogspot.com/2015/04/italian-eritrea-industries.html" target="_blank" title="http://researchomnia.blogspot.com/2015/04/italian-eritrea-industries.html">http://researchomnia.blogspot.com/2015/0...</a> Italian Eritrea industries] were made by [[Kingdom of Italy (1861-1946)|Italy]] in Asmara (mainly in the metalmechanic sector), but the beginning of World War II stopped the blossoming industrialization of the area.<br />
Italy was defeated in 1941, and the British administered the city from then until 1952. Most Italians moved away from the city in those years: after 1942 started a very difficult decade for the Italians of Asmara.Eros Chiasserini. "Gli anni difficili" ( <a href="http://www.maitacli.it/images/stories/home-page/ERITREA%20-%20GLI%20ANNI%20DIFFICILI.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.maitacli.it/images/stories/home-page/ERITREA%20-%20GLI%20ANNI%20DIFFICILI.pdf">http://www.maitacli.it/images/stories/ho...</a> Eritrea: Gli anni difficili (1941-1951)]) In 1952, the United Nations resolved to federate the former colony under Ethiopian rule, but in 1991 Eritrea obtained the independence after a long struggle''Encyclopedia of Urban Cultures''. Grolier Publishing Co., 2002.<br />
==Italian Eritreans in Asmara==<br />
The city even in 2014 has a small but significant population of [[Italian Eritreans]]. These are [[Demographics of Eritrea|Eritrean]]-born descendants of [[Italian people|Italian]] settlers as well as Italian long-term residents in Eritrea. Those born of mixed race unions are locally called 'hanfets'. Their ancestry dates back from the beginning of the Italian colonization of Eritrea at the end of the 19th century, but only after the [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War]] of 1935 they settled in large numbers.<br />
Indeed in December 1935 the population of Asmara was of only 16.000 inhabitants, of whom 4,000 Italians and 12,0000 Eritreans; but in January 1939 the Asmara population reached 84,000 imhabitants (with 48,000 Italians and 36,000 Eritreans): <a href="http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/rds-01emigrazione.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/rds-01emigrazione.pdf">http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/rds-01emigr...</a> Emigrazione italiana in Eritrea; p.22] Asmara was the only capital of Africa where the majority of the population was european at the start of World War II.<br />
In the 1939 census of Eritrea there were more than 75,000 Eritrean Italians (over 10% of the Eritrean population then), most of them (53,000) living in Asmara. Many Italian settlers got out of their colony after its conquest by the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] in November 1941 and they were reduced to only 38,000 by 1946. Although many of the remaining Italians stayed during the decolonization process after World War II and were actually assimilated into the Eritrean society, a few in Asmara were stateless in the 1980s, as none of them were given citizenship unless through marriage or, more rarely, by having it conferred upon them by the State: however in the 1990s all were given Italian passport and nearly all repatriated. In the last decades many of their descendants born in Asmara have moved to Italy, where they have taken the Italian citizenship (like [[Luciano Vassalo]]).<br />
{|{{Infobox Aircraft Begin<br />
|name=Linea dell'Impero aircraft<br />
|image=Savoia-Marchetti SM.75.jpg<br />
|caption=Savoia-Marchetti SM.75 ot the [[Linea dell'Impero]], connecting Rome with Asmara & Mogadiscio in 1940: it was the fastest and longest route in Africa and the most prestigious line of Italian civil aviation<br />
}}<br />
|}<br />
{| border="0" align="center" style="border: 1px solid #999; background-color:#FFFFFF"<br />
|-align="center" bgcolor="#ffbbbb"<br />
! year !! Italian Eritreans !! Eritrea population !! Asmara population<br />
|-bgcolor="#fff0ee"<br />
| 1910<br />
|1,000<br />
|390,000<br />
|24,000<br />
|-bgcolor="#fff0ee"<br />
| 1935<br />
|3,100<br />
|610,000<br />
|47,000<br />
|-bgcolor="#fff0ee"<br />
| 1939<br />
|76,000<br />
|740,000<br />
|103,000<br />
|-bgcolor="#fff0ee"<br />
| 1946<br />
|38,000<br />
|870,000<br />
|88,000<br />
|-bgcolor="#fff0ee"<br />
| 2008<br />
|900<br />
|4,500,000<br />
|610,000<br />
|-<br />
|colspan=7|'''The ''Italian Eritrean'' population in Eritrea, from 1910 to 2008<br />
|}<br />
One of the most important members of the Italian community in Asmara was Dr. [[Vincenzo Di Meglio]]. In 1940 he promoted -with other Italian doctors- the creation in Asmara of a university section of a faculty of Medicine near the Hospital of Asmara (then called "Ospedale Italiano"): <a href="http://www.eritreaeritrea.com/cronologia_storica.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.eritreaeritrea.com/cronologia_storica.htm">http://www.eritreaeritrea.com/cronologia...</a> Yearly timetable of Asmara history (in Italian)] it was the first nucleus of the [[University of Asmara]] created in the 1950s. During the last years of [[World War II]] Dr. Di Meglio defended politically the Italians of Eritrea and successively promoted the independence of Eritrea.Franco Bandini. ''Gli italiani in Africa, storia delle guerre coloniali 1882-1943'' p. 67 After the war he supported the creation of the ''Associazione Italo-Eritrei'' and the ''Associazione Veterani Ascari'', in order to get alliance with the Eritreans favorable to Italy in Eritrea.http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-sci03.htm As a result of these creations, he cofounded the ''Partito Eritrea Pro Italia'' ("Party of Shara Italy") in September 1947, an Eritrean political Party favorable to the Italian presence in Eritrea that obtained more than 200,000 inscriptions of membership in one single month.<br />
Indeed the Italian Eritreans strongly rejected the [[Ethiopia]]n annexation of Eritrea after the war: the "Party of Shara Italy" was established in Asmara and Eritrea in the late 1940s and the majority of the members were former Italian soldiers with many [[Eritrean Ascari]] (the organization was even backed up by the government of Italy).<br />
Today there are approximately 900 Italian Eritreans remaining in the Asmara region. However, there are an estimated 100,000 descendants of Italian Eritreans out of the 600,000 population of the city of Asmara.<br />
==Italian architecture==<br />
Italian Asmara represents perhaps one of the most concentrated and intact assemblage of [[Modernist architecture]] anywhere in the world. The urban design within the "Historic Perimeter" of modern Asmara has remained untouched since its original implementation and subsequent evolution throughout the 1930s, and the architectural elements exemplify a superlative example of Modernist architecture in a complete urban setting.<br />
[[File:Asmara-Panorama.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Panorama of modern Asmara, with most buildings and avenues made in the 1930s]]<br />
The city's architecture is heavily influenced by Italian architecture, even because since 1914 the Italians created urban plans for Asmara. The best plan was done in 1937 by Cafiero:<br />
{{Quote|Vittorio Cafiero in 1937 did a new "Urban Plan" for Asmara...maintaining the old street plans, done by the "Cavagnari Plan" in 1914 -that divided Asmara in four sections: the Italian, the native Eritrean, the governmental and the industrial, he added a new section for future development with a "circonvallazione" (round circle avenue). The improvement of the axis around "Roma square", "Mussolini boulevard", "Cadorna boulevard" and the "railways station", moved to the south the administrative/economic center of the planned city... to the southeast there was the green quarter with rich villas around the Ghezza Banda" hill... and to the north of the "Milano boulevard" there was the indigenous quarter. -- Santoianni }}<br />
In 1885, the Italians invaded Eritrea and by 1900 Asmara had become the capital city: the site was chosen mainly for its salubrious highland climate, reliable water supply and ideal geographic location in the center of Eritrea. In the early twentieth century, Asmara represented little more than a tiny highland village, which grew incrementally to become a well-established town by the 1920s.<br />
However, by the 1930s, it was clear that Italy, under the rule of [[Benito Mussolini]], was intent on invading neighbouring Ethiopia and would use Eritrea as the launch pad for this long-held ambition. In preparation for this substantial military attack, an unprecedented quantity of materials and labour flowed into Eritrea throughout the 1930s. In a matter of months, Asmara became a vast building site, as over 70,000 Italians arrived to established new lives for themselves.<br />
The rapid transformation of Asmara from a relatively minor town into Africa's most modern and sophisticated city at that time overlapped with equally momentous events in the world of design and architecture, which involved the global proliferation of Modernism and its various forms, including [[Futurism]], [[Rationalism]], [[Novecento Italiano|Novecento]], and [[Art Deco]]. The spirit of this new age of travel and adventure was embodied in these new architectural forms. Asmara was an ideal blank canvas on which Italian architects could practice and create these modern ideals.<br />
From 1935-1941, thousands of buildings were constructed in the city, most of which reflect various Modernist styles and some of which represent inimitable architectural forms, such as petrol stations mimicking aeroplanes and boats, commercial buildings designed as trains, cavernous cinemas with fine period plasterwork and Art Deco interiors, fine ultra-modern hotels and offices, and government buildings with highly politicised monumental designs.<br />
===Features===<br />
[[File:Asmara-Night Panorama.jpeg|thumb|right|300px|Panorama of modern Asmara in the evening, similar to the one of an Italian city]]<br />
The city is known for its early 20th century buildings, including the [[Art Deco]] [[Cinema Impero]] (opened in 1937 and considered by the experts one of the world's finest examples of Art Déco style buildingGianluca Rossi, ''Renzo Martinelli inviato de ''La Nazione'', 2009.), Cubist Africa Pension, eclectic [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahdo Church|Orthodox Cathedral]] and former [[Opera House]], the [[futurist architecture|futurist]] [[Fiat Tagliero Building]], [[neo-Romanesque architecture|neo-Romanesque]] [[Roman Catholic Cathedral of Asmara|Roman Catholic Cathedral]], and the [[neoclassical architecture|neoclassical]] [[Governor's Palace (Asmara)|Governor's Palace]]. The city is adorned by Italian colonial [[villa]]s and [[mansions]], one prominent example being the [[World Bank Building, Asmara|World Bank Building]].<br />
Most of central Asmara was built between 1935 and 1941, so effectively the [[Italians]] managed to build almost an entire city, in just six short years.{{cite news |title=Reviving Asmara |publisher=[[BBC Radio 3]] |date=19 June 2005 |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/africalives/ram/reviving_asmara01.ram |accessdate=30 August 2006 }} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}<br />
At this time, the dictator [[Benito Mussolini]] had great plans for a second [[Roman Empire]] in Africa. War cut this short, but his injection of funds created the Asmara of today, which supposedly was to be a symbol that [[Fascism]] worked and is an ideal system of government.<br />
[[File:AsmaraStazione.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Asmara railway station in 1939]]<br />
[[File:Cargo lift, Masawa to Eritrea.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Cargo lift Massaua-Asmara]]<br />
The city shows off most early 20th century architectural styles. Some buildings are [[neo-Romanesque architecture|neo-Romanesque]], such as the Roman Catholic Cathedral, some villas are built in a late [[Victorian Architecture|Victorian]] style. Art Deco influences are found throughout the city; essentially Asmara was then what Dubai is now. Architects were restricted by nothing more than the bounds of their imaginations and were given the funds to create masterpieces which we can see today. Essences of [[Cubism]] can be found on the Africa Pension Building, and on a small collection of buildings. The [[Fiat Tagliero Building]] shows almost the height of futurism, just as it was coming into big fashion in Italy. In recent times, some buildings have been functionally built which sometimes can spoil the atmosphere of some cities, but they fit into Asmara as it is such a modern city.<br />
Italian Asmara had even a 19th century fort, Forte Baldissera, and was connected to the port of [[Italian Massaua|Massawa]] by the [[Eritrean Railway]] and by a state-of-the-art [[Asmara-Massawa Cableway|cableway]].<br />
The [[Asmara airport]] was created in 1922, the first such facility to be opened in [[Italian Eritrea]]. It served as the main military airport in the territory. In the mid-1930s, the airport began offering civilian and commercial flights: the first international was the Asmara-Rome, started in 1933. Furthermore, an efficient postal service was created using the Asmara airport. <a href="http://enhancedwiki.altervista.org/youtube/view.php?video=jKNw1khx0sM&feature=youtube_gdata_player&title=Il+servizio+aereo+di+collegamento+tra+l%27Eritrea+e+la+Somalia+si+%C3%A8+inaugurato+con+la+partenza+del" target="_blank" title="http://enhancedwiki.altervista.org/youtube/view.php?video=jKNw1khx0sM&feature=youtube_gdata_player&title=Il+servizio+aereo+di+collegamento+tra+l%27Eritrea+e+la+Somalia+si+%C3%A8+inaugurato+con+la+partenza+del">http://enhancedwiki.altervista.org/youtu...</a> Video of Postal service Eritrea-Somalia]<br />
On 7 July 1935, an agreement was signed with the British "Imperial Airways" to connect Asmara to [[Khartoum]]. A regular [[Kassala]]-Khartoum-Asmara-[[Massawa]] 770 km commercial route was subsequently started with a [[Caproni Ca.133|Caproni 133]] of the Italian [[Ala Littoria]].{{cite web|last=Flavio Riccitelli (A.I.D.A.)|title=ALA LITTORIA S.A. (1934–1941)|url=http://www.ilpostalista.it/unico2004pag55.htm|publisher=Il Postalista|accessdate=7 October 2013}} During [[World War II]], the airport was nearly destroyed by the British.<br />
Italian Asmara was known in 1940 to be an exceptionally modern city, not only because of its architecture, but even because had more [[traffic lights]] than [[Rome]] had when the city was being built. The city incorporates many features of a planned city. Indeed, Asmara was an early example of an ideal modern city created by architects, an idea which was introduced into many cities across the world, such as [[Brasilia]], but which was not altogether popular. Features include designated city zoning and planning, wide treed boulevards, political areas and districts and space and scope for development.<br />
The city has been regarded as "New Rome" or "Italy's African City" due to its quintessential Italian touch, not only for the architecture, but also for the wide streets, [[piazza]]s and coffee bars. While the boulevards are lined with palms and indigenous ''shiba'kha'' trees, there are numerable [[pizza|pizzerias]] and coffee bars, serving [[cappucino]]s and [[latte]]s, as well as [[ice cream]] parlours. Indeed the first brewery in Asmara (and Eritrea) was the ''Melotti Brewery'', that was founded in 1939 by Luigi Melotti:{{it icon}} <a href="http://www.eritreaeritrea.com/cronologia_storica.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.eritreaeritrea.com/cronologia_storica.htm">http://www.eritreaeritrea.com/cronologia...</a> Cronologia storica dell'Eritrea] even now it exists but with the new name "Asmara Brewery" and supports one of the best football teams in Eritrea (the [[Asmara Brewery (sport)|Asmara Brewery F.C.]]).<br />
Asmara has been proposed as a possible new addition to the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]s, under the direction of the [[Cultural Assets Rehabilitation Project]], for its outstanding examples of 20th century architecture and [[town planning]] when was called ''Asmara italiana''.<br />
==Gallery==<br />
{{gallery<br />
|lines=3<br />
|File:Asmara Main Street.jpeg|Main Street of Asmara<br />
|File:Eritrean Central Post Office.jpg|Eritrean Central Post, built in 1938<br />
|File:Bf Asmara Gleisseite.JPG|Railway station in Asmara<br />
|File:Eritrea - Government building, Asmara.jpg|Government building in Asmara, built in 1936<br />
|File:Asmara-church2.jpeg|Church in Asmara<br />
|File:Oper Asmara 1.JPG|Asmara Opera<br />
|File:Asmarapalazzodelgovernatore.png|Asmara "Palazzo del Governatore" (actual Presidential Building)<br />
|File:Fiat Tagliero Building.jpg|Fiat Tagliero Building<br />
|File:Ministry of Trade and Industry.jpg|Ministry of Industry building , built in 1940<br />
|File:Road and Rail to Masawa -a.jpg|Road and railways Massaua-Asmara in 1940<br />
}}<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Alamanni,E. ''La Colonia Eritrea e i suoi commerci'' Bocca ed. Torino, 1891.<br />
* Boness, Stefan. ''Asmara - The Frozen City''. Jovis Verlag, Berlin 2006. 96 pages. ISBN 3-936314-61-6<br />
* Chiasserini, Eros. ''Eritrea 1941-1951 – Gli anni difficili''<br />
* Dell'Oro, Erminia. ''Asmara addio''. Edizioni dello Zibaldone. Pordenone, 1988 ISBN 88-7692-156-7<br />
* Denison Edward, Guang Yu Ren, Naigzy Gebremedhin, and Guang Yu Ren. ''Asmara: Africa's Secret Modernist City'' (2003) ISBN 1-85894-209-8<br />
* Godoli, Giovanni. ''Asmara: immagine di una città. Architettura e Potere da Ferdinando Martini all'Impero'' ( <a href="http://www.academia.edu/2322273/Asmara_immagine_di_una_citt%C3%A0._Architettura_e_potere_da_Ferdinando_Martini_allImpero" target="_blank" title="http://www.academia.edu/2322273/Asmara_immagine_di_una_citt%C3%A0._Architettura_e_potere_da_Ferdinando_Martini_allImpero">http://www.academia.edu/2322273/Asmara_i...</a>]). Università degli Studi di Firenze Ed. Firenze,2009<br />
* Negash,T.I''talian colonisation in Eritrea: policies, praxis and Impact'' Uppsala University. Uppsala, 1987.<br />
* Podestà, Gian Luca. ''L’Emigration Italienne en Afrique Orientale'', in <>, vol. 1, 2007, pp. 59–84.<br />
* Santagata, F. ''La Colonia Eritrea nel Mar Rosso davanti all'Abissinia'' Libreria Internazionale Treves. Napoli, 1935.<br />
* Santoianni, Vittorio. ''Il Razionalismo nelle colonie italiane 1928-1943.La «nuova architettura» delle Terre d’Oltremare''. Ed. Federico II University. Napoli, 1998<br />
* Trevaskis, G. ''Eritrea: a Colony in Transition, 1941-1952'' Oxford University Press. Londra, 1960.<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Italian Eritrea]]<br />
* [[Italian Massaua]]<br />
* [[Italian Eritreans]]<br />
* [[Italian Empire]]<br />
* [[Eritrea Governorate]]<br />
==External links==<br />
* <a href="http://www.der.org/films/asmara-eritrea.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.der.org/films/asmara-eritrea.html">http://www.der.org/films/asmara-eritrea....</a> Asmara, Eritrea] Documentary Film about the city and its history, by filmmaker Caterina Borelli<br />
* <a href="http://www.asmera.nl/asmara.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.asmera.nl/asmara.htm">http://www.asmera.nl/asmara.htm</a> History of Asmara]<br />
* <a href="http://www.justinhillauthor.com/Justin%20Hill%20-%20Ciao%20Asmara.htm&nbsp" target="_blank" title="http://www.justinhillauthor.com/Justin%20Hill%20-%20Ciao%20Asmara.htm&nbsp">http://www.justinhillauthor.com/Justin%2...</a>;<a href="http://justinhillauthor.com/" target="_blank" title="http://JustinHillAuthor.">JustinHillAuthor.com</a>] Ciao Asmara, [[Voluntary Service Overseas|VSO]] volunteer [[Justin Hill]]'s book<br />
* <a href="http://www.erey.50megs.com/asmara.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.erey.50megs.com/asmara.html">http://www.erey.50megs.com/asmara.html</a> Eritrea In Pictures] Pictures of Art Deco and Moderne Asmara buildings<br />
* <a href="http://www.isiao.it/asmara/saggi/barrera/" target="_blank" title="http://www.isiao.it/asmara/saggi/barrera/">http://www.isiao.it/asmara/saggi/barrera...</a> Asmara: la città degli italiani e la città degli eritrei (in Italian)]<br />
* <a href="http://www.artefascista.it/asmara__eritrea__fascismo__archit.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.artefascista.it/asmara__eritrea__fascismo__archit.htm">http://www.artefascista.it/asmara__eritr...</a> Architettura razionalista ad Asmara (in Italian)]<br />
* <a href="http://www.erinit.com/" target="_blank" title="http://www.erinit.com">http://www.erinit.com</a> Eritrean website (in italian)]<br />
* <a href="http://www.erminiadelloro.com/Racconti%20eritrei.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.erminiadelloro.com/Racconti%20eritrei.html">http://www.erminiadelloro.com/Racconti%2...</a> Racconti Eritrei] di Erminia Dell'Oro (in Italian)<br />
* <a href="http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/" target="_blank" title="http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it">http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it</a> Ferrovia eritrea] Eritrean Railway<br />
* <a href="http://www.eritreaeritrea.com/" target="_blank" title="http://www.eritreaeritrea.com">http://www.eritreaeritrea.com</a> Eritrea] About Eritrea<br />
* <a href="http://www.dankalia.com/2007/2007.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.dankalia.com/2007/2007.html">http://www.dankalia.com/2007/2007.html</a> Photos of 2007 Asmara, showing what remains of Italian Asmara]<br />
* <a href="http://blog.libero.it/wrnzla/5317849.html" target="_blank" title="http://blog.libero.it/wrnzla/5317849.html">http://blog.libero.it/wrnzla/5317849.htm...</a> Postcards and pictures of Italian Asmara]<br />
* <a href="http://enhancedwiki.altervista.org/youtube/view.php?video=0vFlH1x_lVA&feature=youtube_gdata_player&title=Lungo+il+canale+di+Suez+con+i+soldati+italiani+in+viaggio+verso+l%27Eritrea.+I+figli+di+Mussolini+e" target="_blank" title="http://enhancedwiki.altervista.org/youtube/view.php?video=0vFlH1x_lVA&feature=youtube_gdata_player&title=Lungo+il+canale+di+Suez+con+i+soldati+italiani+in+viaggio+verso+l%27Eritrea.+I+figli+di+Mussolini+e">http://enhancedwiki.altervista.org/youtu...</a> Video showing Italian Asmara in the 1930s]<br />
{{Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)}}<br />
{{Italian colonial empire}}<br />
[[Category:Italian Empire]]<br />
[[Category:Asmara]]<br />
<br />
<br />
================================================================<br />
<br />
<b><u>ITALIAN MASSAUA</u></b><br />
<br />
[[File:Banco dItalia (8527950453).jpg|thumb|right|450px|The former "Banco d'Italia" building in Italian Massaua, built in the 1920s <a href="http://tesfanews.net/photo-the-new-look-of-the-ruined-banca-ditalia-building-in-massawa/" target="_blank" title="http://tesfanews.net/photo-the-new-look-of-the-ruined-banca-ditalia-building-in-massawa/">http://tesfanews.net/photo-the-new-look-...</a> Banco d'Italia in Massaua being rebuilt]]]<br />
'''Italian Massaua''' was the name used during the Italian colonization of [[Eritrea]] for the port-city of [[Massawa]]. <a href="http://www.miol.it/stagniweb/mappe/tci29mas.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.miol.it/stagniweb/mappe/tci29mas.jpg">http://www.miol.it/stagniweb/mappe/tci29...</a> Map of Italian Massaua (1929)]<br />
==History==<br />
On February 5, 1885 Massawa was occupied by 1500 Italian [[Bersaglieri]] under the command of colonel Tancredi. <a href="http://cronologia.leonardo.it/storia/a1884a.htm" target="_blank" title="http://cronologia.leonardo.it/storia/a1884a.htm">http://cronologia.leonardo.it/storia/a18...</a> "Occupazione di Massaua" (in Italian)]<br />
Massawa, at the beginning of the Italian civil administration, was the capital of [[Italian Eritrea]] and the only urban center of the colony. From February 1885 until 1897, Massawa served as the administrative center of the region, before Governor [[Ferdinando Martini]] moved his administration to [[Italian Asmara]]. Between 1887 and 1932, the Italians expanded the [[Eritrean Railway]], connecting Massawa with [[Asmara]] and then [[Bishia]] near the [[Sudan]] border, and completed the [[Asmara-Massawa Cableway]]. At 75 km long, it was the longest ropeway conveyor in the world at the time.<br />
In 1890, Massaua had 5,000 inhabitants, of which almost 200 were [[Italian Eritreans|Italians]] residents, with nearly one thousand of Italian military personnel. In the early 20th century, an architectural plan similar to the one in Asmara was adopted for city. It included a commercial and industrial area. <a href="http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/1/Santoianni_Progettazione_Architettonica.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/1/Santoianni_Progettazione_Architettonica.pdf">http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1881/1/Santoia...</a> Italian Massaua Plan (in Italian) p. 65]<br />
The plan to improve the city that was prepared was aimed at reordering distinct parts that made up the town and that bordered the inlet of the port, the islands of Massawa and Taulud, connected to each other and the mainland by dams, the peninsulas of Gerar and Abd-el-Kader and the hinterland Edaga Berai near the dam Taulud. The "master" plan was prepared by the Italian Central Office of Civil Engineers in 1914, but was approved only for the part about the island of Taulud. The zoning required by the building code of 1915 fixed a structure which was confirmed by subsequent plans of the twenties and thirties.<br />
The island of Massawa, where the ancient [[Ottoman empire|Ottoman-Arab]] core, unlike other urban colonial areas, had a mixed use for a variety of reasons, including a major that was linked to the use of the port, being the platform that limited its northern flank of the island the only one for the docking of large ships. So, in this area were concentrated all commercial activities. The island of Taulud, on whose northern end stood the palace of the "[[Khedive]]" Turkish, was reused first as the headquarters of the Italian military command, and then as the Government Palace: later became the area where was focused the [[Italian-Eritreans]]-metropolitan population. The area reserved to the natives was across the plain of Edgarà Berai, where arose the new suburbs after the Italian occupation. The peninsula of Gerar was given to the industrial area, while that of Abd-el-Kader remained occupied by military installations.<br />
[[File:RailwayMassauaBisha.png|thumb|left|300px|The original Railway Massaua-Asmara in Italian Eritrea was projected to reach Teseney near the Sudan border, but construction was stopped because of WWII]]<br />
The works for the relocation of the port was started in 1913 on the basis of a draft by architect Luigi Luiggi and the Central Office of Civil Engineers of Massawa. In 1921 the city was badly damaged by an earthquake, but the reconstruction was done quickly through the grant of loans and government subsidies to individuals and businesses. In the same year were approved with a new plan where the building were programmed with earthquake standards.<br />
From 1928, with [[fascism]] rule were carried out in the port further expansion works, even in relation to the newly created railway and cableway to the capital Asmara. During the 1935/1936 war with Ethiopia in Massawa was recorded a significant increase in traffic, since it had become the main base for the supplies of the military campaign; and in subsequent years, with the new role of "Port of the Italian Empire", the city saw a great development with the increase of the population.<br />
Italian Massaua in 1938 touched 15,000 inhabitants. Italians favored the development of [[Catholicism]] in the city, and a new catholic cathedral was built in the late 1930s. <a href="http://www.kagnewstation.com/scrapbook/grover/card5.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.kagnewstation.com/scrapbook/grover/card5.jpg">http://www.kagnewstation.com/scrapbook/g...</a> Massaua Cathedral] The urban plans for the various areas of the city were implemented: in the island of Massawa was traced a road ring, while in that of Taulud was to be built a residential neighborhood. A settlement with industrial plants was expected in the peninsula of Gerar, with new areas to the decentralized Archico-Gurgussum. In addition it was decided the reorganization of the nearby villages of Edaga Berai and Amatereh with the small nucleus Otumlo located inside.<br />
In the port area was planned the construction of a huge "Stazione marittima" (Sea Station) for ocean liners, but the beginning of [[WWII]] blocked all this further improvements of Italian Massaua.<br />
==The Port of Italian Massaua==<br />
At the end of the 19th century, the [[Kingdom of Italy]] created a modern port in Massaua for their newly acquired colony of [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]]. <a href="http://digilander.libero.it/trombealvento/guerra2/varie/massaua.htm" target="_blank" title="http://digilander.libero.it/trombealvento/guerra2/varie/massaua.htm">http://digilander.libero.it/trombealvent...</a> Images of Italian Massaua before WWI]<br />
[[File:Massawa station - 2008-10-31.jpg|thumb|left|The Massaua Station on the [[Eritrean Railway]].]]<br />
The Italian colony suffered repeated earthquakes. Most of the city was completely destroyed by the [[1921 Massawa Earthquake|1921 Earthquake]]: it took until 1928 to fully restore the port,{{cite book| last=Killion | first=Tom | title=Historical Dictionary of Eritrea |isbn= 0-8108-3437-5 | publisher=The Scarecrow Press | year=1998}} hampering initially the Italian colonial ambitions.<br />
The Italian colonialists had nevertheless built Italian Massaua to become the largest and safest port on the east coast of Africa, and the largest [[deep-water port]] on the Red Sea. Between 1887 and 1932, they expanded the [[Eritrean Railway]], connecting the port of Massawa with the Eritrean capital [[Asmara]], and completed the 75 kms long [[Asmara-Massawa Cableway]]. <a href="http://www.trainweb.org/italeritrea/teleferica1.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.trainweb.org/italeritrea/teleferica1.htm">http://www.trainweb.org/italeritrea/tele...</a> "La Teleferica Massaua-Asmara" cableway brochure, translated by Mike Metras, Dave Engstrom, and Renato Guadino] As a consequence the commercial activity of the port grew to nearly one million tons of merchandise, with more than 180000 passengers in 1939.GuglielmoEvangelista. "Porti dell'Eritrea" ( <a href="http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-porti.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-porti.htm">http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-porti.ht...</a>])<br />
In early 1941, Italian Massaua had nearly 20,000 inhabitants, of which almost 3,500 were [[Italian Eritreans|Italians]].<br />
After the creation of the [[Italian East Africa|Africa Orientale Italiana]] the Italian government increased the international ship lines serving the port of Massaua: while in the late 1920s were needed 16 days from Massaua to [[Genova]] or [[Venice]] in [[Italy]], after 1939 were needed only 5 days.<br />
List of main ship routes from Italian Massaua in early 1940, just before the start of war against the Allies:"Porti dell'Eritrea", by Guglielmo Evangelista<br />
[[File:ConteBiancamano reconstructed.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ocean Liner "Conte Biancamano" connected Massaua with Italy and China/Japan]]<br />
* Italia-Massaua-China/Japan ([[Italian Line]]), biweekly<br />
* Genova-Massaua-Mogadiscio-Chisimaio ([[Lloyd Triestino]]), weekly<br />
* Italia-Massaua-Australia (Lloyd Triestino), weekly<br />
* Napoli-Massaua-Assab-Gibuti (LLoyd Triestino), weekly<br />
* Italia-Massaua-Assab-South Africa (Lloyd Triestino), monthly<br />
* Venezia-Massaua-India (Veneta di navigazione), weekly<br />
* Genova-Massaua-Mogadiscio (RAMB), weekly<br />
* Venezia-Massaua-Mogadiscio (RAMB), biweekly<br />
* Genova-Massaua-Assab (I. Messina), biweekly<br />
The service was done with modern [[Ocean liner]]s like the [[SS Conte Biancamano|Conte Biancamano]], "Victoria", "Esquilino" and "Viminale".<br />
In those years there was even a local service (called "linea Circolare del Mar Rosso") that connected all the main ports in the Red Sea. Another (called "linea Intercoloniale") connected Massaua with Assab-Gibuti and the main ports of [[British Somaliland]] and [[Italian Somaliland]].<br />
The port of Massaua was going to be enlarged in 1941, but [[WWII]] blocked it.<br />
Italy was one of the [[Axis powers of World War II|Axis]] powers during [[World War II]] and Massawa was the homeport for the [[Red Sea Flotilla]] of the [[Regia Marina|Italian Royal Navy]]. On April 8, 1941 one motor-torpedo boat of the Flotilla, the ''MAS 213'', made a successful torpedo attack on the british cruiser [[HMS Capetown (D88)|HMS ''Capetown'']] partially sinking it just out of the Massaua port. <a href="http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-melecaartiglio.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-melecaartiglio.pdf">http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-melecaar...</a> MAS 213 attack on British cruiser (in Italian)] When the city fell during the [[East African Campaign (World War II)|East African Campaign]], a large number of Italian and German ships were sunk in an attempt to [[Scuttling#Blockade of Massawa (1941)|block use of Massawa's harbor]]. <a href="https://www.magnumphotos.com/image/LON15032.html" target="_blank" title="https://www.magnumphotos.com/image/LON15032.html">https://www.magnumphotos.com/image/LON15...</a> Photo of sunken ships in Massaua port]<br />
From 15 April 1942, later master diver and salvage specialist RNR Lieutenant Peter Keeble (then a complete rookie in both disciplines) was assigned to the clearing of the harbour.Keeble, Peter (1957). ''Ordeal by water.'' Longmans, Green & co. No ISBN number available. He succeeded only in the simple task of salvaging an ex-Italian tugboat. The same month, [[United States Navy]] [[Commander]] [[Edward Ellsberg]] and his handful of crew arrived to take over. The wrecks were salvaged in short order and the port was returned to service, as part of what had now become the British protectorate of Eritrea.<br />
In 1945, following the end of [[World War II]], the port of Massawa suffered damage as the occupying British either dismantled or destroyed much of the facilities. These actions were protested by [[Sylvia Pankhurst]] in her book ''Eritrea on the Eve''.Also detailed in the chapter "The Feminist Fuzzy-Wuzzy" of Michela Wong's ''I didn't do it for you: how the world betrayed a small African nation'' (New York: Harper-Perennial, 2005), pp. 116-150.<br />
[[File:ST-Massowa.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|Massaua in 1888, when just occupied by the Italian Bersaglieri]]<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Mantegazza, Vico. ''Da Massaua a Saati: narrazione della spedizione italiana del 1888 in Abissinia''. Editore F. Treves, 1888. (University of Chicago, 2014 <a href="https://books.google.it/books?id=yWJBAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA281&dq=massaua+italiana&hl=it&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=massaua%20italiana&f=false" target="_blank" title="https://books.google.it/books?id=yWJBAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA281&dq=massaua+italiana&hl=it&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=massaua%20italiana&f=false">https://books.google.it/books?id=yWJBAQA...</a>])<br />
* Maravigna, Pietro. ''Come abbiamo perduto la guerra in Africa. Le nostre prime colonie in Africa. Il conflitto mondiale e le operazioni in Africa Orientale e in Libia. Testimonianze e ricordi''. Tipografia L'Airone. Roma, 1949.<br />
* Negash, Tekeste. ''Italian colonialism in Eritrea 1882-1941 (Politics, Praxis and Impact)''. Uppsala University. Uppsala, 1987.<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Italian Eritrea]]<br />
* [[Eritrea Governorate]]<br />
* [[Asmara-Massawa Cableway]]<br />
* [[Eritrean Railway|Massaua-Asmara Railway]]<br />
* [[Italian Asmara]]<br />
{{Eritrea italiana (Colonia Primigenia)}}<br />
{{Italian colonial empire}}<br />
[[Category:Italian colonisation in Africa]]<br />
[[Category:History of Eritrea]]<br />
=========================================================<br />
<br />
<b><u>MASSACRE OF ITALIANS AT SCIARA SCIATT</u></b><br />
<br />
[[File:Sciara-1911.svg|thumb|right|500px|Sciara Sciatt was on the east of Tripoli outskirt, near the coast and Fort Hamidie]]<br />
The '''Massacre of Italians at Sciara Sciat''' occurred in late October 1911 in a village on the outskirts of Tripoli, Libya. Approximately 500 Italian troops (called ''Bersaglieri'') were killed in the incident which occurred during the [[Italo-Turkish War]]. It was the biggest loss of life for Italian troops prior to [[World War I]]. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=r9P1AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA37&lpg=PA37" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.com/books?id=r9P1AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA37&lpg=PA37">http://books.google.com/books?id=r9P1AwA...</a> Italo-turkish war]<br />
==History==<br />
The Italian fleet appeared off [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[Tripoli]] on the evening of September 28, 1911. The city and surroundings was captured in a few days by 1,500 Italian sailors, who were welcomed by the population. <a href="https://archive.org/details/tripoliitalianal00mart" target="_blank" title="https://archive.org/details/tripoliitalianal00mart">https://archive.org/details/tripoliitali...</a> Tripoli inhabitants welcomed the Italians (p. 36-40)] Shortly after <a href="http://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/arab-thoughts-on-the-italian-colonial-wars-in-libya" target="_blank" title="http://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/arab-thoughts-on-the-italian-colonial-wars-in-libya">http://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/ara...</a> Smallwarsjournal: Arab thoughts on Italian-Turkish war] the interior of Ottoman Libya broke out in revolt, with the Italian authorities losing control over large areas of the region.{{Cite book<br />
|first=John |last=Wright<br />
|title=Libya: A Modern History<br />
|location=Kent, England |publisher=Croom Helm<br />
|year=1983<br />
|isbn=<br />
|ref=harv<br />
|page=30<br />
}}<br />
Indeed, even before the arrival of the Italian forces in 1911, cells led by Ottoman officers (called "Young Turks"), including [[Kemal Ataturk]], had Libyans infiltrate Italian industry and companies in Ottoman Tripolitania, reconnoiter roads, and take a census of all males able to bear arms in Tripoli and Derna to prepare for a "jihad" by the local Muslims.Bruce Davenport, second chapter<br />
In the weeks after the invasion many atrocities were committed by local Muslims, supported by Turks disguised as Arab Muslims, against the Italian soldiers and civilians, as happened in Sciara Sciat: <a href="http://www.exlalialcollelasalle.it/LIBYA__1911-51__Cens.ITA.doc" target="_blank" title="http://www.exlalialcollelasalle.it/LIBYA__1911-51__Cens.ITA.doc">http://www.exlalialcollelasalle.it/LIBYA...</a> Sciara sciat and the massacre of Italians]"Cronaca e storia del Corpo dei Bersaglieri", Daniele Piazza Editore, Torino 1986, pag.173<br />
The "11 Reggimento" [[Bersaglieri]] of Colonel Gustavo Fara had its 4th battalion defending the small oasis village of Sciara Sciatt when it was attacked by the Turks and Arabs and was overrun on the October 23, 1911. The surviving 290 bersaglieri were captured in the local cemetery by fanatical Moslems and were tortured to death with considerable sadism.<br />
{{Quote|''I saw (in Sciara Sciat) in one mosque seventeen Italian crucifixed with their bodies reduced to the status of bloody rags and bones, but whose faces still retain traces of hellish agony. It has passed through the neck of these wretched a long barrel and arms resting on this rod. They were then nailed to the wall and died for a slow fire between untold suffering. It is impossible for us to paint the picture of these hideous rotted meat hanging pitifully on the bloody wall. In a corner another body is crucified, but as an officer he was to have refined his sufferings. The eyes are stitched. All the bodies were mutilated and castrated; so indescribable was the scene and the bodies appeared swollen as shapeless carrion. But that's not all! In the cemetery of Chui which served as a refuge from the Turks and whence pulled from afar we could see another show. Under the same door in front of the Italian trenches five soldiers had been buried up to their shoulders, their heads emerged from the black sand stained of their blood: heads horrible to see, and there you could read all the tortures of hunger and thirst (Gaston Leroud and the correspondent of Matin-JournalGaston Leroud , Matin Journal edition August 23, 1917)''}}<br />
Argentine journalist Enzo D'Armesano of the [[Buenos Aires]] newspaper "La Prensa" was present the next morning in Sciara Sciat and reported the cruelty with a description that impressed the Argentinian people. He wrote that many local civilians attacked from the rear the Italian troops with knives, after initially showing friendship in order to approach them.Bruce Davenport, p. 38 The Argentinian reporter wrote that the only three survivors of the 4th battalion accused the Moslem civilians of the Sciara Sciatt oasis of "tradimento" (betrayal)Antonio De Martino. "Tripoli italiana", p. 116-118<br />
[[File:Execution of 30 Turks.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Consequences of Sciara Sciatt: execution of 30 Turks dressed as Arabs]]<br />
==Consequences==<br />
At Sciara Sciatt died officially 21 Italian officers and 482 soldiers (290 of them after surrender in Rebab cemetery). <a href="http://www.cinquantamila.it/storyTellerArticolo.php?storyId=4d89283fb57f0" target="_blank" title="http://www.cinquantamila.it/storyTellerArticolo.php?storyId=4d89283fb57f0">http://www.cinquantamila.it/storyTellerA...</a> Corriere della Sera: Sciara Sciatt]<br />
The consequences of this massacre (and others against the Italian troops) were the retaliation and revenge mainly on [[1911 Tripoli massacre|native civilians in the outskists of Tripoli]]. Even some Turks were executed because found dressed as Arabs, in order to infiltrate inside the area controlled by the Italians and promote treacherous attacks by the local Muslims.<br />
One of the opponents of the Italian intervention in the conquest of Ottoman Libya, a Marxist activist and future dictator [[Benito Mussolini]], started to change his opinion after news of this massacre reached Italy. He, later in the late 1920s, remembered (and always cited) this Sciara Sciatt massacre when imposed his [[Pacification of Libya]].<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Bruce Vandervort. ''Verso la quarta sponda, la guerra italiana per la Libia (1911-1912)'' Stato maggiore dell'esercito. Roma, 2012<br />
* De Martino, Antonio. ''Tripoli italiana. la Guerra italo-turca'' Societa' libraria italiana. New York, 1912 (Library of Congress edition)<br />
* Gerwarth, Robert. ''Empires at War: 1911-1923. The Greater War''. Publisher Oxford University Press. Oxford, 2014 ISBN 0191006947<br />
* Ministero della Difesa.''Cronaca e storia del Corpo dei Bersaglieri'', Daniele Piazza Ed. Torino, 1986<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Italo-Turkish War]]<br />
* [[1911 Tripoli massacre]]<br />
* [[Italian Libya]]<br />
{{Italian colonial campaigns}}<br />
{{Italian Libya}}<br />
{{coord missing|Libya}}<br />
[[Category:Italian Libya]]<br />
[[Category:Italo-Turkish War]]<br />
[[Category:Massacres in Libya]]<br />
<br />
================================================================<br />
<br />
<b><u>CONCESSIONS AND FORTS OF ITALY IN CHINA</u></b><br />
<b><u></u></b><br />
[[Image:Italian empire 1914.png|thumb|right|500px|Map of the Italian territories in the world before [[WWI]], showing the Italian concession of Tientsin in China]]<br />
'''Concessions and forts of Italy in China''' are the commercial and military concessions & fortifications that the [[Kingdom of Italy]] had in different Chinese localities until [[WWII]].<br />
==History==<br />
Italy in the first half of the 20th century has had concessions and fortifications in Peking, Tientsin, Shanghai, Shan Hai Kuan, Ta Ku, Amoy and Hankow. Since 1925 they were defended mainly by the "Battaglione Italiano in Cina" ([[San Marco Regiment|Battaglione San Marco]]) and by some Italian Navy ships, like the gunboats "Carlotto" and Caboto" (later substituted by the minelayer [[Italian minelayer Lepanto|"Lepanto"]]).<br />
[[File:Western Legations Peking 1900 Clowes Vol VII.jpeg|thumb|300px|right|upright=1.4|The small Italian area inside the 1900 Peking Legation Quarter]]<br />
They were ruled by "Consoli" (Governors), all resident in Tientsin:<br />
* Cesare Poma (1901–1903)<br />
* Giuseppe Chiostri (1904–1906)<br />
* Oreste Da Vella (1907–1911)<br />
* Vincenzo Fileti (1912–1919)<br />
* Marcello Roddolo (1920–1921)<br />
* Luigi Gabrielli di Quercita (1921–1924)<br />
* Guido Segre (1925–1927)<br />
* Luigi Neyrone (1928–1932)<br />
* Filippo Zappi (1933–1938)<br />
* Ferruccio Stefenelli (1939–1943)<br />
There was even the [[Treaty Port]] in [[Beihai]] (southern China), that was allowed to have a small area for Italian commerce.{{cite web|url=http://www.chinapage.com/transportation/port/treatport1.html|title=Free Ports in China|publisher=|accessdate=23 November 2014}}<br />
{{Quote|''In 1932...the Italian shipping company "Lloyd Triestino" opened a new service linking Italy to Shanghai by scheduling on that route two modern trans-atlantic vessels, the "Conte Biancamano" and "the Conte Rosso" (which immediately set a speed world record of only 23 days during the first voyage). With this new service, supported by those of other companies employed in the trade of various goods and products, the economic exchange between Italy and China reached such good levels to alarm Great Britain and France''. Alberto Rosselli {{cite web|url=http://dutcheastindies.webs.com/shanghai.html|title=Italian Armed forces in China (1937-1943)|publisher=|accessdate=23 November 2014}}}}<br />
The Italian possessions in China enjoyed a relatively good economic development with huge Italian-Chinese commerce in the 1920s and mainly in the 1930s.<br />
===Peking Legation Quarter===<br />
Italian troops occupied a section of the [[Peking]] "Legation Quarter" in 1900. Indeed the [[Eight-Nation Alliance]] of which Italy belonged, at the end of the [[Battle of Peking]], obtained the right to station troops to protect their legations in China's capital by the terms of the [[Boxer Protocol]].<br />
The Legation Quarter was encircled by a wall and all Chinese residents in the area were ordered to relocate away. Sealed from its immediate environment, the Legation Quarter became a city within the city exclusively for foreigners and many Chinese nationalists resented the Quarter as a symbol of foreign dominance. Italy had this small concession until 1943.<br />
===Tientsin Italian concession===<br />
{{Main|Italian concession of Tientsin}}<br />
[[Image:马可波罗广场近景.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Main square of Italian Tientsin]]<br />
On 7 September 1901, a concession in [[Tientsin]] (that consisted approximately of half a square kilometer - or 51.42 ha.Tianjin Shehui Kexueyuan Lishi yanjiousuo, Tianjin jianshi, Tianjin: Renmin Chubanshe, 1987) was ceded to the [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Kingdom of Italy]] by the [[Qing Dynasty]] of China.Laura Rampazzo. "Un pizzico d’Italia nel cuore della Cina: la concessione di Tianjin" (in Italian) <a href="http://dspace.unive.it/bitstream/handle/10579/2656/816130-1165548.pdf?sequence=2" target="_blank" title="http://dspace.unive.it/bitstream/handle/10579/2656/816130-1165548.pdf?sequence=2">http://dspace.unive.it/bitstream/handle/...</a>] On 7 June 1902, the concession was taken into Italian possession and administered by an Italian [[consul (representative)|consul]]: the first was Cesare Poma and the last (in 1943) was Ferruccio Stefenelli. Along with other foreign concessions, the Italian concession lay on the [[Hai River|Pei Ho]], southeast of the city centre.Sandro Bassetti."Colonia italiana in Cina". Section:Le Forze Armate italiane (in Italian)<br />
In 1917 China terminated the leases of Germany and Austria-Hungary concessions. The districts were converted into "Special Areas" with a separate administration from the rest of Tientsin. But Italy requested the Austrian concession after [[WWI]]: it was obtained only in June 1928 and soon returned to Chinese authorities,{{cite web|url=http://btgsanmarco.it/allegati/il-battaglione-italiano-in-cina/|title=Italian occupation of former Austrian Concession|publisher=|accessdate=23 November 2014}} when the Second Special Area (the one of former Austrian concession) was in danger of war and occupation during the China civil war.<br />
In 1935 the total population was 6,261, of which 5,725 Chinese and 536 foreigners including 392 Italians, according to historian Pistoiese.Gennaro E. Pistolese, «La Concessione Italiana di Tien-Tsin» p.306 He even wrote that the concession in those years experienced huge improvements and assumed "the role of showcase of Italian art" with rich urban developments. As stated by Woodhead, in 1934 "The Italian concession ... was becoming the most popular centre for the palatial residences of retired Chinese militaries and politicians".{{cite web|url=http://transtexts.revues.org/147#tocto1n1|title=Maurizio Marinelli: Chinese residents in Italian Tientsin|author=Marinelli, Maurizio|publisher=|accessdate=23 November 2014}}<br />
In the late 1930s the Italian concession of Tientsin and the consulates of Shanghai, Hankow and Beijing lived a quite peaceful period. Italian Tientsin enjoyed a small economic boom, fueled by rich Chinese who moved to live in the Italian area escaping the Japanese invasion of China. But [[WWII]] changed everything.<br />
During World War II, the Italian concession in Tientsin had a garrison of approximately 600 Italian troops on the side of the [[Axis powers]]. On 10 September 1943, when [[Armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces|Italy signed an armistice with the Allies]], the concession was occupied by the [[Imperial Japanese Army]].<br />
===Italian concession in the Shanghai International Settlement===<br />
[[File:Flag of the Shanghai International Settlement.svg|thumb|250px|left|The flag of the Shanghai International Settlement, showing even the Italian one]]<br />
After [[WWI]] the Kingdom of Italy maintained troops in an area of [[Shanghai]], that was used as commercial concession inside the [[Shanghai International Settlement]] (S.I.S.). This settlement was wholly foreign-controlled, with staff of all nationalities, including [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]], [[United States|Americans]], [[Denmark|Danes]], [[German Empire|German]]s and [[Italians]].<br />
[[Image:FormerFrenchandItalianConcessionMap.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Italian concession in the S.I.S. (borders in yellow)]]<br />
In reality, the British held the largest number of seats on the Council and headed all the Municipal departments. The only department not chaired by a Briton was the "Municipal Orchestra", which was controlled by an Italian.<br />
The International Settlement maintained its own fire-service, [[police force]] (the [[Shanghai Municipal Police]]), and even possessed its own [[military reserve]] in the [[Shanghai Volunteer Corps]].<br />
Following some disturbances at the British concession in [[Hankow Incident|Hankow in 1927]], the defences at Shanghai were augmented by a permanent battalion of the British Army, which was referred to as the [[Shanghai Defence Force]] and [[China Marines|a contingent of US Marines]]. Other armed forces would arrive in Shanghai: the French Concession had a defensive force of [[Annamite]] troops, the Italians also introduced their own marines, as did the Japanese (whose troops eventually outnumbered the other countries' many times over).<br />
{{Quote|''In ‘Old Shanghai’, there were specific areas with a high concentration of Italian economic activities (in the International Settlement: Kiukiang Road; Kiangse Road; crossroads between Nanking Road and Szechuen Road; Bubbling Well Road), areas with Italian residences (French Concession), other suburban areas with Italians (Zikawei; in this case, they were priests). Moreover, Italians were involved in specific economic sectors (primarily, silk): as the textile sector was developed mainly in Lombardy at that time, most of the expatriate Italian managers and supervisors in Shanghai mills came from this Italian region.''Stefano Piastra <a href="http://amsacta.unibo.it/3840/1/Italians_in_the_%27Old_Shanghai%27.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://amsacta.unibo.it/3840/1/Italians_in_the_%27Old_Shanghai%27.pdf">http://amsacta.unibo.it/3840/1/Italians_...</a> Italians in the "Old Shanghai"]}}<br />
In the late 1930s was reinforced the military presence in the small area of Shanghai (that was next to the American concession and north of the [[Shanghai French Concession|French concession]]) controlled by the Italians. The [[Regia Marina|Italian Navy]] stationed in the Shanghai port periodically some ships like the cruisers [[Trento class cruiser|Trento]] and [[Italian cruiser Raimondo Montecuccoli|Montecuccoli]] during the [[Second Sino-Japanese War|Japanese invasion of China]].Shanghai international settlements in red, italian sector #4 on Chinese written map <a href="http://forum.axishistory.com/viewtopic.php?f=65&t=102421" target="_blank" title="http://forum.axishistory.com/viewtopic.php?f=65&t=102421">http://forum.axishistory.com/viewtopic.p...</a>] In 1947 the Peace Treaty forced Italy to renounce to it with article 26, that stated: "(Italy) agrees to the reversion of the said Settlements (at Shanghai and Amoy) to the Administration and control of the Chinese Government".<br />
===Forts in Shan Hai Kuan & in Ta-Ku===<br />
From 1900 until the late 1930s, the Italians even held small forts like the ''Forte di [[Shanhai Pass|Shan Hai Kuan]]''{{cite web|url=https://www.flickr.com/photos/daviddb/334464376/in/photostream/|title=Photo of the Fort just conquered with Italian flag|work=Flickr|accessdate=23 November 2014}} near the [[Great Wall of China]] in [[Manchuria]]{{cite web|url=http://www.trentoincina.it/mostrapost.php?id=310|title=Italian Fort near the "China Great wall" (in Italian)|author=Trentoincina|publisher=|accessdate=23 November 2014}} and the ''Forte nordoccidentale'' in [[Taku Forts|Ta-Ku]].{{cite book|url=http://books.google.it/books?id=5UJKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA642&dq=ta+ku+forti&hl=it&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=ta%20ku%20forti&f=false|title=Avvenimenti in Cina nel 1900 (in Italian)|publisher=|accessdate=23 November 2014}} The [[Battle of Dagu Forts (1900)|one in Ta-Ku]] (called "N.W fort of Ta-Ku") was held together with the British for a couple of years.Landor, A. "China and the Allies". p. 126<br />
===Commercial Concessions in Hankow and in Amoy===<br />
[[File:Han keou 1912.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Italian consulate in the 1912 Hankow concessions]]<br />
In [[Hankow]] since the 1900 was located an Italian consulate, that later was enlarged in order to have a small commercial concession.<br />
Hankow was the center of catholic missions and had many Italian priests and nuns who were protected by Italian troops in the 1920s and early 1930s (in the late 1920s nearly 40% of the Italian civilians in China were religious personnel of the [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]]{{cite book|url=http://books.google.it/books?id=c5ZEAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA52&dq=Ferruccio+Stefenelli&hl=it&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=Ferruccio%20Stefenelli&f=false|title=Guido Samarani, p.52|publisher=|accessdate=23 November 2014}}).<br />
Another small commercial area under Italian control was in [[Amoy]] (Xiamen), after [[WWI]]. <a href="http://web.archive.org/web/http://membres.multimania.fr/shanghaishi/docs/0memoiredelicense.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://web.archive.org/web/http://membres.multimania.fr/shanghaishi/docs/0memoiredelicense.pdf">http://web.archive.org/web/http://membre...</a> Concessions in Shanghai and China (in French)] Amoy's European settlements (like the small Italian consulate) were concentrated on the islet of [[Gulangyu]] off the main island of actual Xiamen in the region of [[Hong Kong]]. Today, Gulangyu is known for colonial architecture, with some examples of the Italian one.{{cite web|url=http://www.newcolonist.com/gulangyu.html|title= Gulangyu/Amoy|publisher=|accessdate=23 November 2014}}<br />
In the early 1930s only the small consulate of Hankow remained under Italian control.<br />
==After 1940==<br />
When started [[WWII]] Italy had only the Tientsin concession under direct control, while remained a garrison in the Shanghai international settlement, in the fort of Shan Hai Kuan and in the Legation of Peking.<br />
In 1940 the soldiers of the ''Battaglione San Marco'' were stationed in the remaining areas controlled by Italy: nearly 200 were in Shanghai, 180 in Tientsin, 25 in Shan Hai Kuan and 15 in Peking. They were helped by the marines and sailors of the Italian Navy stationed in Tientsin.Maurizio Marinelli, p.54<br />
After September 1943 -when Italy surrendered to the Allies- started a very difficult period for the Italians in China. Japanese forces took control of the Italian possessions in China, after some fightings (like in the legation of Peking, and with the scuttle in Shanghai port of the ships "Carlotto" and Caboto").<br />
{{Quote|''Italy agrees to the cancellation of the Lease from the Chinese Government under which the Italian Concession at Tientsin was granted......Italy renounces in favor of China the rights accorded to Italy in relation to the International Settlements at Shanghai and Amoy, and agrees to the reversion of the said Settlements to the Administration and control of the Chinese Government.'' Articles 25 & 26 of 1947 Peace Treaty.({{cite book|url=http://books.google.it/books?id=Ts9aAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA349&dq=ta+ku+forti&hl=it&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=ta%20ku%20forti&f=false|title=1947 Peace Treaty articles on Italian possessions in China|publisher=|accessdate=23 November 2014}})}}<br />
Finally, on 10 February 1947, by virtue of the [[Treaty of peace with Italy (1947)|peace treaty with Italy]], all the Italian concessions and fortifications were formally ceded by Italy to [[Chiang Kai-shek]]'s [[Republic of China (1912–49)|Republic of China]].<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Italian concession of Tientsin]]<br />
* [[Shanghai French Concession]]<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Bassetti, Sandro.''Colonia italiana in Cina''. Editoriale Lampi di stampa. Roma, 2014 ISBN 8848816568 ( <a href="http://books.google.it/books?id=Ts9aAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA39&hl=it&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.it/books?id=Ts9aAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA39&hl=it&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q&f=false">http://books.google.it/books?id=Ts9aAwAA...</a>])<br />
* Cucchi, G. ''Una bandiera italiana in Cina'' in «Rivista Militare», n. 6/1986<br />
* De Courten, L. – Sargeri, G. ''Le Regie truppe in Estremo Oriente, 1900–1901''. Roma, 2005<br />
* Dikötter, Frank ''The Age of Openness China before Mao'' University of Chicago Press <a href="http://web.mac.com/dikotter/Dikotter/Openness.html" target="_blank" title="http://web.mac.com/dikotter/Dikotter/Openness.html">http://web.mac.com/dikotter/Dikotter/Ope...</a>]. Berkeley, 2008 ISBN 9780520258815<br />
* Landor, A. ''China and the Allies''. Ed. Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1901<br />
* Maurizio Marinelli, Giovanni Andornino. ''Italy’s Encounter with Modern China: Imperial dreams, strategic ambitions''. Palgrave Macmillan. New York, 2014. ISBN 1137290935 ( <a href="http://books.google.it/books?id=c5ZEAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA49&dq=Ferruccio+Stefenelli&hl=it&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=Ferruccio%20Stefenelli&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.it/books?id=c5ZEAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA49&dq=Ferruccio+Stefenelli&hl=it&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=Ferruccio%20Stefenelli&f=false">http://books.google.it/books?id=c5ZEAgAA...</a>])<br />
* Pistolese, Gennaro. ''La Concessione Italiana di Tien-Tsin'', in Rassegna Italiana, A. XIII, Special Volume (XLI) «L’Italia e L’Oriente Medio ed Estremo». Roma, 1935<br />
* Rastelli, Achille. ''Italiani a Shanghai: la regia Marina in Estremo Oriente''. Mursia Ed. Milano, 2011 ISBN 8842544140<br />
{{Italian colonial empire}}<br />
[[Category:History of Italy]]<br />
[[Category:History of China]]<br />
[[Category:China–Italy relations]]<br />
<br />
================================================================<br />
<br />
<b><u>HISTORY OF ITALIAN COLONIAL RAILWAYS</u></b><br />
<b><u></u></b><br />
[[Image:NewRoadswithrailwaysinItalianEastAfrica.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Railways -in red color- in 1940 Italian East Africa (in orange the newly built asphalted roads)]]<br />
The '''history of Italian colonial railways''' starts with the opening in 1888 of a short section of line in [[Italian Eritrea]], and ends in 1943 with the loss of [[Italian Libya]] after the [[North Africa Campaign|Allied offensive]] in North Africa and the destruction of the railways around [[Italian Tripoli]]. The railways reached 1,561 km before [[WWII]].<br />
==History==<br />
[[File:Reteferroviariaconviabalbia.png|thumb|right|350px|Railways -in red color- in 1940 Italian Libya]]<br />
The construction of railways in the African [[Italian Empire|Italian colonies]] ([[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]], [[Italian Libya|Libya]] and [[Italian Somalia|Somalia]]) did not have, for various reasons, a great development compared to that promoted by other European countries on the same continent.Astuto. "''Questioni ferroviarie africane: il problema ferroviario", p.30<br />
The first rail lines were built mainly for war needs in the absence of efficient means of communication in the occupied territories, after the conquests of Eritrea and Libya. However, were quite limited in the first decades of occupation.<br />
In [[1940]] the amount of railways in operation, between [[Italian East Africa]] and Libya, amounted to 1,556 km of which, however, the 693 km of the Italian section of the [[Ethio-Djibouti Railways|Railway Djibouti-Addis Ababa]] were pre-existing and built by the French Empire for Ethiopia.<br />
The railways were built by Italy from the outset with little potential, because built with narrow gauge rails and with light metal type, and were never of great economic importance because isolated from the lines of neighboring states. Indeed the choice of a [[Track gauge|gauge]] {{track gauge|950mm|lk=on}}, different from the [[meter gauge]] usually used in Africa, contributed to this effect.<br />
Today most of these Italian colonial railways have disappeared: those of Somalia after the British occupation in 1941-1945. The Libyan ones were suppressed in the 1960s, but in the same decade the Eritrean railway between [[Asmara]] and [[Massawa]] was reactivated after long neglect of trafficking.<br />
==Italian colonial railways resumen==<br />
In 1940 the Italian colonial railways had 1,561 km and were the following:<br />
[[File:Eritrean Railway - 2008-11-04-edit1.jpg|thumb|right|Eritrean railway, that now connects only Massawa and Asmara, showing an Italian "class 440 locomotive" at work on the mountainous section between Arbaroba and Asmar]]<br />
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:left"<br />
|-<br />
! Railway name<br />
! Km<br />
! Years when built<br />
! Colony<br />
|-<br />
| [[Ethio-Djibouti Railways|Addis Abeba-Gibuti]]<br />
| 684 kmOnly Ethiopia section<br />
| [[1902]]-[[1917]]<br />
| [[File:Coat of arms of Italian East Africa.png|20px]] [[Africa Orientale Italiana]] (Ethiopia)<br />
|-<br />
| Asmara-Biscia<br />
| 227 km<br />
| [[1914]]-[[1932]]<br />
| [[File:Coat of arms of Italian East Africa.png|20px]] [[Africa Orientale Italiana]] (Eritrea)<br />
|-<br />
| Bengasi-Soluch<br />
| 56 km<br />
| [[1926]]<br />
| [[File:Coat of arms of Lybia (1940).svg|20px]] [[Italian Libya]]<br />
|-<br />
| Bengasi-Barce<br />
| 108 km<br />
| [[1914]]-[[1927]]<br />
| [[File:Coat of arms of Lybia (1940).svg|20px]] [[Italian Libya]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Eritrean Railway|Massaua-Asmara]]<br />
| 118 km<br />
| [[1901]]-[[1911]]<br />
| [[File:Coat of arms of Italian East Africa.png|20px]] [[Africa Orientale Italiana]] (Eritrea)<br />
|-<br />
| Massaua-Saati<br />
| 26 km<br />
| [[1886]]-[[1887]]<br />
| [[File:Coat of arms of Italian East Africa.png|20px]] [[Africa Orientale Italiana]] (Eritrea)<br />
|-<br />
| [[Mogadishu–Villabruzzi Railway|Mogadiscio-Villaggio Duca degli Abruzzi]]<br />
| 113 km<br />
| [[1924]]-[[1927]]<br />
| [[File:Coat of arms of Italian East Africa.png|20px]] [[Africa Orientale Italiana]] (Somalia)<br />
|-<br />
| Tripoli-Tagiura<br />
| 21 km<br />
| [[1912]]<br />
| [[File:Coat of arms of Lybia (1940).svg|20px]] [[Italian Libya]]<br />
|-<br />
| Tripoli-Vertice 31<br />
| 90 km<br />
| [[1912]]-[[1915]]<br />
| [[File:Coat of arms of Lybia (1940).svg|20px]] [[Italian Libya]]<br />
|-<br />
| Tripoli-Zuara<br />
| 118 km<br />
| [[1912]]-[[1919]]<br />
| [[File:Coat of arms of Lybia (1940).svg|20px]] [[Italian Libya]]<br />
|-<br />
| {{Flag|ITA}} ''Ferrovie coloniali italiane'' (Italian colonial railways)<br />
| '''1,561 km'''<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
==Railways in ''Libia italiana''==<br />
{{Main|Italian Libya Railways|Railway stations in Libya}}<br />
[[File:The first Locomotive arrived in Tripoli Harbor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The first Locomotive arrived in Italian Tripoli in 1912]]<br />
In Italian Libya the first railways were created by the Italians after their conquest of [[Tripoli]] in 1911. The first section was done in 1912 from the port of Tripoli to Ain Zara, with 11 km of rails using a track gauge of 950 mm. By the end of the same year were done another 39 km until [[Tagiura]] and [[Zanzur]].Stefano Maggi."Le ferrovie nell'Africa italiana", p.12<br />
From May 1913 the [[Ferrovie dello Stato]] started to manage the railways, with the "Royal Law #314". In 1915 the railways in Libya had an extention of 180 km, reaching from Tripoli the cities of Zanzur/Sorman and Bivio Gheran/Henschirelabiad. After [[WWI]] were completed all the works (with the railways Stations) in the 118 km of the Tripoli-Zuara.<br />
The construction of the lines in [[Cyrenaica]] began later: the first lines were in fact only small [[decauville]] trains, a purely military track, in the [[Italian Benghazi]] and Cyrenaica area.Stefano Maggi."Le ferrovie nell'Africa italiana", p.13 Another small decauville was done around the port of Derna. <a href="http://archive.libya-al-mostakbal.org/HeshamTajouri/Trains/4_derna_train1916.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://archive.libya-al-mostakbal.org/HeshamTajouri/Trains/4_derna_train1916.jpg">http://archive.libya-al-mostakbal.org/He...</a> Small decauville in Derna] In the fall of 1914 was opened a stretch of 19 km between Benghazi and Benina and two years after the next leg. Between 1926 and 1927 were opened other sections until Barce, completing the 108 km from Benghazi. At the end of 1926 were added 56 km of railway between Benghazi and [[Soluch]].<br />
In the 1930s there were five small railway lines in Italian Libya, 3 in Tripolitania and 2 in Cyrenaica:<br />
* Tripoli - Zuara; Tripoli - Vertice 31; Tripoli - Tagiura<br />
* Benghazi - Barce; Benghazi - Soluch<br />
The Italian authorities -after the construction of these initial 400 km of railways in five lines around Tripoli and Benghazi- decided to give priority to the construction of [[road]]s in Libya, when [[Benito Mussolini]] took control of the Italian colonies. However Italian experts studied the possibility of building a "Transaharan railway" from Libya to the [[gulf of Guinea]] in cooperation with the French authorities: but it remained only a colonial dream.Stefano Maggi."Le ferrovie nell'Africa italiana", p.22-23 After 1927 no more railways were made in Libya, but during [[World War II]] the need of railways transport to the front during the war in the frontier with [[History of Egypt under the British|British Egypt]] changed this approach.<br />
In 1940 was started the study of connecting the Tripoli-Zuara with the [[Tunisia]] border: in summer 1941 were nearly ready all the 60 km of this track line, that were not activated because was given priority to a new line from Tripoli toward [[Egypt]] (because of the needs for the war against the British empire).<br />
[[File:Litorrina railcar.JPG|thumb|right|250px|A Fiat ''Littorina'' of the Eritrean Railways still working in 2012]]<br />
So, in spring 1941 the Italian government started the construction of a new railway (with a standard African track gauge of 1435 mm) between Tripoli and [[Tobruk]], but by December 1942 all was stopped because of the Italian defeat in north Africa: of the 1040 km only 18 km were fully done in Tripolitania, while 40 km were partially ready in Cirenaica from Barce toward [[Derna, Libya|Derna]]. <a href="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:_pqIHqL7ZoEJ:www.dispi.unisi.it/sites/st06/files/allegatiparagrafo/22-05-2013/wp18.pdf+&cd=3&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" target="_blank" title="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:_pqIHqL7ZoEJ:www.dispi.unisi.it/sites/st06/files/allegatiparagrafo/22-05-2013/wp18.pdf+&cd=3&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us">http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se...</a> Le ferrovie coloniali italiane in Libia (in Italian)] In summer 1942 was conquered by the Italians (with Rommel's [[Afrika Korps]]) the railways line built by the British and New Zealanders <a href="http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2Engr-c9.html" target="_blank" title="http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2Engr-c9.html">http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly...</a> New Zealand Engineers; the Western Desert Railway units] from Egypt until Tobruk, near the Egyptian-Libyan border. But a few months later the Marsa Matruk-Sollum-Tobruk line was back in Allies control. <a href="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:AfFUzXB59zcJ:www.qattara.it/versione%2520in%2520arabo/Here%2520is%2520the%2520story%2520of%2520the%2520Western%2520Desert%2520Railway.pdf+&cd=36&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" target="_blank" title="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:AfFUzXB59zcJ:www.qattara.it/versione%2520in%2520arabo/Here%2520is%2520the%2520story%2520of%2520the%2520Western%2520Desert%2520Railway.pdf+&cd=36&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us">http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se...</a> Western Desert railway]<br />
Until the 1950s the railways remained active. But by the 1960s there were only two small railways in Libya, departing from Benghazi and using classical ''Littorine'': Benghazi-Barce and Benghazi-Soluch. In 1965 the last remaining stations in Benghazi and Soluch were closed. Today no active railway exists in Libya.<br />
==Railways in ''Eritrea italiana''==<br />
[[File:AsmaraStazione.jpg|thumb|right|thumb|250px|"Littorina" in the Asmara station in 1938]]<br />
{{Main|Eritrean Railway|Railway stations in Eritrea}}<br />
The railway in [[Italian Eritrea]] was built in two times: the first line in the 1880s from [[Italian Massaua]] to the Saati forts and successively in the early 1900s was built the line until [[Italian Asmara]] and Cheren-Bishia. <a href="http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/cartoline.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/cartoline.htm">http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/cartoline....</a> Italian Postal cards of the Eritrean Railway]<br />
The first railway line was started in early 1887 and completed the next March: it was made of 27 km between the port of [[Massawa]] and the military fortifications of Saati, in coastal Eritrea. It was a purely military line -with a [[track gauge]] of 950 mm- built in support of the campaign against the [[Ethiopian Empire|Abyssinia]] kingdom. The defeat of Adua was even attributed by various military specialists to the lack of supplies, as emphasized by the general [[Oreste Baratieri]]. As a consequence the neo Governor [[Ferdinando Martini]] demanded the extension of the line to Asmara because of its importance for the logistics control of the colony and—because he did not obtain adequate answers from the Italian Government- he did the work with limited finances and in small steps.<br />
So in 1900 was started the construction of the second -and main- line toward Asmara and western Eritrea. Indeed the railroad at the end of 1901 from Saati came to Mai Atal and in September 1904 to [[Ghinda]]. In March 1910 was inaugurated the stretch up to [[Nefasit]] and finally, in December 1911 what remained up to Asmara. For the continuation until [[Cheren]] it was needed to wait until July 1922, and to February of 1928 in order to reach [[Agordat]]. In March 1932 was reached the small town of Bishia and here the construction was halted permanently when at 351 km away from [[Italian Massaua|Massawa]].Stefano Maggi."Le ferrovie nell'Africa italiana", p.7-8<br />
The line was placed under the management of the ''Ferrovie Eritree'' ("FE"), supervised by the Italian "Ministero delle Colonie". FE used the trains with steam traction and even the locomotives ''Mallet'' built by [[Gio. Ansaldo & C.|Ansaldo]]. <a href="http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/foto_storiche.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/foto_storiche.htm">http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/foto_stori...</a> Historical photos of the Eritrean railway and of the locomotives] In 1935 were put into service two petrol/gasoline railcars "Littorina" and then the (state-of-the-art) type ''Railcar ALn 56'' [[Fiat]].Nico Molino. "Littorina", p.26-27<br />
[[File:RailwayMassauaBisha.png|thumb|left|350px|Railway Massawa-Asmara-Bishia in Eritrea. With red dots the route in years of largest extent (1887-1941)]]<br />
According to some projects made in 1939, the line should have been divided at Elit near Bishia, reaching with a branch [[Tessenei]] (and then go to the [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan]] border) and with the other branch go to Om Ager on the border with [[Ethiopia]]. The railway station and the "terrain line" was prepared in Tessenei but never saw the tracks; tensions with Britain followed the war in Ethiopia (1935–36) and led to the decision, as a purely military matter, of not to bring the line at the border. But this decision had harmful effects on the development of agricultural colonies already implanted in the area. Plans were made to activate the route from Bishia until Tessenei and Kassala when conquered by the Italian Army in summer 1940, but the Allies conquest of Italian Eritrea in early 1941 blocked it.<br />
The section Agordat-Bishia was demolished during [[World War II]] by the British military, who reused the rails to arm a provisional military line, with a British gauge of 1076 mm, between Walka (inside Sudan and near [[Kassala]]) and Tessenei.<br />
There was even one small railway with 600 mm track gauge, used only for commercial transport (and for military services): the Mersa Matuma-Kululi.<br />
* ''Mersa Matuma-Kululi'': Nearly 90 km south of Massaua was built the so called "Potash Transport Railway". It was a {{convert|42|km}} long {{RailGauge|600mm|lk=on}} gauge [[potash]] transport railway{{Cite web|url=http://www.trainweb.org/eritrean/scrapbook/when/building/building.html|title=Building the line|accessdate=24 March 2009}} built to serve the locations Adaito and [[Badda]], located between [[Massawa]] and [[Assab]]. A decauville gauge line was built in 1905 by the Italians inside the port of Mersa Fatuma and from it into the hinterland until Kululi (called "Colulli" in Italian) near the Ethiopian border. <a href="http://robevan.xoom.it//robevan/mappe/aoi_1936/menu_AfOrIt_1936.htm" target="_blank" title="http://robevan.xoom.it//robevan/mappe/aoi_1936/menu_AfOrIt_1936.htm">http://robevan.xoom.it//robevan/mappe/ao...</a> Map of Italian Eritrea in 1936 with detailed railway route to Kululi (click on sections 4 and 7)] Potash production is said to have reached about 50,000 metric tons after this railway was constructed.<br />
==Railways in ''Somalia italiana''==<br />
{{Main|Mogadishu–Villabruzzi Railway|Railway stations in Somalia}}<br />
Despite various projects, dating back to the late 1900s, the first railway was authorized only in 1918 and led to the construction of a small section starting in [[Mogadishu]], which stopped -after just 29 km and 6 years of work- in [[Afgooye]]. The single track railway had a {{RailGauge|950mm}} [[narrow gauge]], as established in 1879 by an Italian law on minor gauges.<br />
[[File:RailwayMogadiscioVillabruzzi.jpg|thumb|right|250px|In green the Railway Mogadiscio-Villabruzzi (1914-1941)]]<br />
The continuation was realized only in accordance with the needs of transportation of an agricultural colonial society that had been formed by [[Prince Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the Abruzzi|Prince Luigi Amedeo of Savoy-Aosta]], who founded the ''Villaggio Duca degli Abruzzi'', a big agricultural settlement for the cultivation of bananas, cotton and sugar cane.<br />
For this purpose it was needed a form of transport for the shipment of the goods to the port of [[Mogadishu]]: <a href="https://mogadishuimages.files.wordpress.com/2008/05/1911map1.gif" target="_blank" title="https://mogadishuimages.files.wordpress.com/2008/05/1911map1.gif">https://mogadishuimages.files.wordpress....</a> Map showing the railway station of Mogadiscio in 1935] in September 1927 were opened the remaining 84 km of the [[Mogadishu-Villabruzzi Railway]] from the port of Mogadiscio to the Villaggio Duca degli Abruzzi.<br />
[[File:Ex-somali loco Mai Atal.JPG|thumb|left|250px|A Diesel locomotive moved from Somalia to Eritrea in 1942 by the British]]<br />
The railway in 1930 moved 19,359 passengers, and was used by the Italian authorities even for tourism. <a href="http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/Fiat%20Tibb/Fiat%20-Tibb.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/Fiat%20Tibb/Fiat%20-Tibb.jpg">http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/Fiat%20Tib...</a> "Ferrovie Somale" postcard] In the same year 43,467 tons of products (mainly agricultural) were transported, with earnings up to 1,591,527 [[Italian Somaliland lira|Somali lira]]. Most products transported were bananas, cotton and coffee, from farm plantations of the area of Villabruzzi, to be exported through the port of Mogadishu. ''Ferrovie Somale'', a government company, administered the line.<br />
During [[WWII]] the tracks and the stations were heavily bombed by the Allies.<br />
In 1941, the railway was dismantled by [[United Kingdom|British]] troops when they occupied [[Italian East Africa]] (''Africa Orientale Italiana'' in [[Italian language|Italian]]). Since then the railway, except for a few tracks within the Mogadiscio harbour, was no longer used.<br />
In 1942 some diesel locomotives and related materials were moved by the [[British Government]] to [[Eritrea]], to be used on the [[Eritrean Railway|Massawa-Asmara railway]]. <a href="http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/locomotiva_fiat.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/locomotiva_fiat.htm">http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/locomotiva...</a> Photos of a Diesel "Tibb" Fiat locomotive moved from Somalia to Eritrea] These trains were in activity until the early 1950s.<br />
There were even two small railways with 600 mm track gauge, used only for commercial transport and for military services: the Villabruzzi-Ferfer and the Genale-Afgoi.<br />
* ''Villabruzzi-Ferfer''. A small {{RailGauge|600mm|lk=on}} gauge railway of 250 km was constructed between Villabruzzi and the Somalia-Ethiopia border in order to solve the logistical problems related to the occupation of Ethiopia. In 1928-1936, the track was initially built in sections until [[Buloburde]]. The first railway section was 130 km long. It started in Bivio Adalei of the Mogadishu-Villaggio Duca degli Abruzzi railway. In summer 1940, at the beginning of the Second World War, the line was extended by the Italian army by about 150 km. The railway now reached [[Ferfer]], near the present-day Somalia-Ethiopia border. <a href="http://mogadishuimages.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/map1.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://mogadishuimages.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/map1.jpg">http://mogadishuimages.files.wordpress.c...</a> Map of Italian Somalia showing the decauville from Bivio Adalei toward Ethiopia border (red line continuous is the Mogadiscio-Villabruzzi railway)] Somali troops from the [[Italian Somali Divisions (101 and 102)|First and Second Somali divisions]] of the Italian colonial army helped during the construction.<br />
* ''Genale-Afgoi''. In 1924, a minor railway was built in the same region. It had a small track in 600 mm gauge, Genale-Afgoi. The railway was 46 km long and united the farming settlement of [[Janale|Genale]] with [[Afgooye|Afgoi]] on the Mogadishu-Villagio Duca degli Abruzzi route. Construction was managed by the Società Agricola Italo Somala (SAIS), which opened the track so that its plantations' powered sugar cane could be transported to the Mogadishu Port.<br />
==Railways in ''Etiopia italiana''==<br />
{{Main|Ethio-Djibouti Railways}}<br />
The most important line in the African colonies of the Kingdom of Italy, the [[Ethio-Djibouti Railways|Djibouti-Addis Ababa]] long 784 km, was acquired following the conquest of the Ethiopian Empire by the Italians in 1936.<br />
[[File:Djibouti Italian 1936-38.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Italian troops at the Djibouti railway station]]<br />
[[File:Addis Ababa Platform.JPG|250px|thumb|left|Station of the Djibouti-Ethiopia Railway in [[Addis Ababa]]]]<br />
It was a railway with a standard [[meter gauge]] that had been built between the 1897 and 1917 by Emperor [[Menelik II]] with the decisive contribution of the French capital and that was managed by a French company, the ''Compagnie du Chemin de Fer Franco-Ethiopien'' ("CFE").<br />
The route was served by steam trains that took about 36 hours to do the total trip between the capital of Ethiopia and the port of Djibouti. Following the Italian conquest was obtained in 1938 the increase of speed for the trains with the introduction of four railcars high capacity "type 038" derived from the model ''Fiat ALn56'' <a href="http://www.train-franco-ethiopien.com/photos_cfe/autorails_fiat_cfe/pages/image/imagepage15.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.train-franco-ethiopien.com/photos_cfe/autorails_fiat_cfe/pages/image/imagepage15.html">http://www.train-franco-ethiopien.com/ph...</a> Fiat ALn56 "Littorina"] (called "Automotrice ZZ-AB 1-4"Molino,Pautasso, tab.p.88).<br />
These diesel trains were able to reach 70 km/h and so the time travel was cut in half to just 18 hours: they were used until the mid 1960s. <a href="http://www.train-franco-ethiopien.com/photos_cfe/autorails_fiat_cfe/pages/image/imagepage30.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.train-franco-ethiopien.com/photos_cfe/autorails_fiat_cfe/pages/image/imagepage30.html">http://www.train-franco-ethiopien.com/ph...</a> Image of a Fiat ALn56 in 1964 Addis Abeba station] At the main stations there were some bus connections to the other cities of Italian Ethiopia not served by the railway. <a href="http://www.train-franco-ethiopien.com/photos_cfe/gare_diredawa_cfe/pages/image/imagepage15.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.train-franco-ethiopien.com/photos_cfe/gare_diredawa_cfe/pages/image/imagepage15.html">http://www.train-franco-ethiopien.com/ph...</a> Dire Dawa bus connection to Harrar] Near the Addis Ababa station was created a special unit against fire, that was the only one in all Africa. <a href="http://www.storiavvf.it/Articolo%20Addis%20Abeba.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.storiavvf.it/Articolo%20Addis%20Abeba.htm">http://www.storiavvf.it/Articolo%20Addis...</a> "Pompieri ad Addis Abeba" (in Italian)]<br />
{{Quote|''In 1936, during the occupation of Ethiopia, the Italians considered the construction of new routes from Addis-Ababa running as follows: Addis-Ababa, Dessie, Adigrat, Massawa: covering 1000 km; Addis-Ababa, Dessie, Assab - Dessie, Gondar, Om, Ager; Addis-Ababa, Megheli, Dollo, Mogadishu. All these projects had to be abandoned due to war operations''. Jean Pierre Crozet}}<br />
Projects of connecting to the Eritrean railway network did not found practical realization in 1939. In the same year was studied the possibility of connecting the Ethiopian station of [[Dire-Dawa]] to the port of [[Assab]] in southern Eritrea, in order to bypass the [[French Somaliland]]. Until 1937 there was a protective military unit in the trains, because of the ethiopian guerrilla <a href="http://www.train-franco-ethiopien.com/photos_cfe/divers_cfe/pages/image/imagepage34.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.train-franco-ethiopien.com/photos_cfe/divers_cfe/pages/image/imagepage34.html">http://www.train-franco-ethiopien.com/ph...</a> Photo of Italian soldiers defending the ethiopian railway trains]<br />
In spring [[1941]], following the surrender of [[Gondar]] and the abandonment of the colony by the Italians, the line passed to be managed by the British Armed Forces and later -with the return of the [[Negus]]- the railway went back to the "CFE".<br />
==Locomotives==<br />
In 1912 were moved to the just occupied Tripoli 12 "Locomotives R.401", built in Germany by "Berliner Maschinenbau A.G. Schwartzkopff".Nico Molino, "Littorina", p.50<br />
[[File:Eritrean Railway class 202 - 2008-11-04.jpg|thumb|right|Locomotive Breda R.202 still in use in Asmara railway station]]<br />
[[File:Ansaldo 442 steam locomotive in Eritrea.JPG|thumb|left|Ansaldo R.440 steam locomotive in Eritrea]]<br />
After [[WWI]] 9 "Locomotives R.301" arrived in Libya (5 in Tripolitania and 4 in Cyrenaica), while another 2 arrived in Eritrea and 2 in Somalia.<br />
In the 1930s were sent to the Eritrean Railways a group of 12 [[AnsaldoBreda|Ansaldo]] "Locomotives R.440", some still used today. In Eritrea there were even the small "Locomotives R.202", built by "[[Società Italiana Ernesto Breda|Costruzioni Meccaniche Breda]]" of [[Milano]]: 2 are still in use.<br />
In order to improve the passenger service in the late 1930s were sent to the African colonies the ''Littorine'' Fiat (of the same type that developed in the record-famous [[FS Class ETR 200]]): in Eritrea arrived 11 of these modern trains (9 were the diesel model FE A.62-70), while in Libya arrived 8 of the huge capacity model FI 040 (5 in Tripolitania and 3 in Cyrenaica). In Etiopia were sent in 1938 four passenger-locomotives high capacity "Fiat Diesel 038", derived from the model ''Fiat ALn56'' (officially named "ZZ-AB 1-4").Nico Molino. "Linee Ferroviarie: Littorina", p.33-34<br />
In the Ethiopian railway were even used the original steam <a href="http://www.train-franco-ethiopien.com/listing_vapeurs_en.php" target="_blank" title="http://www.train-franco-ethiopien.com/listing_vapeurs_en.php">http://www.train-franco-ethiopien.com/li...</a> Listing of steam locomotives in Ethiopia] and diesel <a href="http://www.train-franco-ethiopien.com/listing_diesels_en.php" target="_blank" title="http://www.train-franco-ethiopien.com/listing_diesels_en.php">http://www.train-franco-ethiopien.com/li...</a> Listing of Diesel locomotives in Ethiopia] locomotives found when conquered the country in 1936. The Italian "Garatt Ansaldo" locomotives were added in 1939. <a href="http://www.train-franco-ethiopien.com/divers_vapeurs_en.php" target="_blank" title="http://www.train-franco-ethiopien.com/divers_vapeurs_en.php">http://www.train-franco-ethiopien.com/di...</a> Various locomotives in Ethiopian railways]<br />
In late 1940 arrived in Libya the state-of-the-art locomotive Fiat/Ansaldo [[FS Class ALn 772]], that used diesel and electricity power. It was supposed to be working on the Benghazi-Barce railway, but was captured after a few weeks of use by the British during their [[Operation Compass]] and sent away to be studied by Allied experts.Francesco Ogliari. "Le ferrovie coloniali italiane in Africa", p.62-63<br />
==Gallery==<br />
File:Tripoli Stazione Centrale.jpg|Railway station of [[Italian Tripoli]] in 1940<br />
File:Benghazi Central Station.jpg|Railway Station of Bengasi in 1930<br />
File:Barce Stazione Centrale.jpg|Railway station of [[Marj|Barce]] in 1930<br />
File:Benghazi Italiana.JPG|Port of Benghazi railways tracks<br />
File:Fiat Train Passing in to Cyrenaica.jpg|"Littorina" [[Fiat Ferroviaria|Fiat]] in [[Italian Cyrenaica]]<br />
File:Fiat train at Tripoli's railway central station.jpg|"Littorina" in [[Italian Tripoli]] station<br />
File:Keren station - 2008-11-01.jpg|Keren station in [[Italian Eritrea]], now a bus station<br />
File:Agordat Airport 1982.jpg|Railway Station of [[Agordat]] (Eritrea), now used as airport<br />
File:Road and Rail to Masawa -b.jpg|Fiat "Littorina" near [[Italian Massaua]]<br />
File:Road and Rail to Masawa -a.jpg|"Littorina" in [[Italian Eritrea]]<br />
Image:StazioneferroviariaVillaggioDucaAbruzzi1929.jpg|Villabruzzi's railway station in [[Italian Somalia]]<br />
File:Central railway station of Tripoli.jpg|Steam locomotive inside Tripoli station in 1920<br />
File:Benghazi Railway System after World War II.jpg|Benghazi station destroyed in 1943<br />
File:Ghinda station - 2008-11-02.jpg|Old colonial train still used in 2008 [[Ghinda]] station of Eritrea<br />
==Notes==<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
*Astuto, Riccardo. ''Questioni ferroviarie africane'', in "Rassegna economica dell'Africa italiana",Vol.XXIX. Roma, 1941<br />
*Basuyau, Vincent. ''Le chemin de fer de Djibouti à Addis Abeba'' (Mémoire de DEA). Université de Paris I-Panthéon Sorbonne. Paris, 1991<br />
*Crozet, Jean Pierre. ''The Franco Ethiopian and Djibouto Ethiopian railway'' Detailed Website on the Addis Abeba-Djibouti railway ( <a href="http://www.train-franco-ethiopien.com/histoire_en.php" target="_blank" title="http://www.train-franco-ethiopien.com/histoire_en.php">http://www.train-franco-ethiopien.com/hi...</a>])<br />
*Gatti, G. ''Le ferrovie coloniali italiane''. Ed. GRAF. Roma, 1975<br />
*Maggi, Stefano. ''Ferrovie e stazioni nelle colonie italiane'' (in "Architettura ferroviaria in Italia. Novecento"). Ed. Dario Flaccovio. Palermo, 2004, pp. 129–138. ISBN 88-7758-597-8.<br />
*Maggi, Stefano. ''Le ferrovie nell’Africa italiana: aspetti economici, sociali e strategici'', seminario "Nineteenth century transport history. Current trends and new problems".Istituto Universitario Europeo, Fiesole, 20 maggio 1994 <a href="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:_pqIHqL7ZoEJ:www.dispi.unisi.it/sites/st06/files/allegatiparagrafo/22-05-2013/wp18.pdf+&cd=6&hl=it&ct=clnk&gl=it" target="_blank" title="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:_pqIHqL7ZoEJ:www.dispi.unisi.it/sites/st06/files/allegatiparagrafo/22-05-2013/wp18.pdf+&cd=6&hl=it&ct=clnk&gl=it">http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se...</a>]<br />
*Molino, Nico & Pautasso, Sergio. ''Le automotrici della prima generazione''. Ed.Elledi. Torino, 1983. ISBN 88-7649-016-7<br />
*Molino, Nico. ''Linee Ferroviarie. Littorina'' in "Mondo Ferroviario # 55". Editoriale del Garda, Rivoltella, 1991.<br />
*Ogliari, Francesco. ''Le ferrovie coloniali italiane in Africa'' (in "Tutto TRENO & Storia", n. 4, 2000, p. 46-69). Duegi Editrice, Albignasego, 2000.<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Eritrean Railway]]<br />
* [[Mogadishu-Villabruzzi Railway]]<br />
* [[Ferrovie dello Stato]]<br />
{{Italian colonial empire}}<br />
[[Category:Italian Empire]]<br />
<br />
======================================================<br />
<br />
<b><u>TRIPOLI_CASTEL BENITO AIRPORT</u></b><br />
<br />
[[File:Tripoli airfield under attack2 1943.jpg|thumb|450px|Photo of Tripoli-Castel Benito airport under attack in January 1943]]<br />
The '''Tripoli-Castel Benito Airport''' (in Italian ''Aeroporto di Tripoli-Castel Benito'') was a military and civilian airport <a href="http://www.giemmesesto.org/Documentazione/Aerei/fotoaerei/SM-74/Sm74_1.jpg" target="_blank" title="http://www.giemmesesto.org/Documentazione/Aerei/fotoaerei/SM-74/Sm74_1.jpg">http://www.giemmesesto.org/Documentazion...</a> Photo of the Tripoli-Castel Benito airport with a SM-74]<br />
near [[Tripoli]] in [[Italian Libya]], between 1934 and 1943. After [[WWII]] was enlarged and it is the actual [[Tripoli International Airport]].<br />
==History==<br />
Originally the Tripoli-Castel Benito Airport was a [[Regia Aeronautica]] (Italian Air Force) airfield created in 1934 in the southern outskirts of [[Italian Tripoli]]. <a href="http://www.ernandes.net/savasta/terzo.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.ernandes.net/savasta/terzo.htm">http://www.ernandes.net/savasta/terzo.ht...</a> Un sogno italiano third chapter] It was the operational base for the:<br />
* "15° Stormo da bombardamento" with Savoia Marchetti SM. 79 and SM.81<br />
* "13° Gruppo da caccia" with Fiat CR.32 and CR.42<br />
[[File:Parafromitalianlibya.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Libyan paratroopers at Castel Benito airport]]<br />
Later the first units of Italian parachutists were trained and formed shortly before the [[Second World War]].<br />
The first Italian Military Parachute School was located at the airport. The first troops trained were two Libyan battalions, the [[Libyan Parachute Battalion]] and the 1st [[Ascari del Cielo Paratroops|National Libyan Parachute Battalion]], of the [[Regio Corpo Truppe Coloniali|Royal Colonial Corps]].{{sfn|Fowler|2010|p=61}} Successively was created a paratrooper battalion with Italian volunteers, that later was increased and named [[185th Airborne Division Folgore|Folgore]].<br />
In 1938 the [[Italian Libya]] governor [[Italo Balbo]] enlarged the military airfield (located 33 km south of Tripoli) and created an international airport for civilians served mainly by [[Ala Littoria]], the official Italian airline: the ''Aeroporto di Tripoli-Castel Benito''.<br />
The airport was connected to Rome even by the "Linee Aeree Transcontinentali Italiane" ([[LATI (airline)|LATI]]), <a href="http://www.postaesocieta.it/magazzino_totale/pagine_miscellanea/immagini_miscellanea/Imm_LATI/rotte_condor_lati.JPG" target="_blank" title="http://www.postaesocieta.it/magazzino_totale/pagine_miscellanea/immagini_miscellanea/Imm_LATI/rotte_condor_lati.JPG">http://www.postaesocieta.it/magazzino_to...</a> Map of LATI flights] that did a postal (and civilian service) to Africa, Asia and South America <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=IOGCd7QreKgC&pg=PA232&dq=%22Linee+Aeree+Transcontinentali+Italiane%22&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=%22Linee%20Aeree%20Transcontinentali%20Italiane%22&f=false" target="_blank" title="http://books.google.com/books?id=IOGCd7QreKgC&pg=PA232&dq=%22Linee+Aeree+Transcontinentali+Italiane%22&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=%22Linee%20Aeree%20Transcontinentali%20Italiane%22&f=false">http://books.google.com/books?id=IOGCd7Q...</a> LATI] from Italy.<br />
The new airport had direct flights to [[Tunis]] and [[Malta]], done with [[Savoia-Marchetti SM.73|Savoia-Marchetti SM-73]] of "Ala littoria". <a href="http://www.grup-palma.onored.com/articles/alittoria/Littoria-esp.htm" target="_blank" title="http://www.grup-palma.onored.com/articles/alittoria/Littoria-esp.htm">http://www.grup-palma.onored.com/article...</a> Flights and photos of Ala Littoria, with map (in spanish)]<br />
Castel Benito airport was connected even with internal airports of Libya, like the ones of Benghazi ([[Benina International Airport]]), Ghadames ([[Ghadames Airport]]), Sabha ([[Sabha Air Base]]) and Kufra ([[Kufra Airport]]).<br />
Another flight served by "Ala Littoria" was toward the [[Italian East Africa|Africa Orientale Italiana]], with more than 4000 km: it was used mainly for military transport and mail service and was created in 1935, from Tripoli to [[Kassala]] ([[Sudan]]) and Asmara in [[Italian Eritrea]]. It was served by the [[Caproni Ca.308 Borea]], with capacity for a crew of 2 but with only 6 passengers. <a href="http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-melecalineeaeree.pdf" target="_blank" title="http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-melecalineeaeree.pdf">http://www.ilcornodafrica.it/st-melecali...</a> Le "linee aeree dell’Africa Orientale Italiana", by Vincenzo Meleca]<br />
In 1938 [[Air France]] started a regular flight from [[Marsiglia]] to Tripoli, later enlarged to Benghazi and [[Damascus]].Italian Postal and Air service beginnings, p. 258 (in Italian) ( <a href="http://www.academia.edu/2326842/Le_Poste_italiane_fuori_dItalia" target="_blank" title="http://www.academia.edu/2326842/Le_Poste_italiane_fuori_dItalia">http://www.academia.edu/2326842/Le_Poste...</a>])<br />
In 1938 the Ala Littoria's international flights from the new civilian airport were:Paolo Ferrari. "L'aeronautica italiana", p. 28-68<br />
* Roma - Malta - Tripoli<br />
* Roma - Tunisi - Tripoli<br />
* Roma - Tripoli - Benghazi<br />
In spring 1939 was even started a flight to [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]], [[Italian Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] ad [[Italian Somalia|Somalia]]:<br />
* Roma -Tripoli (Benghazi)- Cairo - Karthoum - Asmara - Addis Abeba - Mogadiscio (nearly 7000 km)<br />
Indeed in 1939 was started by Ala Littoria a passenger service with international travels to [[Rome]] (Italy) and [[Addis Abeba]] (Ethiopia and Africa Orientale Italiana): it was one of the first intercontinental flights in world history and was called ''[[Linea dell'Impero]]''. The service was done (using mainly the Benghazi airport, but even the Tripoli-Castel Benito airport) with [[Savoia-Marchetti SM.83|Savoia-Marchetti SM-83]] carrying nearly 30 passengers. <a href="http://www.storiaverita.org/?p=1089" target="_blank" title="http://www.storiaverita.org/?p=1089">http://www.storiaverita.org/?p=1089</a> Rosselli: The air links between Italy and Italian Africa]<br />
In summer 1939 was experimented the possibility of direct flights between Libya and Eritrea, bypassing Egypt and Sudan controlled by the British Empire. The son of Mussolini, [[Bruno Mussolini|an experienced aviator]], was able to make a direct flight from Castel Benito airport to Kufra airport (near the desert border Libya-Sudan) and to Asmara in [[Italian Eritrea]]: this new route was used by military airplanes after [[WWII]] started.<br />
{{Quote|''In 1939, more and more attracted by the idea of establishing a similar regular service between Italy and Italian East Africa, Bruno Mussolini (in the meantime appointed general manager of LATI) and his staff carried out a long technical cruise with their SM83-ATTE to Tripoli and the Kufra Oasis (Libya), Asmara, Massaua, Gura and Agordat (Eritrea). The voyage proved to be very useful to acknowledge those flight experiences necessary for the future war missions.''Rosselli, Alberto. "The air links between Italy and Eastern Africa". Section: The debut of the Transatlantic SM83.}}<br />
[[File:Wreckage of Italian hangers and airplanes ouside Tripoli.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Tripoli-Castel Benito airport in January 1943]]<br />
The airport was used even as a military base, where some [[Savoia-Marchetti SM.74|Savoia-Marchetti SM-74]] operated successfully even as civilian transport airplanes. The last of these airplanes, nicknamed "Millepiedi", did the last flight to Italy from Tripoli-Castel Benito airport on January 7, 1943 <a href="http://www.giemmesesto.org/Documentazione/Aerei/SM-74.html" target="_blank" title="http://www.giemmesesto.org/Documentazione/Aerei/SM-74.html">http://www.giemmesesto.org/Documentazion...</a> SM-74 Millepiedi in Castel Benito airport] before the arrival of the British Army (that fully destroyed the airport and conquered Tripoli on January 23).<br />
The airport during [[WWII]] suffered huge damages and was attacked continuously by Allies bombers. The most destructive raids were on November/December 1941 and in December 1942/January 1943.<br />
After the airport was captured by the British in January 1943, the airfield was renamed [[RAF Castel Benito|RAF Station Castel Benito]] and was used by a number of Allies operational squadrons involved in the [[Western Desert Campaign|desert war]] and in the [[Tunisia]] battles.<div>
==See also==<br />
* [[Ala Littoria]]<br />
* [[Tripoli International Airport]]<br />
* [[LATI (airline)|LATI]]<br />
* [[RAF Castel Benito]]<br />
* [[Italian Tripoli]]<br />
* [[Linea dell'Impero]]<br />
* [[Ascari del Cielo Paratroops]]<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Abate, Rosario. ''Dal Borea ai Libeccio (Ca.308-Ca.318)'' Edizioni dell'Ateneo & Bizzarri. Milano, 1978<br />
* Ferrari, Paolo. ''L'aeronautica italiana. Una storia del Novecento''. Franco Angeli Storia ed. Milano, 2005 ISBN 88-464-5109-0.<br />
*{{cite book|last=Fowler|first=William|date=2010|title=The Secret War in Italy: Operation Herring and No 1 Italian SAS|location=Hersham, Surrey|publisher=Ian Allan Publishing |isbn=9780711035287|ref=harv}}<br />
* Maravigna, Pietro. ''Come abbiamo perduto la guerra in Africa''. Editoriale Tosi. Roma, 1949.<br />
* Rosselli, Alberto. ''The air links between Italy and Eastern Africa.June 1940-November 1941'' Nuova Aurora Edizioni. Firenze, 2012<br />
* Thompson, Jonathan W. (1963). ''Italian Civil and Military aircraft 1930-1945'' Aero Publishers Inc. New York, 1963 ISBN 0-8168-6500-0.<br />
{{Italian Libya}}<br />
{{coord missing|Libya}}<br />
[[Category:Italian Libya]]<br />
[[Category:Tripoli]]<br />
[[Category:World War II airfields in Libya]]<br />
<br />
=============================================================<br />
<br />
<b><u>CARLA MARIA PUCCINI</u></b><br />
<b><u></u></b><br />
[[File:Perihan and Mussolini.jpg|thumb|350px|Carla Maria Puccini, on the right side of the photo, was the daughter-in-law of the politician [[Benito Mussolini]]]]<br />
'''Carla Maria Puccini''' ([[Gondar]] - February 16, 1941) is an Italian actress born in Ethiopia.{{fact|date=March 2015}}<br />
==Biography==<br />
Carla Maria Puccini was born in [[Italian Ethiopia]]. She married [[Romano Mussolini]], one of [[Benito Mussolini]]'s sons, and had a daughter: Rachele.{{fact|date=March 2015}}<br />
In 1965 she appeared on Italian TV in the mini-series ''Tenente Sheridan'' and worked as actress in the special production ''La donna di fiori'', under regist [[Anton Giulio Majano]]. <a href="http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1170006/" target="_blank" title="http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1170006/">http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1170006/</a> IMDB: Carla Maria Puccini] In 1966 hosted the [[Sanremo Music Festival|1966 Festival di San Remo]] with [[Mike Bongiorno]]. In 1967 she worked in four episodes of the Italian TV mini-series ''Questi nostri figli''. <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0862951/?ref_=nm_ov_bio_lk2" target="_blank" title="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0862951/?ref_=nm_ov_bio_lk2">http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0862951/?ref...</a> Questi nostri figli]<br />
In 1968 she was a secondary actress in the movie ''Rose rosse per il Führer'' (appeared as "Code name, red roses" in the English version), <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0063521/" target="_blank" title="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0063521/">http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0063521/</a> Code name, Red Roses] produced by [[Fernando Di Leo]].<br />
==Movies & TV works==<br />
*''La donna di fiori'' (1965), director [[Anton Giulio Majano]]<br />
*''Rose rosse per il führer'' (1968), film director [[Fernando Di Leo]]<br />
==Notes==<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Italians of Ethiopia]]<br />
[[Category:Italian film actresses]]<br />
[[Category:Ethiopia]]<br />
<br />
================================</div><div><br /></div><div>Regno normanno nel suditalia (<a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/it/d/d2/Regno_di_Sicilia.jpg">https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/it/d/d2/Regno_di_Sicilia.jpg</a>)</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/it/d/d2/Regno_di_Sicilia.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="402" data-original-width="800" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/it/d/d2/Regno_di_Sicilia.jpg" /></a></div><br /><div><br />
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